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DUE DATE 

GOVT. COLLEGE, LIBRARY 

KOTA (Raj.) 

Students can retain library books only for two 
weeks at the most. 

BORROWER’S DUE DTATE SIGNATURE 

No. 





COMPTON’S 

PICTURED ENCYCLOPEDIA 
AND FACT- INDEX 

Jnterestincj -Accurate -Up-to-date 

TO INSPIRE AMBITION, 

TO STIMULATE THE IMAGINATION, TO PROVIDE THE 
INQUIRING MIND WITH ACCURATE 
INFORMATION TOLD IN AN INTERESTING 
STYLE, AND THUS LEAD INTO 
BROADER FIELDS OF KNOWLEDGE, 

SUCH IS THE PURPOSE OF 
THIS WORK 



"Volumtj 10 

1956 Edition 


PUBLISHED BY 

RE. COMPTON & COMPANY -f- CHICAGO 


1 956 EDITION 


COMPTON’S PICTURED ENCYCLOPEDIA 


COPYRIGHT 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925, 
1926, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1931, 

1932. 1933. 1934. 1935. 1936, 1937. 
1938, 1939. 1940, 1941. > 942 > 1943. 
1944. 1945. 1946. 1947. 1948, 1949. 
1950. 195U 1952, i 953 > * 954 . 1955 

BY F. E. COMPTON & COMPANY 


Imperial and International Copyright secured. All rights reserved for 
all countries. Translation into foreign languages, including the 
Scandinavian, specifically reserved. Printed in U.S.A. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 55-9384 



Here and There in this VoluTne 


At odd times when you are just looking for “something interesting to read,” without 
any special plan in mind, this list will help you. With this as a guide, you may visit 
faraway countries, watch people at their work and play, meet famous persons of 
ancient and modern times, review history’s most brilliant incidents, explore the mar- 
vels of nature and science, play games — in short, find whatever suits your fancy of the 
moment. This list is not intended to serve as a table of contents, an index, or a study 
guide. For these purposes consult the Fact-Index and the Reference-Outlines. 

Pictures You Will Enjoy 


National Parks and Other Recreational Areas 17 

Temple of the Sun 22 

A Father Feeds His Hungry Family ; 44 

Animals of North America 259 

Painter of Fishes 333 


For the Reading Hour 

Learning to Read in Nature’s Wonder Book 


The Ocean — Guardian of Many Mysteries 327 

The Story of Odysseus and the Odyssey 342 

The Story of the Owl 430 


Parent and Child; School and Home 


How THE Nerves Function in the Human Body ' no 

Nouns — ^The Words That Name 306 

Number — The Basis of Arithmetic 312 


Tours Through North and South America 


Playgrounds of Two Nations ig 

The Queen City of the Gulf 182 

Tower-Topped Metropolis of the Western World 215 

America’s Roaring Water Giant 229 

Nicaragua, Largest of Central American Republics 232 

The Wealth and Variety of North America 244 

The Industrial Heart of the Canadian Nation oQa 


The Story of the States 

The Fertile Prairies of the “Cornhusker State” 

Rugged Nevada, Rich in Treasure 

The “Granite State” 

New Jersey, a Garden and F actory State 

Nev/ Mexico — tVoNDERLAND of Rugged Beauty 


95 

124 

143 

155 

168 


I 



HERE AND THERE IN THIS VOLUME 


Wealth and Power of the “Empire State” 193 

North Carolina, the “Tarheel State” 267 

The Wheat-Clad Plains of North Dakota 281 

Ohio— A Panorama of Modern Industry 347 

Indians and Whites in Oklahoma’s History 363 

Grandeur and Opportunity in Oregon 407 


Travel Views of Lands Across the Seas 


Italy’s Noisiest and Most Fascinating City 4 

The Nation That Drove Back the Sea 114 

New Zealand — “The Happy Isles” 227 

The Rugged Land of the Midnight Sun 299 


Some Famous Men and Women 


The Corsican Who Conquered Half of Europe 6 

England’s Greatest Sea Fighter 109 

The Man Who Discovered the Laws That Rule the Universe 193 

Florence Nightingale, the Angel of Mercy 2366 


In the Plant and Animal World 

The Oaks, Stately Monarchs of the Woods 319 

An American Animal with Australian Habits 399 

That “Man of the Woods”— The Orangutan 402 

The Shellfish That Is Cultivated Like a Garden Crop 436 

Marvels of Science and Invention 

What the Doctor Uses to Relieve Pain 13 

Lookout Posts for Watching the Heavens 324 

How the Pipe Organ Operates 423 


The World at Work 

Where the Navy Trains Its Officers 

The World’s History — ^Day by Day — ^Delivered at Your Door 
The Making of Oleomargarine 


70 

186 

377 


Guideposts to Literature, Art, and Music 

Recording Life in Fictional Form 

Dramas Set to Music — The History of Opera 

The Musical Marvel We Call the Orchestra 


Exploring a World of Facts 

The Navy — Stalwart Fighter on the Seas 

Nitrogen, Preserver and Destroyer of Life 


II 


310 ^ 
388, ' 
40 )2 

j .80 


i 



HERE AND THERE IN THIS VOLUME 


Interest-Questions Answered in This Volume 


How does a “tabloid” differ from the regular ne%vs- 
paper? 189. 

Which of the land animals is the champion swimmer 
and diver? 429. 

How is it possible to “plant” oysters? 439. 

What creature builds new houses as it grows? 69. 
What makes light on the floor of the ocean? 330. 
What “spats” are found in the sea? 438. 

What animal of the United States carries its young in 
a pouch, as the kangaroo does? 399. 

What is the northernmost town in Europe? 3 04a picture. 
What Italian city is kno\vn as the “mother of modem 
opera”? 5 picture. 

Where is there danger of falling up? 330. 

Explain the origin of Niagara Falls and Gorge. 230, 
231 picture. 

What was the first land discovered by John Cabot in 
the New World? 139. 

Where is the Staked Plain? 1 70. 

Where do people live in trees like birds? 142 picture. 
What state has the smallest population? 124. 

What makes the ocean “blue”? 336. 

What Ohio city was once the “pork capital of Amer- 
ica”? 361. 

What is the “Crescent City”? 182. 

Does a “nervous” person have something wrong with 
his nerves? 113. 

Was Napoleon a Frenchman? 6. 

Who was the first person to win more than one Nobel 
prize? 242. 

How did the “novel” get its name? 31 1. 

What is the hardest nut in the world? 3 1 7- 
When and where did opera have its beginning? 388. 
What bird lays a three-pound egg? 427. 

In what way does the owl benefit the farmer? 430. 
How can a warship with a hole in it stay afloat? 83. 
What orchard tree does not mature until it is 25 or 30 
years old? 379. 

Why did a mythical Greek hero pour wax in his sailors’ 
ears? 344. 

Why do some plants enrich the soil in which they 
grow? 241. 

Who was Siegfried? 232. 

Does a United States citizen forfeit his citizenship 
when marrying an alien? 43. 

Are some foreign students admitted to the United 
States Naval Academy at Annapolis? Ti. 

To what one factor do American newspapers owe al- 
most three fourths of their income? 189. 

What university has its own police and law courts? 434. 
How did the expression “playing ’possum” originate? 

399. 

What state has almost 10 per cent of all the people in 
the United States? 195. 

Who was the “Lady with the Lamp”? 237. 

When were the first Olympic games held in Greece? 380. 


What is the origin of the word “Ozark”? 440. 

Why is Palomar Observatory on a mountain? 324. 

What are the “dark spots” in the Milky Way? 106. 

What is a newspaper “morgue”? 192. 

What playwright won three Pulitzer prizes and a 
Nobel prize? 383. 

How did New York City’s Bowery get its name? 218. 

How can the killing of mountain lions and coyotes 
spoil trout fishing? 63. 

Why is the sea salty? 336. 

Whom did Napoleon call a “nation of shopkeepers”? 
10. 

What Pacific island country pioneered in social secur- 
ity legislation? N-228a. 

How did the United States get its nickname “Uncle 
Sam”? 235. 

What accident brought about the discovery of the varied 
■ life at the bottom of the sea? 330. 

Why are Scandinavia and Alaska warmer than the 
same latitudes on the east side of the continents? 
332 - 

What keeps the temperature of the ocean low? 335. 

What are the “communication lines” of the human 
body? no. 

How many instruments make up a modern symphony 
orchestra? 405. 

Who cared for the sick during the Middle Ages? 314. 

How small may the pipes of an organ be? 422. 

Why do the Dutch wear wooden shoes? 118-19. 

What did Napoleon consider his true glory? 9. 

What song furnished the nickname for the Union sol- 
diers in the Civil War and, later, for all American 
soldiers? 40. 

What is the most abundant and widely distributed 
substance in the world? 435. 

What great work was done by Florence Nightingale? 
236J. 

Who was the most popular Egyptian god? 426a. 

How did being blind in one eye help a famous English 
naval officer to victory? 109. 

Why is Oberammergau famous? 322. 

On what date did Christian countries in the Middle 
Ages observe New Year’s Day? 195. 

How did Napoleon III become emperor? 1 1. 

What queen gave up the throne to her daughter? 122. 

Where was the home of Evangeline? 309. 

Why do so many people have the name “Smith”? 2a. 

What god gave one of his eyes for a drink from the 
fountain of knowledge? 340. 

How did the nuthatch get its name? 314, 316. 

Why do we count by tens? 312a. 

How do orchids grow? 406, 

In the Navy, what is an “Alligator”? 88. 

How does an orchestra differ from a band? 402. 

What famous English musical collaborators wrote 
comic operas that are still popular today? 398. 


m 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 


Pronunciations have been indicated in the 
body of this work only for words which present 
special difficulties. For the pronunciation of 
other words, consult the Fact-Index. Marked 
letters are sounded as in the following words: 
cape, dt, far, fast, what, fffll; me, yet, fern, there; 
ice, bit; row, won, for, ndt, do; cflre, bwt, rwde, 
full, burn; out; u= French u, German u; gem, 
go) thin, then; n= French nasal (Jean); zh = 
French j (2 in azure); K= German guttural ch. 


IV 



N agoya, Japan. The fourth largest city of JL- 
Japan is the ancient castle town of 
Nagoya. It is on Honshu Island at the head of Ise Bay, 
about halfway between Tokyo and Osaka. Nagoya be- 
gan in the 16th century as a village surrounding the 
Imagawa and Oda family castles. It became important 
in 1610 when leyasu built a strong fortified castle. 

The city grew into a major industrial center. Dur- 
ing the second World War, its huge Mitsubishi air- 


N 


craft factory and other industries became tar- 
gets for American bombers. Nearly one thu-d 
of the city was destroyed. Nagoya is famous for pot- 
tery, porcelain, and “cloisonne” enamelware and for 
textiles and dyeing. Other manufactures are machin- 
ery, locomotives, lacquer ware, clocks, and toys. The 
city is an important railway center and port. 

Shrines and temples are numerous. Air raids in 
1945 destroyed ancient Nagoya Castle and Atsuta 
Shrine, one of the most sacred in 


VERSATILE SERVANTS OF CONSTRUCTION 



Japan. Osu Kannon Temple is dedi- 
cated to the Goddess of Mercy. 
Nittaiji Temple has a relic of Buddha. 
Population (1950 census), 1,030,635. 
Nails. A modern nail-making ma- 
chine produces a nail in a split sec- 
ond. At one end, steel wire is reeled 
into it at a tremendous rate. Pow- 
erful shears cut the wire into the 
required length, pliers fashion the 
point, and a hammer strikes a terrific 
blow on the other end to form the 
head. Out of the machine pours a 
stream of bright nails — a thousand a 
minute — with a roar like a machine 
gun or a pneumatic riveter. 

In colonial days, every nail was 
hammered out by hand on an anvil. 
Many country folk of New England 
had forges in their chimney corners, 
and on winter days and in evenings 
when little work could be done, 

All nails shown in the picture at the left are 
actual size. 

1-6. Common wire nails, for general con- 
struction. Sizes: 30d (thirty-penny), 
20d, 16d, lOd, 8d, and 6d. 

7-11. Finishing nails, small-headed for 
cabinetwork, door frames, and mold- 
ings. Sizes: 4d, 6d, 8d, lOd, and 16d. 

12. Brass-plated escutcheon pin, for up- 
holstery and other decorative work. 

13. Cigar-box nail, with large head. 

14. One-half-inch brad, for wood trim. 

15. One-inch wire nail, for small boxes. 

16. One-inch brad, for wood trim. 

17. Corrugated steel fastener, for hold- 
ing frames together at their seams. 

18. U pholstery nail, with decorative head. 

19. Blued double-pointed tack. 

20. Shoe nail. 

21. Galvanized flat-point staple. 

22. Cut nail, has good holding power. 

23. Blued carpet tack, usually sterilized. 

24. 25. Short and long roofing nails, with 

rustproof zinc coating. 

26. Wallboard naU. 

27. Crating, or box, nail. 

28. Dual-head anchor nail, used to build 
forms. It is driven in only to the 
collar. In dismantling the form, it can 
be pulled without damaging the wood. 

29. Flooring nail, with tapered head. 

30. Horseshoe nail. 

31. Concrete nail, of hardened steel, 
driven into concrete walls. 

32. Masonry nail, of cadmium-coated 
hard steel, driven into brick walls. 


1 



NAILS 


2 


quantities of nails were made, even by the older out the cut nail, although the latter holds better and 
children. The nails were forged from “nail rods” is more durable. About 13 times as many wire nails 
heated on the small hearth, and hammered and cut are now produced as cut nails. Common screws 
into the proper length. The heads were formed by for cabinet and carpenter work — ^which are really 
dropping the spike into a hole in a piece of steel just only a form of nail — ^are made by automatic machines 
deep enough to leave a small portion projecting to be much like those that make nails, 
hammered flat. No wonder nails were scarce and Nails for shoeing horses are still for the most part 
expensive in those hand-manufacturing days. hand forged from fine grades of wrought iron. They 

But now all we have to do is to insert the end of must be tough and of the same composition through- 
our coil of wre into the machine, turn on the power, out, so they will not break off in the horse’s hoof. 


MAKING NAILS — A THOUSAND A MINUTE 



This group of pictures shows you how wires are made into nails. After entering the machine and passing through the straightemng 
rolls, the wire is caught by the grip die, which puts on the studs. -Then the cutter closes upon the wire and cuts the point, while 
the heading hammer comes up against the lower end and flattens out the head. As soon as made, the nails^ are knocked off from 
the parent wire by the **naU shover,” and fall into a basket at the rate of one thousand a minute. 

and from time to time place a new keg to catch the More than 1,100 types and sizes of nails are nianu- 
nails as they stream out at the rate of from a hundred factured. Wire and cut nails are made of various 
to a thousand a minute, depending on the size. With- metals — iron, brass, copper, aluminum, zinc, etc. They 
out this wonderful machine it would be impossible to are produced in a great variety of forms, according 
furnish the nails needed in modem buildings. In the to the purpose for which they are intended. There 
United States so many Avire nails (to say nothing of are, for example, shingle nails, finishing nails, barbed 
other kinds) are used that if all those made in a year box nails, flooring nails, boat nails, trunk nails, and 
were cast into a single nail, that gigantic nail would picture nails. They are usually sold by weight, the 
be higher than the Eiffel tower. price increasing with the smaller nail sizes. 

The first man to invent a nail-making machine was Nails are distinguished in size as twopenny (ab- 
Ezekiel Reed, a Massachusetts man who took out breviated 2d, meaning 1 inch in length), threepenny 
a patent in 1786. His machine in an improved form (3d, IJ inches), fourpenny (4d, I5 inches), and so 
is stUl used for making cut nails. Strips of metal the on up to the 60-penny (60d, 6 inches) size. Nails are 
thickness of the nail are fed into the machine, and a classified by the “penny” because they were once 
“sheer” cuts them into square-sided nail lengths, sold by the penny in England. Thus a lOd nail sold 
which are firmly clutched at the neck until the upper for ten pence per 100 nails. The Enghsh abbreviation 
end is hammered into a head. These cut nails taper, “d” means “penny.” Today “d” refers only to the 
but are not pointed. length of the nail. 

About a century after the invention of this maelifne. New England is the section producing the most 

the wire nail came into general use. almost driving nails in the United States todaj'. 



2a 


NAMES 


“WHAT IS the NAME, Please?” 



"Welshmen on the Island of Anglesey in Wales Are Proud of the 57-Letter Name of Their Tiny "Village 


AMES. A story is back of every name — whether it 
^ be a personal name, a place name, or the name of 
just a thing or an idea. Names of things, for example, 
may come from their use, such as “raincoat.” Or the 
name of an object may come from a distinguishing 
characteristic, such as the name “rifle,” which means a 
gun with grooves cut into the barrel. The name comes 
from an Old French word rifler, meaning “to file or 
scrape.” Still another kind of object name is the 
name of origin, such as “petroleum,” from the Latin 
words petra (rock) and oleum (oil) — rock oil. 

Many things are named for people, as “macadam,” 
the paving material named for its inventor, John L. 
MacAdam, a Scottish engineer. One of many ideas 
named after a person is “boycott,” meaning refusal 
to deal in certain goods or with certain groups of 
people. The name originated about 1880 from Charles 
C. Boycott, a land manager in Ireland (see Boycott). 

The Strange Story of Our Own Names 
In very early times, each person had only one name. 
This was his given name, which he might receive at 
the time of his birth or later. The Bible tells us that 
when the prophetess Hannah, in answer to her prayer, 
gave birth to a son, she named him Samuel, meaning 
“God hath heard.” Among other Biblical names, 
Isaac means “laughter”; Isaiah, “salvation of Je- 
hovah” ; Solomon, “prince of peace.” 

In savage societies, given names changed frequently, 
just as nicknames arise today (see Nicknames). An 
Indian brave who was called at birth “Morning Cloud” 
might later in life be known as “Deer Slayer” in 
honor of his hunting skUl. 

The World Grows — and So Do Our Names 
"When men lived in small tribal groups, this single 
given name was enough. As civilized communities 
grew, however, there would be many by the same 
name, and so people began to add some qualification. 
At first, this was usually the name of the father. In the 
New Testament, for example, we find “James, the son 


of Zebedee.” Another qualification was the name of 
a person’s birthplace, as “Paul of Tarsus.” These 
qualifications enabled people to distinguish one James 
and one Paul from another. 

Among the Romans this practice developed into the 
use of real family names, or surnames. Each descend- 
ant bore, in addition to his given name, the distin- 
guishing name of his ancestors. 

How Family Names Arose in Western Europe 

"With the fall of the Roman Empire the use of sur- 
names virtually ceased. They did not appear to any 
large extent imtU the late Middle Ages and did not 
develop in England until after the Norman Conquest 
in 1066. They started to become general only during 
the Renaissance. In 1563 the Council of Trent speeded 
the adoption of surnames by establishing baptismal 
registers, which required the surname as well as the 
given name — also called baptismal or Christian name. 

Our family names have come down to us in several 
ways. In England, a common way grew out of a man’s 
occupation. There were so many Johns, for example, 
with nothing to tell them apart, that people began to 
refer to one as John the smith; another, John the miller-, 
or John the baker. Gradually these distinguishing 
names became fixed as family names, or surnames. 

Other surnames that come from occupations include 
Carpenter, Taylor, Wright, Turner, Clark (clerk). 
Cook, Carter, and Gardiner. The reason there are so 
many surnames of Smith today is that during the 
Middle Ages the name was used for all metalworkers, 
or smiiers, which means "to beat.” These include 
blacksmiths, who worked in iron; whitesmiths, who 
worked in tin; locksmiths, and so on. 

Another common way of forming surnames came 
from the given, or Christian, name of the father. Such 
names are called patronymics, meaning “father- 
names.” Johnson is “John’s son.” Jones and Jennings 
are modified forms of the same name. Williams, Wil- 
liamson, and Wilson all mean “the son of Wflliam.” 



NAMES 


25 


In Spain, the men of many cultured families also 
use the matronymic, “mother name.” The man’s sur- 
name begins with the patronymic which is then joined 
by the Spanish word “y” (mearung “and”) to the 
matronymic. An example is the name of a famed 
Spanish philosopher, Jos6 Ortega y Gasset. 

Names from Animals, Places, and Appearances 
Many of our surnames come from animals, largely 
because people in the Middle Ages used signs instead 
of numbers to distinguish shops and inns. A man 
might become known as Lyon (hon) either because of 
his courage or because his shop sign carried the figure 
of a lion. Other familiar examples are Bull, Hart, Pea- 
cock, Fox, Badger, Lamb, and Stagg. 

Other names are derived from where a man lived or 
from where he came. Regions furnished such names as 
Scott, Enghsh, Irish, Ireland, and French. Topographic 
terms contributed Hill, Ford, Forest, Field, Lake, 
and Rivers. Some came from buildings, as Hall, 
House, Church, and Temple. From the directions came 
North, Southey, West, and Eastman; and from the 
seasons. Winter and Summers. 

Still other names came from a man’s appearance, as 
Long, Short, Little, and Longfellow. The name Brown 
was probably given to a man because of his complex- 
ion or perhaps because of the color of his clothes. 
Others that, perhaps, were nicknames first are Drink- 
water, DooHttle, Lovejoy, Makepeace, and Shake- 
speare — which really means “shake a spear.” Some 
names come from famihar objects, as Foot, Moon, 
Starr, and Pepper. 

Biblical characters and saints have furnished many 
surnames. From Elijah come Ellis and Elliot; from 
Matthew, Matthews and Mayo; from Andrew, An- 
drews and Anderson. Names of saints are common, as 
Martin, Gregory, Lawrence, Nicholas and Nichols, 
Vincent, and Austin (from Augustine). Mitchell is de- 
rived from Michael, the archangel; Phelps, from Philip. 

Surnames in Other Languages 
In most languages surnames are formed in much the 
same way as in English. Corresponding to the English 
suffix -son to denote “son of,” the Scottish language 
uses the prefix Mac, as in Macdonald. In Irish names 
the prefix is O’, as in O’Brien; the Norman-French is 
Fitz, as in Fitzgerald; and the Welsh Ap, Apowen, 
which is now simply Bowen. 

The Russian suffix -ovitch also means son. The 
Russian name Ivanovitch, son of Ivan (John), corre- 
sponds to the English Johnson. The Swedish suffix is 
son; Danish and Norwegian, sen. In Polish the suffix 
for son is owski; in modern Greek, opolos. 

Jewish Surnames Latest to Arise 
As the Jewish people in Europe usually lived in com- 
pact, secluded communities they did not need the 
identification of surnames. As they grew in number, 
however, various nations made laws compelling the 
Jews to adopt surnames. Austria led the way in 1784; 
France in 1803; and Prussia in 1812. Some Jewish 
families took theirs from personal names, as Jacobs, 
Levy, and Moses. Others formed their surnames from 
place names, as Hamburg, Frankfurter, and Speyer. 


AMERICA RIVALS WALES 



A lake near Webster, Mass., bears this 4S-letter Indian name. 
Historians say severm tribes fished here, and the name means 
"Fishing Place at the Boundaries — ^Neutral Meeting Grounds.” 


The noted Rothschild family took its name from 
the red shield {rothen Schild) used as a sign over 
their shop in Frankfurt (see Rothschild Family). 

Many Jewish families took poetical or colorful 
names such as Rosenberg (rose mountain), Gluckstein 
(luck stone), Rubenstein (ruby), and Goldenkranz 
(golden wreath). Animal names were also popular, as 
Adler (eagle), Hirsch (hart), and Lowe (lion). 

Middle and Hyphenated Names; Change of Name 
A “middle” name, or the initial used for it, helps 
further to identify a particular person. The custom 
is relatively recent. The first president of the 
United States to use a middle name, for example, was 
John Quincy Adams, named for his birthplace, Quincy, 
Mass. Most Americans simply use the initial of their 
middle name, as John Q. Adams. 

Hyphenated names, as James Foster-Lynch, usually 
perpetuate the surname (Foster) of some earlier 
branch of the family. They are more common in 
Europe than in the United States. 


OUR 25 LEADING NAMES 


Name 

Est. No. 

Name 

Est. No. 

Smith 

.1,345,600 
. 976,400 

Thompson . 

. .349,800 

Johnson . . . 

White 

. .346,300 

Brown .... 

. 896,800 

Jackson!. . . 

. .339,600 

Williams. . 

. 764,200 

Harris 

. .317,400 

Jones 

. 727,800 

Clark 

. .306,900 

Miller 

. 645,100 

Lewis 

. .298,300 

Davis 

. 582,200 

Hall 

..273,800 

Wilson. . . . 

. 437,400 

Allen 

. .249,400 

Anderson. . 

. 432,200 

Young 

. .249,100 

Thomas. . . 

. 377,900 

Robinson. . 

..247,000 

Moore .... 

. 377,700 

Walker 

..245,100 

Taylor. . . . 

. 369,300 

Nelson 

..225,900 

Martin 

. . 355,000 




And Smith still leads all the restl These are the 25 most com- 
mon surnames in the United States as estimated by the Social 
Security Administration from its national file of cardholders. 




3 


NAMES 


HUMOR AND HISTORY IN AMERICAN PLACE NAMES 





, M ifiiTiAi:s:ol% . 
r : |HDMAS BROOKE t ; 

OF.^RasKnaifjijucT er ts3s’ 

KRES MTERTEO ft! IEB4. KtiSSj 
m KmLMD iSSEMir WSS-W, i 
fRESimjtr.'JDSTRs csusiy tasii.l 

■1867. MWOR OFfQEtES IS rBST-' 
mi mt.: 





Gnaw Bone, Ind., has a population of two. Legend says a set- 
tler asked the whereabouts of a neighbor and was told: “I seed 
him a-settin’ on a log above the sawmill a-gnawin’ on a bone.” 


One of our shortest place names is T. B., Md. (population, 
100), the initials of a colonial landowner. In Europe, Norway 
boasts of an even shorter place name, the village of A. 


In Britain, members of the peerage use only sur- 
names as signatures. Members of royalty, however, 
sign only their given names. The reigning monarch 
adds the accession number, as Elizabeth II; on state 
papers the signature is Elizabeth II Regina (queen). 

In both Britain and the United States a person may 
change to any surname he wants. Usuall}" he or she 
applies to a court of law for the change and then 
publishes it officially. He can, however, change it 
simply through the use of common law. 

After marriage, almost every woman uses the sur- 
name of her husband, though a few feminists go by 
their maiden names, as do some artists and profes- 
sional women. People in the theater and in the arts 
often assume a “stage name” which they think more 
attractive or attention-getting than their own. To 
hide their identity, some writers adopt a pseudo- 
nym, Greek for “false name.” 

Styles in Given Names 

Styles change somewhat in given names just as they 
do in clothes. In the 17th century, for example, some 
of the more learned people gave their children names 
that were pure Latin or closely related, such as Primus 
for the first-bom. Among the children bom on the 
Mayflower was Oceanus Hopkins, born on the ocean. 
Another was Peregrine White, born in Plymouth 
harbor — from the Latin peregrinatro, “alien.” 

Most given names in Europe and in the United 
States, have come down through the Christian church, 
for example, John and Mary. Even such ancient Greek 
names as George and Dorothy and Roman names such 
as Maitin and Anthony were preserved as names of 
saints and church leaders. 

Many fa mili es continue given names from one gen- 
eration to another. When a son is given the exact name 
of his father, the son becomes a Junior, as Edward 
Scott Ross, Jr. When he, in turn, so names his son, 
the son’s name is Edward Scott Ross III. 

The popularity of certain names varies. The name 
Deborah (“a bee”) was a favorite in the 18th and 19th 


centuries, then it fell into disuse because it was con- 
sidered “old-fashioned.” In the 1950’s, however, it 
again became popular. The renewed popularity of a 
name often arises from its use by a prominent current 
figure, such as a national hero, a motion-picture star, 
or a pohtical leader. Unfortunately, naming a child 
for such a person of a particular era tends to “date” 
the child in later years. 

In the South, double given names are very popular, 
as Mary Lou for girls and Billy Joe for boys. Through- 
out the country there has been a trend to give girls 
names which depart from obviously feminine names, 
such as Lauren, Dale, and Paige. For years, in the 
United States, the names Dennis, Michael, and Sheila 
were almost entirely limited to people of Irish ances- 
try; then, in the 1950’s, they were widely given to chil- 
dren of other ancestry. 

Place Names and Trade Names 

In contrast to the relatively simple development of 
personal names, the origin of place names is often a 
mystery. For every obvious place name such as 
France, named after the Teutonic tribe of Franks, 
there are hundreds which scholars are still trying to 
trace to their roots. Even the meaning of the name 
Chicago, for instance, is disputed — “place of the 
skunk,” or “place of the wild onion,” or just the Indian 
word for “great” or “powerful.” 

The United States has some of the most poetic, sim- 
ple, extravagant, and amusing place names in the 
world. Many of them, such as New York, are merely 
adaptations of names in the Old World. Others, such 
as Pennsylvania (Penn’s Woods), were coined. Many, 
such as Denver, honored the surname of a pioneer. 
Some are topographic, as Elk Rim. Others expressed 
longing and determination, as New Hope. Some com- 
memorate Biblical towns, as Berea and Nazareth. 

Just as diverse are the trade names invented by 
manufacturers to distingmsh their products. Copy- 
rights protect such names, but some trade names lose 
their individuality by common usage. 



NANKING 


4 


Nanking, China. More than two thousand years 
ago Nanking was founded, and in succeeding centuries 
it has more than once alternated between glory and 
tragedy. Its name means “southern capital.” It is 
located in the province of Kiangsu, on the south bank 
of the Yangtze River about 200 miles west of Shang- 
hai. 

Nanking’s greatness began in 1368 under the first 
Ming emperor. He saw the long undulating line of 
hills rising from the bank of the Yangtze like the sa^ 
cred dragon’s body, and decided that on the dragon’s 
back he would establish his capital. A wall 28 miles 
long, 60 feet high, and about 30 feet thick was built 
around it. Nearly 500 years later during the Taiping 
Rebellion much of the city was destroyed. 

In the 20th century Nanking took on new life, for 
it was here in 1912 that China was proclaimed a re- 
public. In 1928 Nanking became the capital of the 
Nationalist government. High on near-by Purple 
Mountain was built the tomb of Sun Yat-sen, first 
president of the republic. The rebuilt city became a 
trade center of the populous Yangtze Valley, and its 
factories produced silk goods, paper, porcelain, brass- 
ware, tapestries, and a cotton cloth named “Nan- 
keen.” The population grew to about 1,000,060. 

But in 1937, when Japan invaded China, Nanking 
again was all but destroyed. Japanese troops massa- 
cred thousands of its people. The city became the 
capital of Wang Ching-wei’s puppet r4gime. In 1945, 
after the second World War, Nanking again became 
the capital of Nationalist China. But the Communists 
seized it in 1949, and it reverted to a sprawling provin- 
cial city. The Communists took over the famous 
Nanking University. Population (1947 est.), 1,084,995. 
Nantes (milt), Fhancb. Dating from the Celtic 
Namnetes who ruled here before the Romans, this 
city is best known for the Edict of Nantes by which 
Henry IV in 1598 granted toleration and civil rights 
to the Huguenots or French Protestants (see Henry, 
Kings of France). Although it is 50 miles from the 
sea, it is an important port of France. Its position 
on the Loire River, which has been improved as a 
waterway, makes it a center for commercial water- 
borne traffic. The leading industries are shipbuilding 
and the manufacture of sugar, oil, textiles, machinery, 
food products and iron products. Nantes contains 
a number of historic public buildings, among them a 
beautiful cathedral and a medieval castle. Histori- 
cally, it is one of the chief cities of Brittany. During 
the ffist World War several American hospitals were 
established here. Population (1946 census), 187,259. 
Naples, Italy. To catch the spirit of Naples the 
■\dsitor must see it first as he sails between the islands 
of Ischia and Capri, and enters the celebrated Baj' 
of Naples, some 22 miles wide. There at the northern 
apex of the bay lies the noisiest, most picturesque, 
and most fascinating of Italy’s liistoric cities. As 
the ship plows forward, through the bluest of wa- 
ters under the bluest of skies, the sloping city ap- 
pears, flanked seven miles to the east by the ominous 
bulk of Mount Vesuvius, and on the west by the 


gi'aceful heights of Posilipo. In the background an 
amphitheater of volcanic hiUs curls aroimd the city, 
which has been called the most beautifully situated in 
all Europe. To the lovely island of Capri go 30,000 
tourists every year to enjoy the balmy air and the 
picturesque scenery and to view the ruins of the 
palaces in which the profligate emperor Tiberius spent 
the last seven years of his life. 

From a crest north of the city, where stands the 
massive bulk of St. Ehno Castle, built in the 16th 
century and now used as a prison, a spiny ridge runs 
down to the sea, splitting the city in two. This 
ridge ends in a rocky islet, on which stands the 
Gastello dell’ Ovo — so called because it is egg-shaped 
— ^built in the 12th century. 

In the older and larger part of the city, to the 
east of this ridge, the spires of scores of ancient 
churches rise, intermingled with large public build- 
ings, and here and there a factory chimney. In this 
quarter the poorer people live, and here centers the 
industrial and political life of the city. On the west- 
ern side of the ridge are the new fashionable dwellings 
of the rich, built on terraced hills and commanding 
sweeping views of the bay, with the twin mountains 
of famous Capri in the far distance. 

How Naples Suffered from Growing Too Fast 

Naples is said to be the most densely populated 
European city. During the last century its popula- 
tion increased at a rate far more rapid than did its 
dwelling places, and for many decades the poorer 
people were crowded together so thickly that disease, 
crime, and vice flourished hopelessly in filthy tene- 
ments. In 1884 a fierce epidemic of cholera broke 
out wliich carried away thousands of victims. Shortly 
afterward the center of the old district was literally 
torn out by the roots. Modern buildings and broad 
streets were built, an excellent water supply was 
piped in, and conditions improved at once. Even 
today the thriving business carried on by its factories, 
and the immense exports and imports which pass 
through its magnificent harbor, continue to draw 
people to Naples. Dwellings are crowding out the 
beautiful gardens and groves, while the expansion on 
the outskirts bids fair soon to connect the pretty 
chain of small suburbs on the shores of the bay into 
one huge city. 

Naples is a center for the manufacture of silks, 
cottons, and woolens, glass, coral, tortoise shell, and 
other art objects, kid gloves, tobacco, olive oil, soaps, 
perfumes, chendcals, and macaroni. Machinery, 
guns, and other objects of steel and iron are growing 
in importance; and wine is an important export. But 
a carefree spirit seems to mark the city’s industrial 
life. The workers from the factories, the peddlers 
pushing their carts in the markets with shrill cries, 
the mule drivers from the surrounding country bring- 
ing in their produce, the fishermen from the near-by 
villages — all mingle together in the streets in a gay 
and noisy throng, shouting, waving arms, singing and 
laughing — all this presents a scene not matched any- 
where in the world. 



5 


NAPLES 


The instinctive love of beauty which is character- 
istic of the Neapolitans is reflected in their apprecia- 
tion for serious art. Naples is fiUed with museums, 
theaters, and opera houses, among which is San Carlo, 
one of the largest opera houses in Europe, where 
many of the best singers in the world may be heard. 

Rich Cultural Heritage 

Many remains of classical days add to the city’s 
historical interest. The cathedral, one of the prin- 


cipal edifices, dates back to 1272, and stands on the 
spot where were formerly two temples dedicated to 
Neptune and Apollo. Naples was one of the earliest 
centers of learning in Europe. The University of 
Naples was opened in 1224 by Frederick II, Holy 
Roman emperor, to draw students away from the Uni- 
versity of Bologna. The National Museum of Naples 
is one of the most important in the world. In it are 
housed objects dug up at Pompeii and Herculaneum 
and unequaled Greek and Roman relics, as well as 
collections belonging to the Italian cro\vn, the 
Famese group of paintings and sculpture, and 600,000 
books, pamphlets, and manuscripts containing many 
rare historical writings. A big Marine Aquarium 
contains the largest collection of living sea animals 
in the world and its laboratories attract zoologists 
from all parts of the globe. 

Naples was an old Greek settlement (called 
Neapolis, "the New City”), founded about 450 b.c., 
when southern Italy and Sicily were styled Magna 
Graecia (“Greater Greece”). The Romans conquered 
it in 326 b.c., but the Greek language and customs 
survived down into the days of the Roman Empire. 
It suffered in the 6th century when the generals of 


the eastern Emperor Justinian wrested it from the 
East-Gothic conquerors of Italy. The Normans con- 
quered it about 1130, and it became the capital of 
the “Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,” which these 
mighty descendants of the Northmen set up in 
southern Italy. It flourished greatly under the 
enlightened Frederick II, of the Hohenstaufen house, 
whose mother was the last of the Norman line. He 
it was who founded its university, and in this court, 

where mingled Greek, 
Saracen, Teutonic, 
and classical elements, 
the first stirrings 
of the Renaissance 
were manifest. With 
the pope’s aid the 
descendants of Fred- 
erick II were finally 
overthrown and 
Charles of Anjou was 
seated on the throne 
(1266). 

For centuries this 
territory was then 
the scene of violent 
intrigue and war. 
From 1266 until 1494 
it was fought over by 
Angevin and Aragon 
princes ; then the kings 
of France and Spain 
alternately took pos- 
session, until the lat- 
ter gained the ascend- 
ency in 1504, ruling 
the Two Sicilies 
imtil 1713. After the 
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13) the Two 
Sicilies passed to the Austrian Hapsburgs, who sur- 
rendered it to a branch of the French house of Bour- 
bon in 1743. While Napoleon Bonaparte was making 
Europe over, his brother Joseph sat for a time on the 
throne, and then Joachim Murat, Napoleon’s brother- 
in-law occupied it for a while. After Napoleon’s fall 
Naples returned to the Bourbon government until 
it was liberated by Garibaldi and became a part of 
United Italy in 1861 (see Garibaldi; Italy). 

Naples — with 1,003,815 people (1951 census, pre- 
liminary) — was one of Italy’s chief industrial centers 
and ports. It was bombed and shelled repeatedly by 
the Allies during the second World War. in an effort to 
destroy its factories and cripple its port facilities. 
When the Alhes captured Naples in 1943 they found 
that the retreating Germans had demolished the 
harbor and had destroyed many of the factories and 
public buildings, including the Royal Society’s library 
and much of the University of Naples. Typhus struck 
the rubble-littered city, but the Allies stamped out 
the disease before it became epidemic. Allied engi- 
neers reconstructed the harbor for mili tary shipping. 
By 1946 Naples had erased most of its war scars. 


THE BEAUTIFUL AND HISTORIC CITY OF NAPLES 


!_ ^ S ' 




'' J- 

■ ' p’': " ■. 


. . : ^ .’•ft 

«• - 





When the Neapolitan, boasting of the beauty of his town, says, “See Naples and then die,” he thinks 
perhaps chiefly of its spacious and lovely bay, curved like a half-moon, and rimmed with headlands. 
The city itself cannot vie with Rome and the towns of northern Italy in palaces and monuments; but 
its picturesque streets teem with life and gaiety. Naples is known as “the mother of modern opera.” 




This picture shows one of the most remarhabie incidents in the career of Napoleon. It happened after he had escaped from 
Elba with a handful of soldiers and set out for Paris. As he approached the city of Grenoble, a general of the royal forces in 
command of d.OOO men was sent out to take him prisoner. On meeting them Napoleon dismounted and advanced alone. The 
order to “Fire” had already been given. But Napoleon, baring his breast, said: “Where is the man who would shoot his em- 
peror?” At his words the soldiers who had been sent to stop him threw down their guns and hailed him as their leader. 


N apoleon (nd-po'le-dn) I, Emperor of the 
French (1769-1821). Not a drop of French 
blood flowed through the veins of Napoleon Bona- 
parte, who for 16 years was the absolute master of 
France. He was barely a Frenchman by birth, for the 
island of Corsica, in which was located his native 
town of Ajaccio, was handed over to France by Genoa 
in 1768, only a year before Napoleon was born. 

His family, which had been established in Corsica 
since the 16th century, had come from the mainland of 
Italy, probably from Tuscany. His father, Charles 
Buonaparte, was a lawyer in moderate circumstances; 
his mother, Laetitia Ramolino, was a beautiful woman 
of strong character. Napoleone Buonaparte — such 
was the Italian name he received when christened — 
was the second son in a large family (see Bonaparte). 
For some years after the French occupation his father 
sided with the Corsican rebels; and as a youth Napo- 
leon hated the French, whom he regarded as oppressors 
of his native land. 

He carried this feeling ■with him to the government 
military school at Brienne, in northeastern France, 
to which his father sent him at the age of nine. The 
five years he spent here were not happy ones; and he 
frequently engaged in fights •with the French students, 
who thought him a gloomy sullen lad. The ne.xt two 


years (1784r-85) the boy spent at the Ecole Militaire 
in Paris, where he received excellent training as an 
artillery man and an officer. Then his father died, 
leaving Napoleon — although he was not the oldest son 
— ^with the responsibility of providing for the large 
family. 

At the age of 16 the youth began his service in the 
French army as second lieutenant of artillery. His 
proud nature, his poverty, and his foreign birth still 
cut him off from his fellows. His thoughts were still 
all on Corsica, and he absented himself from the army 
for long periods to engage in plots at home. His 
schemes were not successful, however; and in 1792 
he was forced to flee -^vith his family and take ref- 
uge in France. His love for Corsica was thenceforth 
dead; it meant no more to him than did Malta or 
Corfu. There came a time when he declared, “Among 
all the insults hurled against me, that of ‘Corsican’ is 
the most mortifying.” 

Meanwhile the young officer had witnessed in Paris 
some of the stirring events of the French Revolution, 
which had broken out in 1789. Most of the French 
officers had remained faithful to the king. But Bona- 
parte, who had no share in their traditions of loy- 
alty, viewed the Revolution with an open mind. Tlie 
Republic had to face both foreign and civil war, and 




7 


napoleon I 


was badly in need of able officers. It soon found a 
use for the little Corsican with the pale face and 
unkempt hair. In 1792 Bonaparte was made a cap- 
tain; and in 1793 he was chosen to direct the artillery 
in the siege of Toulon, a French port whose people had 
rebelled against the Republic. Here Bonaparte first 
gave evidence of his extraordinary energy and ability, 
“If you are ungrateful toward him,” VTote his com- 
manding officer, “this man ■will contrive his own 
advancement.” 

On the fall of Toulon, Bonaparte was given com- 
mand of the artillery of the army of Italy; but he had 
little opportunity to distinguish himself in this cam- 
paign. Indeed, for a time fate seemed against him. 
The Jacobins, -with whom he had established friendly 
relations, fell from power; and in 1795 Bonaparte was 
back in Paris, deprived of his command, -without 
money or friends, and suspected because of his Jacobin 
connections. Now 26 years old, he was still unknown 
to the world that was to ring -with his name. 

Then in October 1795, his great opportunity came. 
The people of Paris, tired of war and privations, rose 
against the Convention (the legislative body). Bona- 
parte was appointed to put down the royalist insur- 
rection. He took complete control, issued rapid 
orders, and -with what Carlyle called “a whiff of 
grapeshot,” shot do\vn the rebels in the street, and 
saved the Convention. The government showed its 


appreciation by appointing him commander in charge 
of the army in Italy, which was operating against the 
Austrians and their allies. And as his second reward 
he won the hand of Josephine, the beautiful -widow of 
the Viscount Beauharnais, who had been gufilotined 
during the Terror. He married her in March 1796 ; and 
in that same month took over his new command. 

Brilliant Campaign in Italy 
Of all Bonaparte’s campaigns none is more interest- 
ing than this first one in Italy in 1796-97. Even 
older and more experienced generals serving under 
him yielded to his indomitable -will, his flashing eye, 
and Ids brilliant plans. His men were thrilled by the 
burning words of his first proclamation: “Soldiers, 
you are ill-fed and almost naked. The government 
owes you much, but can do nothing for you. Your 
patience and courage do you honor, but procure you 
neither glory nor profit. I am about to lead you 
into the most fertile plains of the world. There 
you wiU find great cities and rich pro-vinces. There 
you -will -win honor, glory, and riches. Soldiers of the 
Army of Italy, -will you lack courage? ” 

The campaign showed General Bonaparte’s great 
military genius, and stirred to life his great ambition. 
His quick ndnd seized every geographical detail 
which might help or hinder his operations. He 
was prompt to guess the plans of his enemies, whom 
he be^vildered by his rapid movements. His favorite 


THE STRANGE BOY IN THE MILITARY SCHOOL 



^The mighty tread of the Emperor’s footsteps on the Continent soon drowned the echoes of the cannon of Trafalgar,” wrote the 
French historian Thiers, speaking of this moody and solitary hoy who is here pacing the grounds of the military school at Brienne, 
to the amusement of his fellow students. At that time the great Napoleon was only a friendless alien who spoke French with an 
Italian accent, while his fellow students were sons of the aristocracy of France. Their taunts made his life miserable, and he erew 

to a morose and pessimistic young manhood. ' 




NAPOLEON I 


8 


device was to cut the enemy’s army in two, and then 
throw his whole force against one of the enemy frag- 
ments before they had a chance to reunite. By this 
method in 1796 he defeated the Sardinian troops five 
times in eleven days, threatened their capital (Turin), 
and forced the king of Sardinia to sue for peace to 
an army “with neither artillery, cavaby, nor shoes 
to its feet.” 

Then Bonaparte turned eastward against the 
Austrians. His bravery was shown when in the face 
of a withering fire he forced his way across the bridge 
at Lodi — an exploit that won from his troops the 
affectionate name of the “Little Corporal.” He then 
besieged a part of the Austrian forces in Mantua. 
Four times the Austrians sent armies across the Alps 
to relieve that fortress, but each time Bonaparte 
defeated them, and finally the fortress fell in Feb- 
ruary 1797. He then carried the war into Austria 
itself, and had advanced to within 80 miles of Vienna 
when the enemy offered to make peace. According 
to Bonaparte’s proclamation, he had been victorious 
in 14 pitched battles and 70 combats. His army had 
conquered rich lands which fed and paid the army 
during the campaign, and sent millions of francs to 
relieve the financial distress of the home government. 
By the treaty of Campo Formio, which Bonaparte 
negotiated with Austria, Austria ceded to France 
the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and Lombardy, 
which became the French Cisalpine Republic. Austria 
also recognized the Rhine as the eastern boundary of 
France. In return France gave Austria most of the 
territories of the old Venetian Republic. 

Expedition to Egypt 

When the conqueror of Italy returned to Paris he 
was given a triumphal reception such as had been 
given to no other general of the Revolution. Thbst for 
political power had now replaced his youthful ambi- 
tion for Corsica. “Do you suppose,” he is reported to 
have said, “that I have gained my victories in Italy 
in order to advance the lawyers of the Directory?” 
But the “pear was not yet ripe for picking,” he felt, 
and so, because he was afraid that the people might 
tire of him if they saw him too much, he planned new 
conquests. He finally persuaded the willing Directory 
to send him to Egypt. There on the banks of the Nile 
he expected to imitate the exploits of Alexander 
the Great, and at the same time to strike a blow at 
France’s most powerful enemy, England, by opening 
a route to India. But here he was doomed to dis- 
appointment. The battle of the Pyramids, fought 
near Cairo (July 1798), put Egypt at his mercy; but 
his fleet was destroyed by the British in the battle 
of the Nile at Aboukb Bay (see Nelson, Horatio), 
and he was cut off from reinforcements. At Acre, in 
Syria, British troops fighting alongside those of Tur- 
key held out and Bonaparte had to return to Egypt. 
At last disquieting news summoned him home. 

There he found the Dbectory discredited because 
of its disastrous wars in his absence. Bonaparte 
joined accordingly in a plot which in November 1799 
pyerthrew the Directory and set up in its place a 


government called the Consulate, with Bonaparte as 
the first of the three consuls. Three years later he 
became First Consul for life with the right of appoint- 
ing his successor. Thenceforth he styled himself 
“Napoleon I” instead of “General Bonaparte.” 

Master of France 

The pear was now ripe and had been picked. Napo- 
leon had grasped political power and become master 
of France. His old ambition was realized, but new 
ones were forming. He had failed to build up a great 
eastern empire like that of Alexander the Great. He 
now aspired to restore the western one of Charlemagne. 

By the hard-fought battle of Marengo (1800) he de- 
feated the Austrians. The German states and even 
England, worn out by war, were ready to give up the 
struggle, and by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802, France 
was at peace with the whole world for the first time 
since 1792. But even in peace the First Consul con- 
tinued to carry out his ambitious plans. In the 14 
months before the conflict began anew, he became 
president of the Italian Republic, intervened in Smt- 
zerland, annexed Piedmont, Parma, and the island of 
Elba to France, planned the partition of Turkey, and 
the foundation of a colonial empire which should in- 
clude America, Egypt, India, and Australia. 

Do you wonder that Great Britain felt compelled to 
renew the conflict and worked hard to build up the 
Third Coalition (Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
Sweden) against this arch-disturber of the peace? 
But still Victory smiled on Napoleon. By his com- 
plete defeat of the Austrians and Russians at Auster- 
litz (Dec. 2, 1805), by his crushing blow to the 
Prussians at Jena (Oct. 14, 1806), and by the battle 
of Friedland against the Russians (June 14, 1807) — 
“the worthy sister of Marengo, Austerlitz, and Jena” 
— Napoleon brought most of Europe to his feet. 

Only one obstacle apparently barred his way to the 
complete mastery of western Europe; that was Great 
Britain. In 1805 he had planned to invade that 
island and reduce it to submission. But the favorable 
moment never came and after England’s navy under 
Nelson had destroyed the French fleet in the battle 
of Trafalgar (October 1805), Napoleon had no chance 
to conquer that enemy in battle, and his economic 
blockade of Britain proved equally futile. 

The Code Napoleon 

Napoleon’s fame rests not only on his military 
genius but also on his work as a statesman. He now 
turned his attention to reorganizing the lands he had 
conquered and to governing France. He had an in- 
satiable appetite for work and unusual powers of 
endurance. He mastered the details of business with 
almost superhuman energy and intelligence. A sound 
currency was established in France, the Bank of France 
created, roads and canals improved, agriculture and 
industry fostered. The machinery for local govern- 
ment was simplified and strengthened by a system of 
departmental prefects and suhprefecls, appointed by 
his government at Paris. The Catholic church which 
had been suppressed in the course of the Revolution, 
was re-established by an agreement with the pope, 



9 


NAPOLEON I 


THE MARRIAGE OF NAPOLEON AND MARIE LOUISE 



We are here witnessine the magnificent wedding of the great French Emperor to Marie Louise of Austria. Although the marriage 
was contracted for political reasons, following the Emperor’s divorce of Josephine, Napoleon really loved this daughter of the Haps* 
burg emperor. Their only son was called Napoleon 11 and formally crowned king of Rome, but this was only an empty title after 
Napoleon was overthrown. After his first overthrow, Marie refused to join him in Elba and during the desperate Hundred Days 
expressed no interest in him. Nevertheless, Napoleon both excused and forgave her desertion. 


known as the Concordat of 1801. Military ambitions 
were stimulated by the formation of the Legion of 
Honor, to be composed of soldiers and civilians who 
had greatly served the state. Most important of all, 
Napoleon, aided by a committee of learned jurists 
reshaped and codified the confused laws of France, 
and gave the country a unified, rational system 
of civil law — ^the celebrated Code of Napoleon. “My 
true glory,” he said after his downfall, “is not that 
I have gained 40 battles. Waterloo will efface the 
memory of these victories. But that which nothing 
can efface, which will live forever, is my civil code.” 

He Becomes “Emperor of the French” 

Step by step too Napoleon was building up his 
own position. In 1804 he secured a popular vote 
sanctioning a change from the consulate to an empire. 
As “Emperor of the French” he now had the right to 
hand down the throne to his descendants. In the hope 
of having a son to succeed him and also to ally him- 
self with one of the old royal families of Europe, 
he divorced Josephine and in 1810 married Marie 
Louise, the 18-year-old daughter of the Austrian 
emperor. He set himself, also, to the work of reor- 
ganizing Europe. The Cisalpine Republic was now 
changed to a monarchy and he himself was crowned 
king of Italy with the famous “iron crown” of Lom- 
bardy. “Roll up that map of Europe; there will be 
no need for it for ten years to come,” the English 
minister Pitt had said after the battle of Austerlitz. 
For almost that period Napoleon changed the map 


at his will. His stepson Eugene was made viceroy 
of Italy. Napoleon’s brother Louis became king of 
Holland; and Joseph, king first of Naples and then of 
Spain. General Murat, who had married Napoleon’s 
sister, succeeded to the vacant Neapolitan throne. 
The dukes of Bavaria and Wiirttemberg, French de- 
pendencies, were given the rank of kings. The shad- 
owy Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, and 
many of the petty German states were given to their 
more powerful neighbors, until the number of German 
states was reduced from some hundreds to about 50. 
This was the first step in the consolidation of Ger- 
many. At the height of Napoleon’s power the French 
Empire included France to the Rhine, Belgium and 
Holland, parts of Italy, and Croatia and Dahnatia. 
Spain, the rest of Italy, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 
and the confederation of the Rhine were dependent on 
Napoleon, and Denmark and Norway, Prussia, and 
the Austrian Empire were allied with him. Only Great 
Britain, Russia, Sweden, and Turkey remained out- 
side his influence. 

Napoleon freely used the schools to maintain his 
power. The political creed for the rising generation 
was set forth in a catechism to be taught in the 
schools in these terms; “We owe to our Emperor, 
Napoleon I, love, respect, obedience, fidelity, military 
service, and the tribute ordained for the defense of 
the empire and of his throne.” In reply to the ques- 
tion as to what was to be thought of those who were 
unfaithful in their duties toward the emperor, the 


10 


napoleon I 


catechism replied: “According to St. Paul they sin 
against the ordinance of God, and are guilty of ever- 
lasting damnation.” 

His Triumph and His Downfall 
The high point in Napoleon’s career was reached 
in the years which followed the peace of Tilsit (1807), 
which was concluded on board a raft in the Niemen 
River. The Czar Alexander of Russia not only made 
peace but was won over to Napoleon’s plans. Napo- 
leon and Alexander were to divide Europe between 
them. In return Alexander was to aid Napoleon in his 
“Continental system,” the object of which was to 
close Europe to England’s commerce and thereby force 
that “nation of shopkeepers,” as he contemptuously 
called it, to sue for peace. At one time or another 
every state of continental Europe, except Turkey and 
Portugal, was forced into this commercial system. 


crushed by the bloody battle of Wagram (July 1809). 
Then Napoleon struck at Russia for deserting his 
Continental system. With a Grand Army of nearly 
half a million men, drawn from “twenty nations,” he 
plunged boldly into that vast country in June 1812. 
On and on he marched into the heart of the country, 
continually harassed by the Cossacks. The retreating 
Russians finally gave battle at Borodino (September 
7); but the result was indecisive. On September 15 
Napoleon reached his goal, Moscow, where he expected 
to find shelter and provisions for his tired troops. But 
he found the city in flames; and the Russians made 
no peace. Since it was impossible to winter in the 
ruined city, on October 19 Napoleon began his 
retreat across snow-covered plains. This retreat from 
Moscow, which soon became a disorderly flight, is 
celebrated in art and story as one of the great dis- 


THE RETREAT FROM MOSCOW 



Marshal Ney, Napoleon’s trusted lieutenant, is here seen standing in the ranks with his soldiers, who are holding the Russian 
cavalry at bay with muskets and bayonets. The great army which had marched into Russia had melted away, and Napoleon had 
fled to rrance. Ney, ’’the bravest of the brave,” kept the famished troops together and was the last to cross the frontier. 


But all objected to it, because they needed goods 
from England; and so all found methods of evading 
the conqueror’s decree. 

Napoleon had also aroused another great force, 
which was to bring about his do^vnfall — the spirit of 
nationalism. In Spain the patriotic fire against 
French conquest fimt blazed forth in 1808. The 
British sent troops to help in this “Peninsular War” 
(1808-14), and little by little the French were 
pushed back beyond the Pyrenees. 

The day of downfall was approaching. Austria 
plucked up courage to renew the struggle, but was 


asters of military history. Of the mighty force that 
had set out, fewer than 20,000 ragged, freezing, and 
starving men staggered across the Russian frontier 
in December. 

Napoleon’s great career of conquest was over. The 
flames of national patriotism burst forth in an up- 
rising of Europe. Austria, Russia, and Prussia all 
joined with Great Britain in the War of Liberation. 
Napoleon raised new armies and won a few unimportant 
■\dctories; but in the three days’ battle of Leipzig 
— called the battle of the Nations — (October 1813) 
the French were outnumbered, outgeneraled, and out- 



11 

fought. Slowly but surely the allies then closed in 
upon Paris — Russians, Prussians, and Austrians from 
the east and north, and the British and Spaniards 
from across the Pyrenees. On March 30, 1814, the 
allies were masters of the French capital. Napoleon’s 
generals refused to continue the hopeless struggle, 
and he was forced to abdicate (April 11, 1814). 

He was allowed to retain the title of emperor, and 
was promised an annual payment of 2,000,000 
francs. But his rule was 
limited to the few square 
miles of the island of 
Elba (between the west 
coast of Italy and Corsi- 
ca). In the person of 
Louis XVIII the Bour- 
bons returned to power. 

But it was impossible 
for Napoleon to remain 
quietly so near France 
without trying to regain 
his lost power. He re- 
mained on Elba ten 
months; and then, in 
March 1815, slipped qui- 
etly away and landed in 
France, escorted by 1,000 
of his old guard. As if 
by magic soldiers rallied 
to his side, and he made a 
triumphal march on Paris. 

Louis was driven from 
the throne; and for a brief 
“Hundred Days” Napo- 
leon enjoyed a return of 
his former glory. But the 
allies again imited their 
forces against him, and 
June 18, 1815, on the field 
of Waterloo he suffered an 
irretrievable defeat (see 
Waterloo, Battle of). 

To avoid falling into the hands of Bliicher, who had 
sworn to shoot him as an outlaw, Napoleon sought 
refuge on board a British man-of-war and surrendered. 
He was now sent to the lonely British isle of St. 
Helena, in the South Atlantic, 1,200 miles west 
of Africa. His -^vife Marie Louise deserted him and 
his only son was reared in Austria and died as the 
Duke of Reichstadt in 1832. At St. Helena Napoleon 
fretted out the remainder of his life, until his 
death from cancer on May 8, 1821. In 1840, in ac- 
cordance with his wishes, his remains were taken to 
France, and he was buried vmder the dome of the 
Hotel des Invalides in Paris. 

Napoleon hi, Emperor op the French (1808- 
1873). As a boy in exile, Louis Napoleon dreamed of 
ruling a French empire as his uncle, the great Napo- 
leon, had done. Although his dream came true at last 
and he became emperor of the French as Napoleon III, 
he was poorly equipped either to ■win or to wear a 


NAPOLEON III 

crown. He bungled two attempts to secure power, and 
his reign brought disaster to France and humiliation to 
himself. His name was his principal asset, but he so 
lacked the genius of Napoleon I that Victor Hugo 
called him “Napoleon the Little.” 

He was the son of Louis Bonaparte, younger brother 
of Napoleon I; his mother was Hortense de Beauhar- 
nais, stepdaughter of Napoleon. His father was king 
of Holland when Louis was bom, but -within two years 

he lost his throne, and 
Hortense took the child to 
live in France. After the 
battle of Waterloo, they 
were exiled, and eventu- 
ally settled in Augsburg, 
Germany, where Louis 
went to school. He fin- 
ished his education in 
Switzerland. 

During the reign of 
Louis Philippe, Louis Na- 
poleon tndce tried to create 
a revolt in France. After 
the first conspiracy, at 
Strasbourg (1836), the 
king sent him to the United 
States, but he soon re- 
turned and settled in Eng- 
land. In 1840 with 56 fol- 
lowers he approached Bou- 
logne by sea, hoping to 
incite the garrison there to 
march on Paris. He was ar- 
rested and sentenced to life 
imprisonment in a fortress 
at Ham. Six years later 
he managed to escape. In 
1848 a revolution over- 
threw Louis Philippe, and 
the Second Republic was 
set up. Louis Napoleon 
hurried to France from 
England and was elected a deputy to the Assembly. 
The French people remembered the glories, but had for- 
gotten the hardships of his uncle’s reign. They elected 
Louis president. Four years later he proclaimed himself 
emperor as Napoleon III. (The Duke of Reichstadt, 
son of Napoleon I, had been regarded as Napoleon II.) 

Thereafter his power was absolute. He gave the 
people gifts — ^foundations, public works, holidays — 
while taking away their rights. When he married the 
beautiful Eugdnie de Monti jo, she brought to his court 
a brilliant social life. Money was plentiful and France 
was temporarily satisfied to have prosperity re- 
place freedom. The Crimean War (see Crimea) was 
costly, and badly managed. Napoleon III blundered 
in Italy (see Cavour, Count). His attempt to estab- 
lish Maximilian as emperor in Mexico was foolishly 
romantic. His entire foreign policy was a failure. 

Finally, still seeking gloiy, he involved France in 
a war -with Germany (see Franco-Prussian War). 


FALLEN EMPEROR ON HIS “ROCK” 



The man who had been master of Europe, who had made and 
unmade kings and emperors, spent his last days on a lonely 
island — St. Helena, 700 miles from the nearest land. Once the 
overlord of an entire continent, he came to be a prisoner who 
could not even cail his own the barren bit of land to which he was 
exiled. “My rock!” he used to say with grim humor, in speaking 
of the island, yet he could not even take a walk without a 
British soldier at his heels. 




NAPOLEON III 12 

THIS EARLY SPRING FLOWER WILL BLOOM INDOORS IN WINTER 



Cross breeding produced this beautiful narcissus. The poet’s narcissus, which bears a single bloom with a crown rimmed in red, 
was crossed with a many-flowered variety. The text tells you how to grow the narcissus in your home. 


This was the end. When the French armies were 
defeated at Sedan on Sept. 2, 1870, Napoleon III was 
taken prisoner of war. In Paris the people shouted, 
“Down with the Empire! Long live the Republic!” 
Eug6nie fled to England. There the fallen emperor 
joined her after his release at the close of the war. 
He lived only three years more. His only son was 
killed in 1879 in a British expedition in South Africa. 
Eug4nie lived on in lonely widowhood for forty 
years until 1920. 

Narcissus. The graceful narcissus takes its name 
from a Greek myth. Narcissus was a beautiful youth, 
condemned by Aphrodite to fall in love with his own 
image because he had spumed the nymph Echo. 
Day and night he gazed at his reflection in a clear 
pool, until he pined away and died. The gods in com- 
passion then changed Narcissus into a lovely flower, 
which bent its head over the water. 

The narcissus is native to the Old World; and it 
is often found growing wild in Alpine and English 
meadows. Because of its beauty and fragrance, its 
hardiness and early spring blooming, it is a garden 
favorite everywhere. The plant has a bulb root, from 
which spring narrow grasslike leaves from one to two 
feet high. The drooping blossoms are supported on a 


straight central stalk. They are usually either white 
or yellow, and have a cup-shaped center called a 
corona, or crown. 

The common English daffodil {Narcissus pseudo- 
narcissus) bears a single yellow flower and differs 
from other narcissi in having a long bell-shaped cor- 
ona. It is also called the “lent lily,” or “trumpet 
narcissus.” The poet’s narcissus, or pheasant’s eye 
{Narcissus poeticus) has a single white flower with 
a short, red-margined corona. The jonquil 
{Narcissus jonquilla) bears several fragrant golden 
blossoms. The paper white narcissus carries as many 
as a dozen all-white flowers on a single stalk. It is a 
form of Narcissus tazetta, a species which includes also 
the Chinese sacred lily, or joss flower. 

The paper white narcissus is so sturdy that it can 
be grown in winter in our homes. The bulbs 
should be set in a deep bowl, surrounded with stones 
to keep them in place, and kept well covered with 
water. They should be placed in a dark, cool 
place until the heavy mat of roots has formed and 
the leaves have started. They then want plenty 
of sunlight but not too much heat, and if kept in 
a temperature between 60° to 65° F. they will prob- 
ably bloom vigorously. 



13 


NASHVILLE 


Narcotics. Few drugs are more valuable to man 
than the narcotics — ^but they are also the cause of 
much suffering, degradation, and crime. Properly 
used by physicians, they help to relieve pain or to 
induce sleep. Large doses are fatal; continued small 
doses poison the nervous system. The periodic stimu- 
lation they give is followed by a deep depression that 
can be relieved only by ever larger amounts. The con- 
trol of narcotics is a world problem. 

Morphine and Heroin 

The most videly used of all narcotics are opium and 
the drugs derived from it. Opium is obtained from 
the seeds of the sleep poppy, which is grown chiefly 
in Asia (see Opium). Medicines which contain opium 
(such as laudanum and paregoric) are still sometimes 
prescribed by doctors. But opium in its natural 
state has now been largely supplanted by the drugs 
derived from it — particularly morphine, which is con- 
sidered indispensable to the practise of medicine. 
No drug yet discovered equals morpliine in relieving 
pain, and it produces a deep dreamless sleep from 
which the patient usually awakes refreshed. But it is 
used sparingly by physicians, since it is quickly habit- 
forming. Codein, which is derived from morphine, is 
milder and not so effective in relieving pain. It is 
widely used as a sedative for coughs. 

Heroin, which is also derived from morphine, is 
considered the most dangerous of the narcotic poisons. 
Since it is inferior to morphine for medical use, its 
manufacture in the United States as well as its im- 
portation from abroad are prohibited. Addiction to 
heroin is the worst form of the drug habit and the 
most common among criminal classes. 

Cocaine, Stimulant and Anesthetic 

For ages the natives of Peru and Bolivia have 
chewed the leaves of the coca shrub for their stimulat- 
ing effect. Coca is produced also in Java and Ceylon, 
but is not native to those islands. The drug cocaine, 
which is obtained from the leaves, was one of the first 
local anesthetics used by surgeons and dentists, but 
synthetic drugs have now largely replaced it. Co- 
caine also is a commonly misused drug. Like morphine 
and heroin, it causes a deterioration of the nervous 
system. Its prolonged use brings about tremors, 
sleeplessness, and emaciation. 

Hashish, or Marihuana 

The same plant which gives us the useful hemp fiber 
also furnishes a dangerous narcotic drug (see Hemp). 
The upper leaves and flower of the plant secrete a 
gum that has an intoxicating effect. This drug has 
been used for ages by the natives of Asia and Africa. 
It is called “hashish” by the Arabs; and our English 
word “assassin” is derived from the name of a mur- 
derous Mohammedan sect which used this drug (see 
Assassins). In India it is kno^vn as “bhang,” and in 
Mexico as “marihuana.” Because of its variable ef- 
fect, it has little or no use in medicine. 

The hemp plant may be found grooving as a road- 
side weed in nearly every state of the Union, and the 
illegal marihuana traffic is therefore difficult to con- 
trol. The criminals who engage in it usually mix the 


drug-bearing leaves with tobacco and make cigarettes 
which are sold to addicts at a high price. 

The Control of Narcotics 

Traffic in opium became a large and lucrative busi- 
ness in the 19th century. In 1909 the United States 
brought about an international conference on the sub- 
ject at Shanghai; and this was followed by an Opium 
Convention at the Hague in 1912, a Drug Convention 
at Geneva in 1925, and the Narcotics Limitation Con- 
vention in 1931. These limited the manufacture of 
narcotic drugs to the amounts required for medical 
purposes and provided that such drugs can be shipped 
from one country to another only with the consent of 
both the exporting and importing governments. Two 
United Nations groups, the Permanent Central Opium 
Board and the Drug Supendsory Body, control this 
lawful traffic. A third group, the United Nations 
Commission on Narcotic Dings, does advisory w'ork. 

In the United States the suppression of smuggling 
is one of the important functions of the Bureau of 
Customs of the Treasury Department, aided by the 
Coast Guard. The task of preventing unlawful trade 
in narcotics ndthin the countrj’’ is assigned to the 
Bureau of Narcotics, also of the Treasurj’^ Depart- 
ment. It administers the Harrison Narcotic Act 
(1914), which imposes taxes on narcotics.and requires 
the registration of all dealers; and also the Marihuana 
Tax Act (1937), which provides punishment for any- 
one handling marihuana without a license. Each state 
also has laws to control the traffic. 

Other Narcotics Used in Medicine 

Narcotics "which have special uses in medicine but 
seldom attract addicts include belladonna from the 
deadly nightshade plant; stramonium, from the thorn 
apple; and hyoscy amine from the henbane (see 
Poisonous Plants; Poisons). 

Narcotics used for the relief of pain are called 
anodynes; and those which induce sleep are kno'wn as 
hypnotics, or soporifics. The same substance, ho"wever, 
is sometimes used for both purposes. Synthetic drugs 
used as sedatives are usually called hypnotics rather 
than narcotics. Some of these are habit-forming; and 
in large doses they may cause complete imconscious- 
ness (narcosis) and death. Of synthetic hypnotics the 
most important are the barbiturates, derived from 
barbituric acid. They include barbital (veronal), phe- 
nobarbital (luminal), and other drugs sold under 
proprietary names. From chloral is derived chloral 
hydrate (“knockout drops”). (See also Anesthetics.) 
Nashville, Tenn. About Christmas Day, 1779, a 
few' pioneers led by Gen. James Robertson settled on 
the Cumberland River in middle Tennessee and built 
Fort Nashborough. The settlement became the town 
of Nash"viUe in 1784. Its position in a vast, fertile 
valley with varied resources soon made it Tennessee’s 
second largest city. It has been the state capital 
since 1843. 

Nash"ville is perhaps proudest of its reputation as 
“the Athens of the South,” won because of its many 
educational institutions. Among these are Vanderbilt 
University; George Peabody College for Teachers; 



NASHVILLE 


14 


Scarritt College for Christian Workers, Belmont The yellow, orange, or red flowers bloom singly 
College, David Lipscomb College, Trevecca Nazarene, on climbing or creeping stems, from early summer 
and for Negroes, the Tennessee Agricultural and In- until the first frost. The plant is a native of South 

dustrial State University, Meharry Medical College, America, and it was introduced into Spain, Prance, 

and Fisk University, noted for the world famous and England in the 16th century. One species pro- 

Fisk Jubilee Singers. duces underground tubers, which South Americans 

In “the Athens of the South” Greek architecture boil and eat like potatoes. The flower buds and 

has inspired the design of many public buildings. The young seeds are sometimes pickled and used for 

State Capitol, designed by William Strickland, resem- seasoning. The English use the leaves as “Indian 

bles the classic Erechtheum at Athens. The beautiful cress” in salads. 

War Memorial Building in the center of the business Botanists call the water cress Nasturtium officinale, 
district is Doric in design. The State Office Building, but it is not related to the nasturtium. There are 

the State Supreme Court Building, and the Federal about 20 species of nasturtiums. The best known are 

Post Office are modern adaptations of Greek design. Tropaeolum majus and Tropaeolum minus, meaning 
A replica of the Parthenon is in Centennial Park, “larger” and “smaller” Tropaeolum. 

Nashville is a commercial and 
industrial center, linked to all 
parts of the country by railways, 
airways, and highways. A mu- 
nicipally-owned river terminal re- 
ceives barges navigating the nine- 
foot channel of the Cumberland 
River. Located in the heart of 
the TVA area, Nashville obtains 
cheap electric power. Coal and 
natural gas in near-by fields also 
supply industrial fuel. Leading 
industries are the manufacture of 
rayon and cellophane, and the 
printing of religious periodicals. 

The city also makes iron castings 
and other metal products. 

Among the places of historic 
interest are replicas of Fort 
Nashborough and of Fort Negley, 
a Union fortification built during 
the Civil War. The tomb of James 
Polk, 11th president of the United 
States, is on the capitol grounds. 

The Hermitage, plantation home of Andrew Jackson, Natal (nd-ial'), South Africa. The “Garden Prov- 

is 12 miles east of Nashville. It is an example of ince” of the Union of South Africa is on the southeast 

the best architecture of its day and is preserved coast, facing the Indian Ocean. The coastal strip is 

as a museum. “Old Hickory” died here in 1845. subtropical and grows sugar for export. Citrus fruits, 

Nashville was incorporated as a town in 1784 by tea, tobacco, and cotton are also grown, 
the North Carolina legislature. It was named for Gen. Back of the coast the province rises sharply to its 
Francis Nash, a Revolutionary War hero who was western boundary in the Drakensberg ("Dragon’s 

killed in the battle of Germantown, Pa. Tennessee Mountains”), whose 10,000-foot peaks are the highest 

was admitted to the Union in 1796, and in 1843 the in South Africa. The somewhat dry, temperate cli- 

state legislature made Nashville its permanent capital, mate of this region is fine for corn, dairy farms, and 

On Dec. 16, 1864, a decisive Civil War battle was beef cattle. Mining timbers and a tanning extract are 

fought just south of the city when Gen. George H. obtained from the wattle, a species af acacia. 

Thomas attacked and virtually destroyed the Con- Natal is rich in minerals, and it exports coal and 
federate forces under Gen. John Hood (see Thomas), manganese. Durban (population, 463,120) is an im- 
Nashville has a mayor-council government. Popula- portant coaling station and the leading port. It serves 

tion (1950 census), 174,307. the import and export trade of Rhodesia and of the 

Nasturtium. The name nasturtium comes from gold mines of the Witwatersrand. Nearby is the 

two Latin words, nasMS and tortus. They mean “nose” capital, Pietermaritzburg (population, 92,555). The 

and “Uvisted,” and together the 3 " suggest the pungent name Natal means “birthday.” It was bestowed by 

fragrance of the flower. The shield-shaped leaves and Vasco da Gama who discovered the region on Christ- 

helmetlike blossoms suggested the scientific name mas day, 1497. Population (1951 census, preliminary), 

Tropaeolum, from a Greek word meaning “trophy.” 2,408,433. 


THE “NOSE TWISTER” FLOWER 



The nasturtium has five petals and five sepals. One sepal is prolonged into ^a slender 
spur. The flower is shaped like an ancient Greek helmet; the leaf, like a shield. 



15 


NATION 


The NATION and the 

N ation. Most of the world’s people live ia polit- 
ical groups called nations. Men and women go to 
war for their nations. In peacetime, statesmen strive 
to protect or to further the interest of their nations. 
A nation’s growth and policy affect business, indus- 
try, education, religion, culture, and even recrea- 
tion. Indeed everyone’s daily life is largely linked 
with his nation’s affairs at home and abroad. 

The word “nation” comes from the Latin natus, 
meaning “bom.” Through the centuries it came to 
mean also “race” and “kindred.” Today it means a 
group of people who have a sovereign government. 
The Beginnings of Nations 
But this meaning of “nation” did not appear until 
after the Middle Ages. Then development of printing 
and expansion of trade lifted people from the narrow 
life of feudalism. People formerly isolated on manors 
and in duchies and free cities found they had common 
interests. This led to vast changes in government 
which brought people together in larger political 
groups (see Government). Then in the 18th century 
the American and French revolutions sowed the idea 
that government belonged to the people. 

Some groups with common interests were not able 
to establish themselves as nations. For example, after 
the fall of ancient Greece that land was mled by 
'Turkey for centuries. But the people of Greece had 
inherited common ties that held them together as a 
group distinct from the Turks. And so the Greeks 
could be called a national group, tied by bonds that 
could eventually create a nation. 

The Ties That Form National Groups 
Several bonds can draw people together into a na- 
tional group. One is the cultural bond. That is, peo- 
ple have the same traditions, the same language, or 
the same religion. Second is the territorial or geo- 
graphic bond. This means that people in any given 
region have common interests in making a living from 
that region. Third is the racial or ethnic bond, which 
springs from the common ancestry of a people. 

A Modem Nation Is a Sovereign State 
The fourth bond that welds a national group into a 
nation is the bond of sovereignty. Sovereignty means 
that the group has the power of government. It can 
make laws and enforce them. That is, in principle, no 
superior power can rule a sovereign state, or nation. 

Actually, the exercise of sovereignty varies. Weak 
nations may not dare to exercise sovereignty exactly 
as they like lest stronger nations take offense and 
act against them. Too, several sovereign powers may 
form a federation and yield some of their sovereign 
rights to be used by the federation as a whole. The 
American Colonies did that when they formed the na- 
tion called the United States of America. Today the 
peoples of the British Empire have a complex arrange- 
ment of sovereignty {see British Commonwealth). 
Varying Examples of “Nationality” 

'Tlie relative importance of these four bonds varies 
with each nation since every nation has developed 


NATIONAL SPIRIT 

differently. For example, the Swiss form one of the 
most closely knit nations of Europe. Their Alpine 
land gives them a territorial and economic bond. 
Their long history gives them common memories. 
Their independent repubhc gives them sovereign 
government. Yet the Swiss people comprise three 
more or less distinct ethnic groups — Italian Swiss, 
French Swiss, and German Swiss. 

Greece and the Greeks offer a sharp contrast. Po- 
litically the Greeks were not a nation while they were 
imder Turkish rule. But culturally, geographically, 
and to some extent ethnically, they have comprised a 
“kindred” or “national” group since ancient times. 
The Poles also show a varying record of nationality. 
In the last few centuries they have enjoyed only brief 
periods of political independence. But they possess 
a close ethnic kinship, speak the same language, and 
have the same religion and customs. 

The National Spirit 

To exist and act as a modem nation, people must 
have a feeling of togetherness and must have a strong 
sense of loyalty to the nation. The spirit or feeling is 
called “national spirit,” “patriotism,” “nationalistic 
feeling,” or “love of country.” 

The object of people’s national spirit is a unique 
and complex phenomenon for each nation. In the 
United States, for example, the national spirit arose 
from devotion to the idea of democracy in government 
and free enterprise in business. These were the bonds 
that helped bind Americans into a political nation. 
For many Americans the national spirit includes a 
pride that many different cultural and ethnic groups 
can intermingle cooperatively in one state. 

Common Meanings of Nationalism 

The word “nationalism” has two broad meanings. 
It may mean that a sovereign state is interested only 
in itself, determined to advance at the expense of 
all other sovereign states. Many sovereign states have 
pursued this policy. Nazi Germany provided an out- 
standing example. “Nationahsm” may also mean the 
movement of a subject people to throw off rule by an 
outside power. 

Much of modem history grew out of the attempts 
of various “nationalist” groups to establish nations. 
In the 19th centmy small national groups in the Bal- 
kans freed themselves from Tmkish rule. The Italians 
and Germans, who had long lived in many separate 
political units, formed nations. After the first World 
War the Austro-Hungarian empire was split apart and 
small new nations were created out of groups vith 
ethnic and cultural bonds. The second World War 
brought another surge of nationalism in the Middle 
East and Far East and resulted in the formation of 
new nations in those areas. 

Indeed seldom can any people become a nation with- 
out the drive and the sacrifices given in the spirit of 
nationalism. But once they become a nation, they 
have the responsibility of working vlth other nations 
for the common good of the world {see United Nations). 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD 


Nation 

Location 

Government 

Capital 

Area, Sq. Mi 

Population 

Afghanistan 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Kabul 

245,000 

12,000,000 

Albania 

Europe 

People’s republic* 

Tirana 

10,629 

1,112,355 

Andorra 

Europe 

Republic 

Andorra 

191 

5,265 

Argentina 

South America 

Republic 

Buenos Aires 

1,080,000 

15,893,827 

Australia 

Australasia 

Dominion 

Canberra 

2,948,366 

8,185,539 

Austria 

Europe 

Republicf 

Vienna 

32,369 

6,903,905 

Belgium 

Europe 

Kingdom 

Brussels 

11,754 

8,512,195 

Bhutan 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Punaka 

18,000 

300,000 

Bolivia 

South America 

Republic 

Sucre 

420,000 

3,028,031 

Brazil 

South America 

Republic 

Rio de Janeiro 

3,286,000 

52,645,479 

Bulgaria 

Europe 

People’s republic* 

Sofia 

42,800 

7,022,206 

Burma 

Asia 

Republic 

Rangoon 

260,000 

18,119,000 

Cambodia 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Phnom-Penh 

52,500 

3,748,000 

Canada 

North America 

Const, monarchy 

Ottawa 

3,845,774 

14,009,429 

Ceylon 

Asia 

Dominion 

Colombo 

25,332 

8,103,648 

Chile 

South America 

Republic 

Santiago 

286,396 

5,930,809 

China 

Asia 

Republic^ 

Republic 


1,500,000 

439,828 

385,047,161 

11,266,075 

Colombia 

South America 

Bogotd 

Costa Rica 

Central America 

Republic 

San Jose 

23,000 

800,875 

Cuba 

North America 

Republic 

Havana 

41,634 

5,853,898 

Czechoslovakia 

Europe 

People’s republic* 

Prague 

49,373 

12,339,674 

Denmark 

Europe 

Kingdom 

Copenhagen 

16,568 

4,281,275 

Dominican Republic 

North America 

Republic 

Ciudad Trujillo 

19,325 

2,135,872 

Ecuador 

South America 

Republic 

Quito 

212,000 

3,202,757 

Egypt 

Africa 

Republic 

Cairo 

386,000 

19,087,304 

Ethiopia 

Africa 

Kingdom 

Addis Ababa 

350,000 

10,079,200 

Finland 

Europe 

Republic 

Helsinki 

131,500 

4,052,577 

France 

Europe 

Republic 

Paris 

212,659 

40,502,513 

Germany, East 

Europe 

Republicf* 

Berlin 

41,535 

18,517,567 

Germany, West 

Europe 

Republicf 

Bonn 

95,867 

49,732,824 

Great Britain 

Europe 

Kingdom 

London 

94,279 

50,369,591 

Greece 

Europe 

Kingdom 

Athens 

51,000 

7,631,124 

Guatemala 

Central America 

Republic 

Guatemala City 

42,042 

2,788,122 

Haiti 

North America 

Republic 

Port^au-Prince 

10,200 

3,111,973 

Honduras 

Central America 

Republic 

Tegucigalpa 

46,322 

1,505,465 

Hungary 

Europe 

People’s republic* 

Budapest 

35,875 

9,204,799 

Iceland 

Europe 

Republic 

Reykjavik 

40,000 

144,263 

India 

Asia 

Republic 

New Delhi 

1,220,000 

356,829,485 

Indonesia 

Asia 

Republic 

Jakarta 

579,000 

79,260,000 

Iran 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Tehran 

628,000 

17,000,000 

Iraq 

Asia 

• Kingdom 

Baghdad 

116,000 

4,799,500 

Ireland 

Europe 

Republic 

Dublin 

26,601 

2,960,593 

Israel 

Asia 

Republic 

Tel Aviv 

6,800 

1,600,000 

Italy 

Europe 

Republic 

Rome 

119,764 

47,020,536 

Japan 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Tokyo 

146,190 

83,413,723 

Jordan 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Amman 

34,740 

1,250,000 

Korea, North 

Asia 

People’s republic* 

Pyongyang 

47,978 

9,102,000 

Korea, South 

Asia 

Republic 

Seoul 

36,760 

20,188,641 

Laos 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Vientiane 

82,000 

1,200,000 

Lebanon 

Asia 

Republic 

Beirut 

4,000 

1,165,200 

Liberia 

Africa 

Kepublic 

Monrovia 

43,000 

1,600,000 

Libya 

Africa 

Kingdom 

Tripoli and 
Bengasi 

680,000 

1,060,922 

Liechtenstein 

Europe 

Principality 

Vaduz 

62 

13,757 

Luxemburg 

Europe 

Grand Duchy 

Luxemburg 

999 

290,992 

Maidive Islands 

Asia 

Sultanate 

Male (Mave) 

115 

82,086 

Mexico 

North America 

Republic 

Mexico City 

767,198 

25,581,250 

Monaco 

Mongolian People's Repub- 

Europe 

Principalitj' 

Monte Carlo 


20,202 

lie (Outer Mongolia) 

Asia 

People’s republic* 

Ulan Bator 

626,000 

2,000,000 

Nepal 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Katmandu 

54,000 

6,910,000 

Netherlands 

Europe 

Kingdom 

Amsterdam 

13,000 

9,625.499 

New Zealand 

Australasia 

Dominion 

Wellington 

103,415 

1,939,472 

Nicaragua 

Central America 

Republic 

Managua 

49,200 

1,057,023 

Norway 

Europe 

Kingdom 

Oslo 

125,000 

3,278,546 

Oman 

Asia 

Sultanate 

Muscat 

82,000 

830,000 

Pakistan 

Asia 

Dominion 

Karachi 

361,007 

75,843,000 

Panama 

Central America 

Republic 

Panama City 

28,576 

805,285 

Paraguay 

South America 

Republic 

Asunci6n 

155,000 

1,251,517 

Peru 

South America 

Republic 

Lima 

545,000 

8,240,000 


♦Communist tSovereignty suspended; under Allied control JDivided by ci^dl war into Communist (capital, Peiping) and Nationalist 
(capital, Taipei, Formosa) 


16 






THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD (Continued) 


Nation 

Location 

Government 

Capitai, 

Area, Sq. Mi. 

Population 

Philippines 

Asia 

Republic 

Quezon City 

114,400 

19,234,182 

Poland 

Europe 

People’s republic* 

Warsaw 

120,782 

24,976,926 

Portugal 

Europe 

Dictatorship 

Lisbon 

34,604 

8,510,240 

Rumania 

Europe 

People’s republic* 

Bucharest 

95,000 

15,872,624 

Russia (U.S.S.R.) 

Europe- Asia 

Republic* 

Moscow 

8,570,600 

201,300,000 

Salvador, El 

Central America 

Republic 

San Salvador 

13,176 

1,855,917 

San Marino 

Europe 

Republic 

San Marino 

38 

12,987 

Saudi Arabia 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Mecca and Riyadh 

800,000 

5,500,000 

Siam (Thailand) 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Bangkok 

200,000 

17,324,581 

South Africa, Union of 

Africa 

Dominion 

Pretoria 

472,494 

12,649,702 

Spain 

Europe 

Dictatorship 

Madrid 

194,800 

27,976,755 

Sweden 

Europe 

Kingdom 

Stockholm 

173,105 

7,046,920 

Switzerland 

Europe 

Republic 

Bern 

15,944 

4,714,992 

Syria 

Asia 

Republic 

Damascus 

54,000 

3,135,000 

Turkey 

Europe- Asia 

Republic 

Ankara 

297,107 

20,934,670 

United States 

North America 

Republic 

Washington 

3,022,387 

150,697,361 

Uruguay 

South America 

Republic 

Montevideo 

72,153 

2,353,000 

Vatican City 

Venezuela 

Europe 

South America 

Papal state 
Republic 

Cardcas 

Ve 

352,170 

1,010 

4,985,716 

Viet Nam 

Asia 

Republic 

Hanoi 

127,000 

21,928,809 

Yemen 

Asia 

Kingdom 

Sana 

75,000 

3,335,000 

Yugoslavia 

Europe 

People’s republic* 

Belgrade 

96,000 

16,927,275 


♦Communist. 


Member Nations of International Organizations 


UNITED NATIONS 

Afghanistan 

Argentina 

Australia 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Burma 

Byelorussia 

Canada 

Chile 

China (Nationalist) 
Colombia 
Costa Rica 
Cuba 

Czechoslovakia 

Denmark 

Dominican Republic 
Ecuador 

Egj^pt 

Ethiopia 

France 

Greece 

Guatemala 

Haiti 

Honduras 

Iceland 

India 

Indonesia 

Iran 

Iraq 

Israel 

Lebanon 

Liberia 

Luxemburg 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

New Zealand 

Nicaragua 

Norway 

Pakistan 

Panama 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Pliilippines 

Poland 


UNITED NATIONS (Continued) 
Russia (U. S. S. R.) 

Salvador, El 

Saudi Arabia 

Sweden 

Syria 

Thailand 

Turkey 

Ukraine 

Union of South Africa 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Yemen 

Yugoslavia 

ARAB LEAGUE 

Egypt 

Iraq 

Jordan 

Lebanon 

Saudi Arabia 

Syria 

Yemen 

BRITISH COMMONWEALTH 
OF NATIONS 

Australia 

Canada 

Ceylon 

India 

New Zealand 
Pakistan 

Union of S. Africa 

COUNCIL OF EUROPE 
Belgium 
Denmark 
France 

Germany, West 

Greece 

Iceland 

Ireland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Netherlands 

Norway 


COUNCIL OF EUROPE 

(Continued) 

Saar (associate member only) 

Sweden 

Turkey 

United Kingdom 

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY 
ORGANIZATION 

Belgium 

Canada 

Denmark 

France 

Greece 

Iceland 

Italy 

Luxemburg 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal 

Turkey 

United Kingdom 
United States 

ORGANIZATION OF 
AMERICAN STATES 
Argentina 
Bolivia 
Brazil 
Chile 
Colombia 
Costa Rica 
Cuba 

Dominican Republic 

Ecuador 

Guatemala 

Haiti 

Honduras 

Mexico 

Nicaragua 

Panama 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Salvador, El 
United States 
Uruguay 
Venezuela 


16 a 









NATIONAL CEMETERIES 166 — 

THE TOMB OF THE UNKNOWN SOLDIER AT ARLINGTON NATIONAL CEMETERY 



“Here rests in honored glory an American soldier known but to Yearly on Armistice Day the President of the United States lays 
God,” is the inscription on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. a wreath on the tomb. Distinguished visitors from abroad pay 
The sculptured figures represent Peace, Victory, and Valor. it the same honor. A soldier is on guard here night and day. 


National cemeteries. The United States hon- Henri-Chapelle, near Henri-Chapelle; and Ardennes, 
ors its military dead by burial in four general tjTes of near Neuville-en-Condroz. 

cemeteries. These are temporary military cemeteries, The remaining cemeteries are: Cambridge, near 
permanent military cemeteries, national cemeteries, Cambridge, England; Netherlands, at Margraten, 
and Army post and other cemeteries. Netherlands; Luxemburg, near Hamm, Luxemburg; 

Temporary military cemeteries are established dur- North Africa, at Carthage, Tunisia; and Manila, at 
ing hostilities in or near combat areas. They are Manila, Philippines. The American Battle Monu- 
operated by theater commanders. ments Commission also administers a cemetery in 

Permanent military cemeteries are set aside in foreign Mexico City for American dead of the Mexican War. 
countries after hostilities end. They are the charge Wafiona? ceineferfes are permanent cemeteries in the 
of the American Battle Monuments Commission. United States or its possessions. There are almost 
There are eight American military cemeteries for the 100 such burial grounds. Among them are three 
dead of "World War I and 14 for those of World national overseas cemeteries, principally for casualties 
War II. Six of the World War I cemeteries are in of World War II. They are at Honolulu, Hawaii; 
France. They are the Aisne-Marne, near Belleau; San Juan, Puerto Rico; and Sitka, Alaska. Most of 
Meuse- Argonne, at Romagne; Oise-Aisne, near Fere- the national cemeteries are under the supervision of 
en-Tardenois; St. Mihiel, at Thiaucourt; Somme, at the Department of the ArmJ^ The rest are under the 
Bony; and Suresnes, at Suresnes. Flanders Field National Park Service. 

Cemetery is at Waregem in Belgium. The eighth The best known is Arlington National Cemetery 
cemetery is Brookwood, at Surrey in England. across the Potomac River from Washington, D. C., 

Five of the cemeteries of World War II are created in 1864. The first to be buried there were a 
located in France. They are Normandy, near St. Union and a Confederate soldier, placed side by side. 
Laurent; Brittan}’’, near St. James; Lorraine, at St. Among those buried there are Gen. Philip Sheridan, 
Avoid; Epinal, near Epinal; and Rhone, at Draguig- Adm. George Dewey, Rear-Adm. Robert E. Peary, Gen. 
nan. Two are in Italy: Florence, near Florence; and John J. Pershing, and Maj. Pierre Charles L’En- 
SicUy-Rome, at Nettuno. Two others are in Belgium: fant, who drew the plans for the city of Washing- 



17 


NATIONAL DEBT 


ton. William Howard Taft was the first president in- 
terred there. Army and Navy nurses and the wives of 
officers and enlisted men may be buried in Arlington. 

About 78,000 graves on the hillsides are marked 
by simple stones. Here and there monuments stand 
above graves of famed military men. Services are held 
in the beautiful marble amphitheater. The Lee man- 
sion nearby was built by George Washington’s step- 
son, John Parke Custis, and was the home of Robert 
E. Lee. It is a national memorial. 

The Tomb of the Unknovra Soldier is Arlington’s 
outstanding memorial. Precautions were taken to in- 
sure that the Unknown Soldier was an unidentified 
American killed in action. On Oct. 24, 1921, in France, 
a noncommissioned officer made the final choice by 
placing flowers on one of four caskets, each contain- 
ing the body of an unidentified American. The 
Unknown Soldier was laid in the tomb on Armistice 
Day. In 1946 Congress authorized the Army to choose 
an unknown soldier of World War II, but inter- 
national conditions postponed the selection. 

The National Park Service manages national ceme- 
teries in these historic areas: Gettysburg, in Penn- 
sylvania; Antietam, in Maryland; Battleground, in 
Washington, D. C.; Fort Donelson, Shiloh, and Stones 
River, all in Tennessee; Fredericksburg, Poplar 
Grove, and Yorktown, all in Virginia; and Vicksburg, 
in Mississippi. There are cemetery sections in An- 
drew Johnson and Custer Battlefield national monu- 
ments in Tennessee and Montana respectively, and 
in Chalmette National Historical Park in Louisiana. 

Army post cemeteries and other cemeteries are small 
local burial grounds at Army posts, camps, or sta- 
tions, or at facilities of the Air Force, Navy, Vet- 
erans’ Administration, and other government units. 


National debt. A government raises money in 
two ways. It maj’’ tax its citizens and it may borrow. 
When a government spends more than its citizens can 
pay in taxes, it gets the money by borrowing. Hence 
it increases its national debt. Usually a nation bor- 
rows by issuing bonds. If money is borrowed from 
citizens or banks at home and is payable in the na- 
tion’s own currency, it is called an internal debt. If 
money is borrowed from another country and is paid 
in that country’s currency, it is an external debt. 

The national debt of the United States was created 
when the federal government assumed the states’ 
debts and funded the cost of the Revolutionary War. 
It was 75 million dollars in 1791. By 1835 this was 
almost paid off, but after the Civil War the debt rose 
to 2 billion. It was down to one billion in 1899 and 
remained almost stationary until World War I. During 
this and World War II the United States and other 
nations greatly increased their national debts, as 
follows: 


Country After World War I After World War II 
United States. . 27 billion dollars 279 billion dollars 

Great Britain . . 8 billion pounds 26 billion pounds 

France 230 billion francs 2,041 billion francs* 

Russia 35 billion rubles No reliable figure 

Italy 61 billion lire 1,268 billion lire* 

Germany 172 billion marks 383 billion reichsmarks 


•Includes only internal debt 

Before World War II the legal limit of the 
United States national debt was 45 billion. The costs 
of the war forced Congress to raise this limit succes- 
sively to an all-time high of 300 billion in 1945. 
In 1946 the ceiling was reduced to 275 billion but 
the huge cost of the Korean war forced Congress to 
consider extending the limit to 290 billion. 


HERE SLEEP THE BRAVE IN MEUSE- AR GONNE CEMETERY 



Largest of the American military cemeteries in Europe is area that the American First Army in 1918 hammered its way 
Meuse-Argonne Cemetery near Romagne, France. On the f or 43 days in the greatest battle in American history up to that 
sloping hillside before the Memorial Chapel some 14,000 time. The Germans retreated to Sedan, and four days later 
dead of World War I lie buried. It was in the Meuse-Argonne the war came to an end with the signing of the Armistice. 





18 





Here, in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, wave after wave of rounded hills roils into the distance like a turbu- 
lent blue sea. The Cherokee Indians named these mountains for the smoky haze that always envelops them. Although 
motor highways lead to this “roof top of eastern America,” many thousands of acres in the park are still untouched wilderness. 


AT ATIONAL PARKS AND NATIONAL MONUMENTS, the geologist Dr. F. V. Hayden to investigate the re- 
The idea of preserving the wonderlands of nature gion. His enthusiastic support, added to the growing 
for the benefit of all the people is an American inspira- popular demand, won the approval of Congress. In 
tion. Formerly the choicest lands of a country were 1872 President Grant signed the bill which made Yel- 
reserved in princely forests and parks for the privileged lowstone a “pleasuring ground for the benefit and en- 
few. Today every citizen of the United States shares joyment of the people.” This was the first national 
in the ownership of towering mountain peaks and park. Hot Springs in Arkansas had been set aside in 
dizzy canyons, of forests, glaciers, and waterfalls. In 1832 as a government reservation to keep its me- 
other countries too the United States national park dicinal waters from private exploitation, but it did 
system has served as a model, inspiring governments not become a national park until 1921. 
to set aside great areas as vdld-life sanctuaries and The parks are created by act of Congress. They may 
places of recreation. be established on lands already o^vned by the govern- 

How the Park System Began ment, as in the case of most of the western parks. 

The story of the national parks goes back to 1870, Or the lands in a proposed area may be deeded to the 

when the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition dis- government. The Great Smoky Mountains National 
covered the marvelous Yellowstone region. As these Park, for example, was given to the nation by the 
men sat around a campfire at the junction of the Fire- combined efforts of the states of Tennessee and North 
hole and Gibbon rivers discussing how they might di- Carolina, public-spirited citizens, and the Laura Spel- 
^^de their find, Cornelius Hedges, later governor of man Rockefeller Foundation. 

Montana Territorj’’, suggested that it was too great to National Monuments 

be used for personal gain. He proposed that the gov- As settlement and industry spread to ever 3 ' comer 

ernment should make the tract a national playground, of the country, there was a growing feeling that the 

This idea was Tugorously urged by Hedges and Na- government should save for the people not only scenic 
thaniel P. Langford as soon as thej' returned to chdli- areas but also treasures of archeology, botany, ge- 

zation. The following summer the government sent ologj", and history. The Antiquities Act of 1906 pro- 





NATIONAL PARKS 


20 


vided for an enlarged park system. It authorizes the 
president to set apart as national monuments federal 
land containing “historic landmarks, historic or pre- 
historic structures, and other objects of historic or 
scientific interest.” The national monuments are 
smaller than the parks, except Katmai, which is nearly 

TRAIL RIDERS IN SHENANDOAH PARK 



In Shenandoah National Park, horsemen enjoy a view of forests and moun- 
tains bathed in the blue haze that gives the Blue Ridge its name. This is a 
part of the 2,0S0-mile Appalachian Trail from Maine to Georgia. 

as large as Connecticut; Glacier Bay, larger than 
Rhode Island and Delaware combined; and Death 
Valley, covering about 3,000 square miles. 

In 1933 a presidential executive order gave the 
National Park Service control of military parks, bat- 
tlefield sites, cemeteries, and other memorials main- 
tained by the Departments, of War and Agriculture. 

Also in 1933 the National Park Service began super- 
vision of the National Capital Parks. This park sys- 
tem consists of hundreds of units in the District of 
Columbia, Virginia, Maryland, and West Virginia. 

In Washington, D. C., it includes the White House 
and the President’s Park, and many parks, statues, 
and memorials. The old 185-mile Chesapeake and 
Ohio Canal, with its 22-mile restored section between 
Georgetown, D. C., and Seneca, Md., is in the system. 

National Historic Sites 

The Historic Sites Act of 1935 permitted the sec- 
retary of the interior to acquire “historic American 
sites, buildings, objects, and antiquities of national 
significance.” He may also enter into agreements for 
the co-operative preservation and use of sites that 
are owned by states, corporations, or individuals. 


The Salem Maritime National Historic Site, Mass., 
became the first historic site in 1938. It includes 
the Old Custom House where Nathaniel Hawthorne 
worked and memorials of New England maritime his- 
tory. Hopewell Village, Pa., an 18th-century iron-mak- 
ing community, became a historic site the same year. 

The Adams National Historic Site is the 
honie of Presidents John. Adams and John 
Quincy Adams. Hampton in Maryland is 
an 18th-century Georgian mansion. In 
Hyde Park, N. Y., is the palatial Vander- 
bilt Mansion of the late 1800’s and the 
Home of Frankhn D. Roosevelt. 

Federal Hall Memorial in New York City 
is the site of the first United Sthtes capitol. 
The Old Philadelphia Custom House in 
Pennsylvania was the Second Bank of the 
United States over which President Jack- 
son and the Whigs disputed. 

Fort Raleigh on Roanoke Island, N. C., 
is the site of the first attempted English 
settlement in America in 1585-87. In Mis- 
souri is the Jefferson National Expansion 
Memorial, dedicated to the nation’s terri- 
torial growth. The scene of the battles of 
First and Second Manassas, or Bull Run, 
(1861 and 1862), is now the Manassas Na- 
tional Battlefield Park in Virgima. In 
Puerto Rico is San Juan National Historic 
Site, preserving 16th-century Spanish forts. 

National historic sites not owned by the 
federal government include Touro Syna- 
gogue in Newport, R. I., the oldest syna- 
gogue in America, built in 1763; Dor- 
chester Heights in Massachusetts, where 
American batteries aided in driving the 
British from Boston in 1776; Saint Paul’s 
Church in Mount Vernon, N. Y., important 
in connection with the Zenger “freedom of the press” 
trial; Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’ Church) in Philadel- 
phia, Pa., the second oldest Swedish church in the 
nation, founded in 1677; Jamestown, Va., site of the 
first permanent English settlement in North America. 

Chicago Portage in Illinois preserves the portage 
discovered by Marquette and Johet. Grand Portage 
in Minnesota is the old portage to the Northwest. In 
Oregon City, Ore., is McLoughlin House, home of Dr. 
John McLoughlin, the “father of Oregon.” San Jose 
Mission in San Antonio, Tex., is a frontier Spanish 
mission. The Virgin Islands National Historic Site 
consists of public buildings commemorating the colo- 
nial development of the islands. 

The Historic Sites Survey has made a nation-wide 
study of historic buildings and sites. The Historic 
American Buildings Survey has recorded thousands of 
early American structures. Architectural photographs 
and measured drawings of those buildings are kept in 
the Fine Arts Division of the Library of Congress. 

The National Park Service 
The National Park Service, a major bureau of the 
Department of the Interior, was established in 1916 



21 


NATIONAL PARKS 


to maintain the paries. It builds roads, trails, and 
living accommodations, which vary from hotels 
to camping grounds. Transportation and living 
utilities are operated privately, under government 
franchise and supervision. The chief official of 
each park is the resident superintendent. He is 
assisted by a force of permanent park rangers, 
which is increased in summer by temporary ran- 
gers and naturalists. The rangers enforce the 
regulations which make the parks wild-life sanc- 
tuaries. No hunting is permitted, and the natural 
features may not be disturbed in any way. 

A valuable feature of the park system is the 
guide and lecture service. Ranger naturalists con- 
duct parties on the park trails and give informal 
talks in the evening. There are museums de- 
signed to interest the average visitor in find- 
ing out for himself just what the region has to 
offer. Some of the parks and monuments are of 
such great scientific interest that universities use 
them as outdoor classrooms in which to conduct 
summer schools. 

Nominal admission fees are charged in certain of 
the parks and monuments. In others higher fees 
are charged for automobile permits, and in caves 
and various archeological and historical areas 
there are small fees for guide service. 

Parks Attract Millions of Visitors 

Recreational travel -within the United States is 
“big business,” invol-ving the expenditure of bil- 
lions of dollars annually. Among the chief attrac- 
tions for tourists are the national parks and monu- 
ments, which alone draw many millions of -visitors 
each year. Most of the people in the United States 
live within easy reach of some national recreation 
area, and many new projects are being developed. 

Most people believe that once a national park 
or monument is estabhshed, it is safe thereafter. 
That is not always so. Pressure is exerted on the 
Department of the Interior from many groups 
whose special interests would damage or destroy 
the park. A dam built across a stream on the park 
borders may ivipe out its finest features by sub- 
merging them under water. Lumbering of the 
forests, mining, sheep and cattle grazing would 
injure the area. 

To help maintain the high standards of the park 
system, the National Parks Association was estab- 
lished in 1919. It is a non-profit organization, 
supported by membership dues and donations. 
It works with the Fedeml government to prevent 
commercialization of the parks and to promote 
the preseiw-ation of new areas of wilderness coun- 
trj\ It publishes the quarterly National Parks 
Magazine and books, including ‘Exploring Our 
National Parks and Monuments’ and ‘Exploring 
the National Parks of Canada’. 

The National Parks and Monuments 

The National Parks (N.P.), National Histori- 
cal Parks (N.H.P.), and National Monuments 
(N.M.) are listed beginning on page 30. 


BIG TREES OF SEQUOIA PARK 



These serene patriarchs of the forest dwarf the human figures at 
their feet. Thej are among the oldest and largest of Uving things. 

Conlinued on page SO 





COLORFUL CANYONS OF SOUTHWESTERN UTAH 

Bryce Canyon Cabovc) is a horseshoe-shaped bowl filled with a maze of strangely eroded and brilliantly tinted rock forms. 
The Great White Throne in Zion National Park Cbclow) lifts its majestic mass nearly 2.,5oo feet above the canyon floor. 
















■ ' 






M<v,vifv>r 








i'A A ' „• ,, 1 . - 




i \v' 






’•y-'' 


P' 


.•«*^; ■ 


|^S^.iisjii.- 


the mightiest of all canyons 

.7^1. . ;„c„irinp size of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River the beauty of Its 

These photographs give some idea of the awe- ^ ^ afternoon to the mauve and purple tints of a hazy morning, 
changing colors, from the rose-reds and g y 











WONDERLANDS CARVED BY GLACIERS 

Typical of Glacier National Park (above) are these lofty ice fieltls, rounded, hanging valleys, and blue glacial lakes. 
In the Yosemite valley (below) towering granite walls and great leaping waterfalls suggest a magic land of giants. 


1201 



EXTINCT VOLCANOES OF THE PACIFIC COAST 

Mount Rainier (above) is a truncated volcanic cone in central Washington. Crater Lake (below) in Oregon and Wizard 
Island, the miniature volcano in the foreground, lie in the mouth of an ancient volcano whose summit collapsed. 


1271 






FROM THE GLACIERS OF ALASKA TO THE VOLCANOES OF HAWAII 

Across the flower-strewn Alaskan meadows Cabovc) Mount McKinley, the highest peak in North America, lifts its 
snowy head over the clouds. Below, in Hawaii National Park, Mauna Loa spouts lava and incandescent rock and ash. 




TWO OF Canada’s rocky mountain parks 


The town of Banff in the Bow River valley (above) lies in Banff National Park in western Alberta. Jasper Park adjoins it 
on the north and contains Jasper Lake (below), through which flows the Athabaska River, head stream of the Mackenzie. 


(291 





NATIONAL PARKS 


30 


Abraham Lincoln N.H.P., 1916, central Kentucky, near 
Hodgenville, 117 acres. The one-room log cabin in which 
Abraham Lincoln was born, enclosed in a granite memo- 
rial building. Sunken gardens and granite stairs leading 
up over terraces make an impressive approach to the 
shrine. The park includes also a part of the Sinking Spring 
Farm once owned by Thomas Lincoln. (For picture of 
park, see Kentucky; see also Lincoln.) (H 4)*. 

Acadia N. P., 1919, Maine coast, 29,978 acres. In- 
cludes part of granite, sea-girdled Mount Desert Island 
and the bold headland of Schoodic Point. Somes Sound 
almost bisects the island, dividing into two groups its 
dozen or more low mountains. Cadillac Mountain, one 
of the highest points on the eastern coast of North 
America (1,532 feet), commands a magnificent view of 
sea and rugged coast. Wave-battered cliffs, hollowed at 
their base into thunderous caves, contrast vividly with 
the quiet interior of the island, where fresh-water lakes 
reflect the -‘‘murmuring pines and the hemlocks” of the 
forest that Evangeline knew. For this was once a part 
of the French colony of Acadia (see Acadia). Across 
Frenchman Bay, Schoodic Point extends farther out into 
the open sea than any other point on the eastern coast. 
Samuel de Champlain discovered the island in 1604 and 
named it ‘‘ITsle des Monts Deserts.” In 1916 the 
United States government established it as Sieur de 
Monts National- Monument. Three years later it was 
made the Lafayette National Park, the first national 
park in the Eastern states. In 1929 it was given the 
present name. A great forest fire in 1947 burned a large 
area of the park and Mount Desert Island (J 2)*. 

Ackia Battleground N. M., 1938, Mississippi, near 
Tupelo, 49 acres. Site of the palisaded Indian village 
of Ackia, where on May 26, 1736, a band of English 
tradesmen and their Chickasaw allies defeated the French 
and Choctaws. The battle checked the movement of the 
French to extend their Louisiana empire eastward from 
the Mississippi River (G5)*. 

Andrew Johnson N. M., 1942, Greeneville, Tenn., 16 
acres. The home, tailor shop, and grave of the 17th presi- 
dent of the United States (see Johnson, Andrew) (H 4)*. 

Appomattox Court House N. H. M., 1940, Virginia, 968 
acres. Scene of surrender of Confederate army under 
Gen. Robert E. Lee to Union army under Gen. Ulysses 
r-. Grant in 1865. (See Grant; Lee, Robert E.) (1 4)*. 

‘^Arches N. M., 1929, Utah, 34,050 acres. Massive red 
sandstone eroded by desert winds into fantastic forms. 
The monument contains five sections — the Windows, 
Courthouse Towers, Devil’s Garden, Klondike Bluffs, 
and Delicate Arch (C 4.)*. 

Aztec Ruins N. M., 1923, northwestern New Mexico, 27 
acres. '‘-Jemains of a prehistoric American Indian town 
built in the 12th century, including an E-shaped pueblo 
apartment dwelling, three stories high, containing about 
500 rooms (C 4)*. 

Badlands N. M., 1939, southwestern South Dakota, 
103,548 acres. An eroded region between the White and 
the Cheyenne rivers. The heavy, nonporous clay soil is 
so steep that it washes badly and is bare of vegetation. 
Intermittent streams and torrential rains from cloud- 
bursts have carved it into a maze of winding canyons, 
towering pinnacles, ridges, and isolated buttes. The 
Great Wall presents an impenetrable barrier miles long. 
Its top is serrated into countless towers, its sides scored 
with precipitous gulches. Horizontal bands of colored 
rocks stripe the grayish-white clay with red, purple, yel- 
low, and green. Each color layer may be traced for many 
miles. The fossil beds in this area are among the largest 


known. They have yielded the remains of the saber- 
toothed tiger, three-toed horse, camel, giraffe, and 
rhinoceros. Only prairie dogs, coyotes, and jack rabbits 
roam the badlands today. (See South Dakota.) (E 3)*. 

Bandelier N. M., 1916, north central New Mexico, 
27,049 acres. Ruins of prehistoric Indian cliff dwellings 
and pueblos in the canyon of the Rito de los Frijoles and 
on the Pajarito Plateau. Kivas, or ceremonial chambers, 
artificial caves, and stone sculpture have also been un- 
covered. (See Cliff Dwellers.) (D 5)*. 

Big Bend N. P., 1944, southwestern Texas, 692,305 
acres. The last great wilderness in Texas, where the Rio 
Grande bends to the northeast. The region is a semi- 
arid plain from which rise the southernmost spurs of the 
Rocky Mountains. The Chisos Range is the highest and 
most rugged (Emory Peak, 7,835 feet). Virgin forests 
coyer the mountains and harbor many wild animals. A 
dramatic view from the south rim of the mountains over- 
looks 200 miles of Mexican and_ American desert and 
mountain country. Five thousand feet below, through 
steep-walled canyons, winds the river. The Mexican 
government plans to set aside a tract across the river to 
form an international peace park (see Rio Grande) (D 6)*. 

Big Hole Battlefield N. M., 1910, western Montana, 
200 acres. Site of the battlefield where a small force of 
United States troops defeated a much larger band of 
Nez Percd Indians, Aug. 9, 1877 (C 2)*. ; 

Black Canyon of the Gunnison N. M., 1933, west cen- 
tral Colorado, 13,176 acres. Ten miles of the wildest and 
most spectacular stretch of a 50-mile gorge carved 
through the San Juan Mountains. It is 1,725 to 2,724 
feet deep and 2,500 feet at its widest point (0 4)*. 

Bryce Canyon N. P., 1928, southwestern Utah, 36,010 
acres. The Paunsaugunt Plateau ends abruptly in the 
sheer Pink Chffs, which drop a thousand feet to the Paria 
Valley below. Cutting back into the plateau from these 
southward-facing cliffs are 14 bowl-shaped, or box, can- 
yons. The largest is Bryce Canyon, three miles long, two 
miles wide, and a thousand feet deep. It is approached 
from the top of the plateau, from which one gazes down 
into a maze of pink, red, and cream-colored sculptured 
rock. Platforms and terraces, domes, spires, and temples 
fill the great bowl with a confusion of colorful forms. The 
Paiute Indians gave it a name meaning ‘‘red rocks stand- 
ing like men in a bowl-shaped canyon.” From Rainbow 
Mountain, at the south end of the park, may be seen 
30 miles of the Pink Cliffs with Bryce, Black Birch, 
Aqua, and other beautiful amphitheaters. (See also 
Cedar Breaks N. M., Zion N. M., and Zion N. P., in this 
article.) (C 4)*. 

Cabrillo N. M., 1913, Point Loma, southern California, 
J acre. Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, discoverer of Cali- 
fornia, first sighted its shore at this point Sept. 28, 1542. 
It commands a beautiful view of sea and wide curving 
coast line, bordered with hills and distant snowy moun- 
tains (A 5)*. 

Canyon de Chelly N. M., 1931, northeastern Arizona, 
83,840 acres. Prehistoric Indian cliff dwellings in Canyon 
de Chelly, Canyon del Muerto, and Monument Canyon. 
They record cultural progress covering a longer period 
than any other ruins in the Southwest. The beginnings 
and development of agriculture, pottery making, and 
food storage may be traced in. the relics unearthed in the 
cavern floors. Remains of the Basket Makers underlie 
those of the later cliff-dweller and Pueblo periods. Along 
the canyon bottoms are the fields and summer hogans of 
the modern Navajo. (For picture, see Arizona; see also 
Cliff Dwellers; Pueblo Indians.) (C 4)*. 


'I-«tters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18 . 



31 


NATIONAL PARKS 


Capitol Reef N. M., 1937, central 
Utah, 33,069 acres. A great ridge 
of rock 20 miles long, deeply gashed 
by canyons and fantastically eroded. 

It is part of a fault, or line of 
breakage, which occurred many mil- 
lions of years ago when the hori- 
zontal rocks were forced upward 
16,000 feet above sea level. The 
strata lie in relatively the same posi- 
tion they occupied before the uplift. 

Now they are exposed in the sheer 
face of the “reef,” presenting a 
cross section of the geological history 
of the area. Petrified forests, exten- 
sive fossil deposits, cliff dwellings, 
and cliff paintings of prehistoric In- 
dians attract scientists in many differ- 
ent fields (04)’*. 

Capulin Mountain N. M., 1916, 
northeastern New Mexico, 680 acres. 

The steep-sided cinder cone of a re- 
cently extinct volcano. Its crater 
has a diameter of 1,500 feet and a 
depth of from 75 to 275 feet below 
the rim. A broad platform at the 
base was built up by successive flows 
of lava. The cone may be no more 
than a thousand years old (D 4)’*. 

Carlsbad Caverns N. P., 1930, 
southeastern New Mexico, 45,847 
acres. Under the Guadalupe Moun- 
tains is perhaps the largest under- 
ground labyrinth in the world. The 
length of the caverns is not yet 
known. Many miles of the under- 
ground chambers have been explored 
at levels of 750 feet, 900 feet, and 
1,320 feet below the surface, but only 
a few miles are open to visitors. 

Some of Carlsbad’s great chambers are 300 feet high 
and thousands of feet long. Their walls are draped with 
pink-tinted curtains, hanging in folds so soft and grace- 
ful that it is difficult to realize they are stone. Frosty 
lacework adorns other walls. Jeweled fountains sup- 
ported on pedestals and filled with turquoise-blue water 
are ornamented with onyx flowers. From the lofty 
ceilings hang thousands of glittering stalactites. The 
floors are a maze of stalagmites and flowstone in icy 
white, green, pink, purple, and tan. In one place the 
formations resemble a snow-banked forest; in another, 
a twisted tangle of thorn. There are giant totem poles, 
obelisks, towers, and domes elaborately carved. In hun- 
dreds of marble-lined pools may be found cave “pearls” 

■ — fragments of stone that have fallen into the pool, to be 
covered with layers of calcium carbonate, in much the 
same manner as the oyster builds up its pearl. 

The limestone in which the caverns are hollowed was 
laid down in the sea many milUons of years ago, accord- 
ing to the calculations of geologists. When the Guada- 
lupe Mountains were later uplifted, the rock was cracked 
and broken. Rain water and underground streams flow- 
ing into and along the cracks slowly dissolved the rock. 
Long branching corridors appeared. As the walls and 
ceilings of the corridors collapsed, great rooms were 
formed. 'Water dripping into the chambers evaporated 
and deposited the minerals which it carried in solution. 
With infin ite slowness, drop by drop, the spectacular 
^Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18 . 


SANTA ELENA CANYON, BIG BEND PARK 



This is the mouth of Santa Elena Canyon, one of three deep canyons carved by the Rio 
Grande through the mountains. The cliff on the left is in Mexico; the one on the right 
is in Texas. The park embraces the “O turn” of the river southeast of El Paso. 

curtains, pillars, lacework, and other formations were 
created. Their brilliance and translucence are due to 
the fact that they are saturated with water. Wherever 
water seepage stops, they become dull and powdery’^ in 
appearance {see also Cave) (D6)’*. 

Casa Grande N. M., 1918, south central Arizona, 
473 acres. A group of prehistoric Pueblo Indian ruins, 
of w’hich the “Great House” is the largest. Its adobe 
walls, four feet thick at the base, are the remains of a 
three-story building which had a central tower four 
stories high. Of particular interest are the “calendar 
holes” in the east and center rooms. At su ’se on 
March 7 and October 7, and on no other days, a shaft 
of light strikes through the outer hole and within a 
quarter inch of the inner. Undoubtedly the light origi- 
nally shot through both holes, but the walls have settled 
and thrown the inner hole out of alignment. The device 
probably enabled the people to determine the beginning 
of the spring and fall seasons. 

The history of these Indians is largely conjectural. 
It is believed that they came as nomads to this desert 
plain in the Gila Valley and remained to build up a 
civilization based on agriculture. The ruins of their 
irrigation system are plainly visible. One canal was 
20 miles long, 32 feet wide, and 7 feet deep. Some 
of the more primitive dwellings in the group may 
be 1,200 years old. The coramimity was apparently 
abandoned between 1400 and 1450. The raids of warring 



NATIONAL PARKS 


32 


tribes and exhaustion of the soil may have been the rea- 
son for the exodus. Father Eusebio Kino, in 1694, was 
the first white man to see and describe the ruins (C5)*. 

Castillo de San Marcos N. M., 1924, St. Augustine, 
Fla., 18.5 acres. The oldest existing masonry fort in 
the United States. The Spanish began its construction 
in 1672 to defend their Florida possessions. The fort is 
built of coquina (shell stone), with walls 12 feet thick. 
Like a medieval castle, it has a moat with a draw- 
bridge and a portcullis. After the United States ac- 
quired Florida in 1819 it was named for Gen. Francis 
Marion. Osceola, the Seminole Indian chief, was im- 
prisoned here. The Spanish name was restored in 1942. 
(For pictures, see St. Augustine; Florida.) (I 6)*. 

Castle Clinton N. M., 1950, New York City, 1 acre. A 
fort built in 1808-11 and called the West Battery. 
Named Castle Clinton after the War of 1812 and still 
later called Castle Garden. From 1855 to 1890 the build- 
ing was New York’s immigrant receiving station; from 
1896 to 1941 it was an aquarium. The aquarium was 
abandoned when Battery Park was torn up to build a tun- 
nel to Brooklyn. It is planned to restore the original fort. 
Battery Park was reconstructed in 1952 (J 3)*. 

Castle Pinckney N. M., 1924, Charleston, S. C., 3.5 
acres. Part of the defenses of Charleston Harbor, built in 
1810 to replace a Revolutionary War fort (1 5)*. 

Cedar Breaks N. M., 1933, southwestern Utah, 6,172 
acres. Like Bryce Canyon to the east, Cedar Breaks 
is a vast amphitheater cut into the Pink Cliffs. The cliffs 
are 2,000 feet high and mark the edge of the Markagunt 
Plateau. White or orange at the top, they shade into 
deep rose and coral, with splashes of dazzling white 
and sulfur yellow. As the sun and evening shadows play 
over them they become molten gold, orange, blue, and 
purple. The amphitheater is half a mile deep and two 
miles wide. From its rim on the plateau top one gazes 
down onto brilliantly colored and eroded rock. Beauti- 


ful forests cloak the rim (see also Bryce Canyon N. P. 
Zion N. M., Zion N. P., in this article) (B4)*. ' ' 

Chaco Canyon N. M., 1907, northwestern New Mexico, 
21,353 acres. The highest development of Pueblo Indian 
civilization is represented in the 13 major ruins in 
and about Chaco Canyon. Pueblo Bonito (beautiful 
village) is the largest and most completely excavated 
ruin. It contained about 800 rooms and housed 1,200 or 
more persons. In the court are 32 kivas, or ceremonial 
chambers. A studj’’ of tree rings in the timbered ceilings 
shows that it was built in 919, with additions extending 
over a period of nearly 200 years. The University of 
New Mexico and the School of American Research main- 
tain a research station here with full-time and summer 
com-ses. (See Pueblo Indians.) (C 5)*. 

Chalmetfe N. H. P., 1939, Louisiana, 70 acres. Site 
of the battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815. An obelisk 
110 feet high marks Andrew Jackson’s position during 
the battle. (See Jackson, Andrew.) (G 6)*. 

Chonnel Islands N. M., 1938, southern California, 
26,819 acres (land area, 1,120 acres). Anacapa and 
Santa Barbara islands, set aside to preserve their fossils 
and their unique plant and animal life. A large rookery 
of sea lions flourishes today where once elephants lived 
and died. The islands are also examples of ancient 
volcanic eruption and active sea erosion (A 5)’’’. 

Chiricahua N. M., 1924, southeastern Arizona, 10,481 
acres. A region of volcanic rock, eroded into a maze 
of pillars and balanced rocks and formations resembling 
animals and faces. Steep-walled canyons, 200 feet deep, 
and narrow fissures separate many of the groups (05)"'. 

Colonial N. H. P., 1936, Virginia, 7,149 acres. The 
history and life of colonial Virginia, reconstructed in 
four areas — Jamestown, first permanent English settle- 
ment in North America; part of Yorktown, scene of the 
surrender of Cornwallis in the Revolutionary War, in- 
cluding several colonial homes; Cape Henry, where the 

colonists first touched Vir- 
ginia soil; and a parkway 
between Jamestown, Wil- 
liamsburg, and Yorktown 
(see Jamestow'n; Williams- 
burg; Yorktown) (14)*. 

Colorado N. M., 1911, 
west central Colorado, 18,- 
121 acres. A magnificently 
eroded escarpment that 
rises a thousand feet above 
Grand Valley. Numerous 
canyons cut back for miles 
from its face into the Un- 
compahgre Uplands. Along 
the sheer front, hundreds 
of red sandstone towers 
stand out from the main 
ledges like gigantic senti- 
nels, 400 and 500 feet 
high. A scenic highway, 
the Trail of the Serpent, 
winds from the base to the 
top of the escarpment. At 
Cold Shivers Point, on the 
brink of a 1,000-foot preci- 
pice, it overlooks Colum- 
Ijus Canyon. A continua- 
tion known as Rimrock 
Drive skirts Red, Ute, and 
Monument canyons (C4) . 


THE MOORE HOUSE, COLONIAL HISTORICAL PARK 



irriTnin 


, - 









In the Moore House, Yorktown, Va., British and American officers drafted the Articles of Capitula- 
tion, which covered the surrender of the British army, Oct 19, 1781, ending the Revolutionary War. 

^Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18, 



33 


NATIONAL PARKS 


Crafer Lake N. P,, 1902, southwestern Oregon, 160,290 
acres. Like a sapphire jewel, this exquisite lake lies 
in the crater of an extinct volcano in the Cascade 
Moimtains. Sheer cUffs from 500 to 2,000 feet high en- 
circle its waters. From the forested rim, one gazes 
into a circular bowl about six miles in diameter. Ever- 
greens cling to the steep walls, their dense green ac- 
centing the soft tones of the lava rock and the bril- 
liant blue of the lake. Near the west shore rises Wizard 
Island, a s}munetrical cinder cone 763 feet high. Off 
the south shore lies the Phantom Ship, a twisted mass of 
lava resembling a ship under sail. The wonderful color 
is due to scattering of light by the water particles in a 
lake of exceptional depth and clearness. 

The volcano in which Crater Lake lies was once a 
peak 14,000 or 16,000 feet high. Geologists call it 
Mount Mazama. The top of Mount Mazama collapsed 
and disappeared into the depths of the volcano. Unlike 
some volcanoes which blow their heads off and scatter 
the materials for miles around, this mountain literally 
swallowed itself. The crater, known to geologists as a 
caldera, is the only one of its kind in the United States 
proper (A 2)*. 

Craters of the Moon N. M., 1924, central Idaho, 
48,004 acres. Comparatively recent volcanic activity 
has left a lava plateau, cinder cones, spatter cones 
formed by lava bubbling from vents, and broken crater 
walls (the Devil’s Orchard). The scene supposedly 
resembles the surface of the moon (C3)*. 

Cumberland Gap N. H. P. Project, 1940, Kentucky, 
Tennessee, and Virginia, 20,000 acres. The historic 
pass through the Appalachian Mountains traveled by 
Daniel Boone and other pioneers. The park will extend 
for about 20 miles along the crest of Cumberland Moun- 
tain. It will include portions of the ancient trail known 
as the Warriors Path, and the Wilderness Road at or 
near Cumberland Gap, Tenn., and Middlesboro, Ky. 
(For picture, see Kentucky; see also Boone; Roads and 
Streets.) (H 4)*. 

Custer Battlefield N. M., 1946, Montana, 765 acres. 
Site of massacre of Gen. George A. Custer and American 
soldiers by Sioux Indians in 1876 (see Custer) (D 2)*. 

Death Valley N. M., 1933, southern CaUfomia-Nevada, 
1,864,898 acres. A vast desert solitude hemmed in by 
brilliantly colored mountains (see Death Valley) (B4)*. 

Devils Postpile N. M., 1911, east central Cahfornia, 
798 acres. A sheer wall of basaltic columns packed to- 
gether like a pile of posts. As hot lava cooled, it con- 
tracted and separated into these columns of four, five, 
six, and seven sides, with diameters of one to two 
feet. Glaciers subsequently moved over the area, ex- 
posed the columns, and polished their surfaces. From 
the top, the Devils Postpile looks hke a black mosaic 
or a tile-inlay flooring. The combination of basaltic 
columns with glacial pohsh is found nowhere else in the 
world so far as geologists know (A 4)*. 

Devils Tower N. M., 1906, northeastern Wyoming, 
1,194 acres. A fluted column of volcanic rock, resem- 
bling a giant petrified tree stump. It rises 1,200 feet 
above the Belle Fourche River and 865 feet above the 
ridge that forms its base. The tower was created when 
molten lava forced its way upward into layers of sedi- 
mentary rock. The horizontal strata arched over the 
volcanic intrusion, forming a dome called a laccolith. 
Erosion has completely removed the covering of com- 
paratively soft rock, and the much harder core of the 
dome stands out as a great pillar. Four other laccoliths 
in the vic inity are only partially uncovered, appearing 
*LetterB and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18. 


like low hills. The columnar structure is due to con- 
traction and cracking as the molten lava cooled. Devils 
Tower was a landmark of the pioneers in their over- 
land journey to the West. In some directions it is 
visible for a hundred miles. This was the first national 
monument. (For picture, see Wj'’oming.) (D 2)*. 

Dinosaur N. M., 1915, Utah and Colorado, 190,962 
acres. The largest known deposit of fossihzed dinosaur 
bones. Thousands of bones and many complete skeletons 
have been removed and sent to museums. One of the 
most remarkable finds was a complete skeleton of a 
brontosaurus, 100 feet long and 20 feet tall. Scientists 
believe that the bones were washed downstream by flood 
waters from some unknown source, to become embedded 
in a sand bar. The sea encroached upon this area. Mud 
and sand were deposited to a great depth. Then came 
a long period of uplift, and the sea retreated. The sedi- 
ments became rock and were forced into mountains and 
high plateaus. Ages later, erosion of the rock exposed the 
fossilized bones. (See Reptiles; Prehistoric Life.) (C 3)*. 

Effigy Mounds N. M., 1949, Iowa, 1,204 acres. Indian 
burial mounds in the form of birds and animals on 
bluffs overlooking the Mississippi River. They were 
carved like cameos, 2| to 4 feet high, from the surface 
of the ground. The bird mounds are 70 to 120 feet 
across; the bear mounds, 85 to 115 feet long. They date 
from .4..D. 700 to 1300 (F3)*. 

El Morro N. M., 1906, west central New Mexico, 881 
acres. A mesa, or tablelike rock, rising 200 feet above 
the surrounding country, carved by erosion to resemble 
a castle or fortress (Spanish morro). For nearly 170 
years El Morro was a refuge and camping place for the 
Spanish conquerors of the American Southwest. A cave 
on its south side, with a spring of cool water, could 
shelter a company of soldiers. The Spaniards carved 
the sides of the mesa with records of their journeys. 
The oldest inscription was made by Juan de On ate on 
April 16, 1605. The last is dated 1774. Indian petro- 
giyphs high on the cliff walls antedate the Spanish writ- 
ings by hundreds of years. On the mesa top are the ruins 
of a prehistoric Indian pueblo (C 5)*. 

Everglades N. P., 1947, southern Florida, 1,258,361 
acres. The only tropical area in continental United 
States, notable for its mangrove and cypress swamps, 
orchids, marsh animals, and rare birds. As the name 
implies, the “ever glades’’ are almost endless grassy 
stretches. The Seminole Indians called them “grass 
water.” Dense jungle islands of tropical trees and 
vines, or “hammocks,” break the vast watery wilder- 
ness. (See Florida; Everglades.) (I 7)*. 

Fort Frederica N. M., 1945, Brunswick, Ga., 94 acres. 
Ruins of the fort built (1736-48) by James Oglethorpe 
as a defense against the Spanish (1 6)*. 

Fort Jefferson N. M., 1935, 65 miles southwest of the 
mainland of Florida, 47,125 acres. A grim fort on Garden 
Key, one of the coral islands of the Dry Tortugas group. 
It was built in 1846 to control the Gulf of Mexico and 
Florida Strait. The huge structure was a miUtary 
mistake, and no troops were stationed in it until the 
Civil War. In 1863 it became a military prison. Dr. 
Samuel A. Mudd, who set the broken leg of John Wilkes 
Booth, was imprisoned here as a conspirator in the 
assassination of Abraham Lincoln. His heroic services 
to the sick and dying in a yellow-fever epidemic won 
his pardon in 1869. The fort was abandoned in 1873 but 
was temporarily occupied during the Spanish-American 
War. The surrounding islands are a national bird and 
turtle refuge. (For picture, see Key West.) (I 7)*. 




The j^ged Teton Mountains rise abruptly 7,000 feet above the 
level floor of Jackson Hole. The highest peak in this scene is 


the Grand Teton, which rises 13,766 feet above sea leveb In 
the foreground, the Snake River twists across Jackson Hole. 


Fort Laramie N. M., 1938, southeastern Wyoming, 214 
acres. From 1834 to 1890 Fort Laramie was associated 
with western exploration and settlement. Thousands of 
emigrants on the Oregon Trail stopped here at the 
junction of the Laramie and North Platte rivers to 
rest and replenish their supplies. The Pony Express 
riders paused to change horses. Stagecoaches came in 
with mail and passengers. Friendly Indians camped out- 
side the stockade, wandering at will through the en- 
closure. Such famous scouts as Kit Carson, Jim Bridger, 
and Buffalo Bill enjoyed its hospitality. Other famous 
visitors were Francis Parkman, the historian, and Capt. 
Benjamin Bonneville and Gen. John C. Fremont, soldiers 
and explorers. The fort was established as a fur-trading 
post in 1834. The federal government purchased it in 
1849, and for 40 years it was the only representative of 
law and order in a vast Indian country. Uprisings were 
quelled by its soldiers, and several Indian treaties were 
signed here. (For picture, see Oregon Trail.) (D 3)*. 

Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine, 
1939, Maryland, 43 acres. A fort built on a peninsula in 
Baltimore harbor in 1799. Its bombardment by the 
British fleet Sept. 13, 1814, inspired Francis Scott Key 
to WTite the poem ‘The Star Spangled Banner’ (see 
National Songs; Key; Maryland; Baltimore) (I 3)*. 

Fort Matanzas N. M., 1924, Florida, 228 acres. A 
fort erected by the Spanish in 1737 on an island in the 
Matanzas River. It takes its name, a Spanish word 
meaning “slaughters,” from an incident in the vicinity 
when the Spanish under Men6ndez killed 300 French 
Huguenots in 1565 (16)*. 

♦Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18. 


Fort Pulaski N. M., 1924, Georgia, 5,362 acres. A 
fort on Cockspur Island in the mouth of the Savannah 
River, built from 1829 to 1847. During the Civil War it 
was bombarded and seized by Union forces. It is one of 
the best preserved of the chain of brick forts erected 
for coast defense by the United States during the early 
19th century (15)*. 

Fort Sumter N. M., 1948, Charleston, S. C., 2 acres. 
Fort in Charleston harbor, scene of first Civil War 
battle (see Fort Sumter; Charleston, S. C.) (I 5)*. 

Fort Vancouver N. M. Project, 1948, Vancouver, 
Wash., 65 acres. Site of fort established in 1825 by 
Hudson’s Bay Company fur traders (A2)*. 

Fossil Cycad N. M., 1922, southwestern South Dakota, 
320 acres. Large deposits of fossil plants, called flower- 
ing cycads. These were tree ferns which flourished during 
the age of dinosaurs. Many of the trunks bear fossilize 
fruits and flower buds. The area is of interest onl} 
to scientists, as the deposits are underground. A num- 
ber of specimens may be seen in the museum at u m 
Cave National Park (D3)*. . . . 

George Washington Birthplace N. M., 1930, Virginia, 
394 acres. A memorial mansion on the site of George 
Washington’s birthplace, known as Wakefield. It stan s 
on Popes Creek. A mile distant, on Bridges Creek, is 
the family burial ground and the site of an earlier an- 
cestral home. Although no authentic picture of WakcncI 
has ever been discovered, enough of the foundations re 
mained to indicate its size and character. It is a typi- 
cal Virginia plantation house of the 18th century, sur 
rounded by beautiful lavras and gardens. The boxwoo 




35 


NATIONAL PARKS 


hedges, transplanted from the nearby home of Sarah 
Tayloe Washington, are more than a hundred years old. 
The bricks of the house, like those of the original, were 
handmade. (For picture, see Washington, George.) (1 4)*. 

George Washington Carver N. M., 1951, Missouri, 
210 acres. Negro scientist’s birthplace (see Carver) (F4)*. 

Gila Cliff Dwellings N. M., 1907, southwestern New 
Mexico, 160 acres. Ruins of prehistoric Indian dwellings 
built into natural cavities in the face of a cliff 150 
feet high. {See Cliff Dwellers.) (C 5)*. 

Glacier N. P., 1910, northwestern Montana, 999,015 
acres. Splendid mountains, in whose hollows lie 60 
glaciers and 250 forest-rimmed lakes. Going-to-the-Sun 
Highway is one of the outstanding scenic roads of the 
world. It crosses the Continental Divide through Logan 
Pass at an altitude of 6,654 feet. Tunnels bore through 
overhanging cliffs. In the west tunnel two great windows 
permit grand views (see Glacier National Park) (Cl)*. 

Glacier Bay N. M., 1925, Alaska, 2,297,734 acres. 
Tidewater glaciers in a lonely setting of magnificent 
mountain peaks. The Ecolopcal Society of America and 
the National Geographic Society urged creation of the 
monument as a unique field for the scientific stud 3 ' of 
North America’s Ice Age. The bay contains at least 11 
glaciers, one of which, Muir Glacier, has a surface area 
of 350 square miles (B 7)*. 

Grand Canyon N. M., 1932, north-western Arizona, 
196,051 acres. Adjoining the Grand Canyon National Park 
on the western, or downstream, side, this monument pre- 
serves a stretch of the magnificent canyon. At Toroweap 
Point the canyon is 3,000 feet deep and four miles wide. 
From this point may be seen a giant cinder cone of vol- 
canic origin known as “Vulcan’s Throne” (B 4)*. 

Grand Canyon N. P., 1919, north central Arizona, 
645,296 acres. Perhaps the most awe-inspiring of the 
earth’s spectacles, an immense canyon carved by the 
Colorado River {see Grand Canyon; Colorado River) 
(C 4)*. 

Grand Teton N. P., 1929, northwestern Wyoming, 299,- 
580 acres. A range of granite peaks, springing a sheer 

7.000 feet above the level floor of Jackson Hole. Their 
grandeur is greatly enhanced by the absence of foothills. 
Many peaks rise more than 10,000 feet high. The loftiest 
peak is the Grand Teton, 13,766 feet high. 

The range is an impenetrable barrier 40 miles long, ex- 
tending southward almost from the southern boundary 
of Yellowstone National Park to Teton Pass, where it 
meets the Snake River Range. It is a block mountain 
which was tilted upward along a fault line, or line of frac- 
ture, in the earth’s crust, until its eastern margin stood 

10.000 feet high. Subsequent erosion wore away the sedi- 
mentarj^ rocks on the face of the block, exposing its 
crj'stalline core. Viewed from Jackson Hole, this eastern 
face is a precipitous granite wall. On the western side, in 
Idaho, the unimpressive back of the block slopes gently, 
still overlaid with sedimentary and volcanic rocks. 

The national park includes a 27-mile front on the Wy- 
oming side. Small glaciers still finger in the deeper re- 
cesses of the range. Exquisite lakes, surrounded by ever- 
green forests, are strung in a crystal chain along the 
base of the mountains. Each lake lies at the mouth of a 
canyon carved by glaciers and is walled in by glacial 
moraines. In 1950 most of the Jackson Hole N. M., 
including Jackson Lake, was incorporated into this park. 
The remaining acreage was turned over to the Forest 
Service and to the National Elk Refuge (C3)*. 

Gran Quivira N. M., 1909, central New Mexico, 451 
acres. Site of a Spanish mission built by the Francis- 


cans in the 17th century. The ruins include two mission 
buildings and 18 Pueblo Indian house mounds (D 5)*. 

Great Sand Dunes N. M., 1932, south central Colorado, 
35,522 acres. Wind-blown shifting mounds of sand in 
the San Luis Valley at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo 
Mountains. Rising in places to nearly a thousand feet, 
they are among the largest in the world. The winds drive 
the sands across the valley into a hook in the mountains, 
where thej’’ pile up in hills of glistening white. The pres- 
ence of the sand on the margin of a fertile plateau has 
never been satisfactorily explained (D 4)*. 

Great Smoky Mountains N. P., 1930, North Carolina 
and Tennessee, 507,159 acres. The loftiest mountains 
east of the Black Hills of South Dakota {see Great 
Smoky Mountains National Park; Appalachian High- 
lands) (H 5)*. 

Harpers Ferry N. M. Project, 1944, West Virginia. 
Site of John Brown’s raid and other historic events {see 
Harpers Ferry) (1 3)*. 

Hawaii N. P., 1916, Territory of Hawaii, 176,951 
acres. Two active volcanoes, Kilauea and Maima Loa, on 
the island of Hawaii, and the dormant volcano Haleakala 
on the island of Maui. The vast fire pit of Kilauea, 

4,000 feet above the sea, is the most spectacular and 
accessible part of the park. It may be viewed from the 
Volcano House on its rim. In the Kilauea area is an 
oasis of about 100 acres which has escaped the encircling 
lava flows. About 40 species of tropical trees flourish 
in this natural park and it harbors many rare birds. 

The crater of Mauna Loa, 13,680 feet above the Pacific 
Ocean, may be reached by trail from Kilauea, a three-day 
journey. Rest houses have been built along the way. 

Haleakala, on Maui, is 10,025 feet high. It was once 
much higher, but its dome has collapsed, forming a great 
crater about 20 miles in circumference. Its floor, 3,000 
feet below the rim, is covered with red, black, and 
orange cinder cones hundreds of feet high. There are 
about 30 miles of trails within the crater. A paved auto- 
mobile highway to the crater rim extends up the eastern 
slope of the volcano through a dense rain forest and 
fern jungle. {See Hawaiian Islands.) (D 7)*. 

Homestead National Monument of America, 1939, 
southeastern Nebraska, 163 acres. The first homestead 
in the United States, entered by Daniel Freeman under 
the General Homestead Act of 1862, which opened the 
West to free settlement (F4)*. 

Hot Springs N. P., 1921, central Arkansas, 1,019 acres. 
Hot mineral springs, 47 in number, of medicinal value, 
and government-regulated bathhouses, in the city of 
Hot Springs. The springs have been under federal 
control since 1832 (see also Arkansas) (F5)*. 

Hovenweep N. M., 1923, southern Utah and Colorado, 
491 acres. Four groups of prehistoric towers, pueblos, 
and cliff dwellings in the remote canyons and high on 
the cliffs and plateau. They have been unoccupied for 
at least 600 years. The towers have been variously ex- 
plained as temples, forts, or storage bins. Some were 
built on the edges of cliffs where they might have served 
as lookout towers. Still others were built directly over 
ktvas, or undergroimd ceremonial chambers. The name 
of the monument means “deserted valley.” (See Cliff 
Dwellers.) (C 4)*. 

Independence N. H. P. Project, 1948, Philadelphia, 
Pa., approx-imate proposed area, 25 acres. Historic 
buildings associated vfith the American Revolution 
and the founding and growth of the nation. The project 
includes about four city blocks bounded generally by 
Walnut, Chestnut, Sixth, and Second streets, but ex- 


*Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18. 



NATIONAL PARKS 


36 


eluding the new United States customhouse; and a me- 
morial mall extending from the south side of Walnut 
Street to the north side of Race. In the project are 
the Independence Hall group of buildings, Philosophical 
Hall, site of Library Hall, Second Bank of the United 
States, Dilworth-Todd-Moylan House, Bishop White 
House, site of City Tavern, Philadelphia (Merchants’) 
Exchange, First Bank of the United States, Carpenters’ 
Hall, Franklin Court (site of Franklin’s House), Christ 
Church and Cemetery, Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’) Church, 
and the Deshler-Morris House in nearby Germantown. 
(See Declaration of Independence; Philadelphia.) (J 3)*. 

Isle Royale N. P., 1940, western Lake Superior, 133,839 
acres. An island wilderness, 50 miles northwest of the 
Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan. It is the largest 
island in Lake Superior, about 45 miles long and nine 
miles wide. The shore line is steep and rooky, its cliffs 
broken by narrow coves and deep harbors. Rock ridges, 
from 300 to 800 feet high stripe the island from north 
to south. In the valleys between lie many lakes. Beau- 
tiful evergreen and hardwood forests harbor one of the 
largest moose herds in North America. There are no 
roads. The copper of Isle Royale was prized by the 
prehistoric Indians. Ancient mines may be seen (G2)*. 

Jackson Hole N. M. See Grand Teton N. P. 

Jewel Cave N. M., 1908, southwestern South Dakota, 
1,275 acres. Underground chambers and galleries en- 
crusted with beautiful calcite crystals (D3)*. 

Joshua Tree N. M., 1936, southern California, 475,303 
acres. A desert area at the foot of the Little San Ber- 
nardino Mountains, set aside to save the rare Joshua 
Tree from extinction. Yucca hrevifolia is the scientific 
name of this plant of the lily family. It attains a height 
of 10 to 30 feet. In the spring it bears greenish-white 
blossoms in clusters from 8 to 14 inches long (B 5)*. 

Katmai N. M., 1918, Alaska, 2,697,590 acres. A spec- 
tacular area of dying volcanic activity, with magnificent 
lake and mountain scenery. It includes the Valley of Ten 
Thousand Smokes, created in 1912 by a violent erup- 
tion of Mount Katmai which blew millions of holes through 
the floor of the valley at its feet. From the holes, 
or fumaroles, columns of steam rise from 500 to 1,000 
feet, merging above in a vast cloud. Brilliantly colored 
muds surround the fumaroles. The explosion blew 
off the top of Mount Katmai, leaving a crater 3,700 feet 
deep and 8.4 miles in circumference. (See Alaska.) (A 7)*. 

Kings Canyon N. P., 1940, east central California, 
453,065 acres. A glorious wilderness in the Sierra Nevada, 
between Sequoia and Yosemite national parks. Along 
the Crestline of the park 40 peaks tower to heights greater 
than 11,000 feet; and ten are more than 14,000 feet. 
West of this snowy rampart, on the lower shoulders of 
the range, are glacier-carved valleys that rival Yosemite 
in the height of their granite walls. I,ovely flower- 
strewn meadows, hundreds of lakes, the headwaters of 
countless rushing streams, two great canyons cut by 
the Kings River, and magnificent forests make this 
one of the most beautiful of all the parks. 

The former General Grant National Park, with its 
two groves, of bigtrees (Sequoia giganlea), is now a 
part of the park. The General Grant Tree is 267 feet 
high and 40.3 feet in diameter. The 10,000-acre Red- 
wood Mountain and Redwood Canyon section of the park 
contains the largest stand of sequoias in existence (see 
Sequoia (A 4)*. 

Lassen Volcanic N. P., 1916, northern California, 
103,809 acres. The only active volcano in the United 
States proper (see Volcanoes). Its snowy cone, 10,453 


feet above sea level, stands near the southern end of the 
Cascade Mountains. In the vicinity are many other 
peaks and cinder cones from 7,000 to 8,000 feet high, 
lava fields, hot springs, fumaroles, or gas vents, boiling 
lakes, and other evidences of volcanic activity. After a 
quiescent period of about 200 years, Lassen erupted sev- 
eral times between 1914 and 1921. From its summit a 
magnificent panorama unfolds. To the west and south- 
west spreads the Sacramento Valley; to the north looms 
Mount Shasta; eastward are the Honey Lake Valley and 
the distant mountains of Nevada; and southward rise the 
forested slopes of the Sierra Nevada (A 3)*. 

Lava Beds N. M., 1925, northern California, 46,162 
acres. Volcanic activity extending over a long period 
and as recent as 500 years ago has covered this region 
with lava and cindery pumice (see Lava). Flows that 
look like thick frothy molasses turned to stone are honey- 
combed with tunnels and caves through which the 
molten material once flowed. They range from a few 
feet to several miles in length and from 10 to 75 feet in 
height. Where the tunnel roofs have collapsed are ser- 
pentine trenches, in places 100 feet deep and 250 feet 
wide. Flowers bloom in profusion wherever there is suf- 
ficient soil. During the Modoc Indian War of 1872-73, 
the Modocs established themselves in a natural lava 
fortress within the present monument boundaries, where 
they resisted United States troops for five months (A 3)*. 

Lehman Caves N. M., 1922, east central Nevada, 640 
acres. Large limestone caves with many stalactites (B4) . 

Mammoth Cave N. P., 1936, Kentucky, 50,696 acres. 
Large caves in the beautiful wooded hill country of 
southern Kentucky, on the Green River. The ghostly un- 
derground lakes and streams and the vast chambers with 
their massive stalactites and stalagmites attract thou- 
sands of visitors. More than 150 miles have been' ex- 
plored sinee the historic Mammoth Cave was discovered 
in 1799, and new sections are still being opened. 

The eight-mile trip through the cave includes such fea- 
tures as the saltpeter vats where gunpowder was made 
during the War of 1812; the Bottomless Pit; Dead Sea; 
Echo River; VaUey of Flowers; Crystal Lake; and the 
Frozen Niagara, a cascade of glittering white onyx. 

In 1938 four guides, in search of eyeless fish on the 
Roaring River, observed a narrow passageway partially 
blocked by a large rock. Their curiosity aroused, they 
burrowed their way into the depths of the earth for many 
hours. On the second day they came upon a series of 
large avenues and rooms whose beautiful formations 
excel anything in other portions of the cave. Two rooM 
are covered with exquisite gypsum flowers. Another 
room they named the Candy Kitchen for its colored mo 
striped formations, resembling peppermint stick, taffy, 
and pink honeycomb (see also Cave) (H 4)*. 

Meriwether Lewis N. M., 1925, central Tennessee, 30U 
acres. The burial place of Meriwether Lewis, explorer, 
and governor of Louisiana Territory. It is near the site 
of Grinder’s Inn on the Natchez Trace, where 
Lewis was found shot dead in 1809 (see Lewis and Clar ' 
Expedition) (G 5)*. . 

Mesa Verde N. P., 1906, southwestern Colorado, 51,01° 
acres. The largest and best-preserved prehistoric cli 
dwellings and pueblos in North America. The green table 
(Spanish mesa verde) covered with cedar and pinon treffi 
is 15 miles long and 8 miles wide. On three sides i 
rises abruptly from 500 to 800 feet above the neighbor- 
ing valleys. Its south side is gashed with nurneroim 
steep-walled canyons which open into the canyon of t e 
Mancos River. In the shelter of large caves eroded m 


♦Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18j 



37 


NATIONAL PARKS 


the canyon walls and on the mesa top prehistoric In- 
dians built at least 1,500 community apartment dwellings. 
The Cliff Palace alone must have housed at least 400 
persons in its 200 rooms. 

Mesa Verde was occupied by Basket Makers from about 
the beginning of the Christian Era to 700. Traces of 
their earth lodges may still be seen. The more highly 
developed Pueblo Indians then came in and remained un- 
til almost 1300, when drought and failing crops forced 
them to abandon the region. The oldest house which can 
be definitely dated by 
means of tree rings in 
the roof timbers was built 
about 1066. On a prom- 
ontory at the junction 
of Cliff and Fewkes can- 
yons stands the Sun 
Temple, a place of wor- 
ship possibly dedicated 
to the sun (see Basket 
Makers; Cliff Dwellers; 

Pueblo Indians) (C4)*. 

Montezuma Castle 
N. M., 1906, central Ari- 
zona, 783 acres. A five- 
story cliff dwelling of 
adobe brick built into 
a natural cave in the 
face of a cliff, some 80 
feet above its base. It 
is reached by a series 
of ladders. The site was 
abandoned long before 
the white man reached 
North America (C5)*. 

Morristown N. H. P., 

1933, New Jersey, 958 
acres. A strategic point 
during the American 
Revolution. It was only 
30 miles from British 
lines on Manhattan and 
Staten islands. Troops 
could be quickly dis- 
patched from Morris- 
town northward to 
West Point, key to the 
defense of the Hudson 
Valley and New England, and west and south to the Dela- 
ware River and Philadelphia. Throughout the war 
American troops were stationed here, and Washington 
spent more time at Morristown than at any other head- 
quarters. The park includes three areas. The Ford House, 
built in 1774, was occupied by General and Mrs. Washing- 
ton from December 1779 to June 1780. It has been re- 
stored and refurnished as a typical example of a prosper- 
ous colonial home. A museum stands on the grounds. Fort 
Nonsense, on a high ridge overlooking the surroimding 
country, was built in April 1777, as a refuge for the regi- 
ment detailed to guard military stores. At Jockey Hol- 
low, three to four miles southwest of Morristown, the 
army encamped during the winter of 1779-80. Remains of 
the barracks and other camp buildings may still be seen. 
The Wick and Guerin houses in the Hollow have been 
restored as examples of colonial farmhouses (J 3)*. 

Mound City Group N. M., 1923, south central Ohio, 68 
acres. Prehistoric Indian mounds, containing altars and 
human rem ains (see also Mound Builders) (H4)*. 

^Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18. 


Mount McKinley N. P., 1917, central Alaska, 1,939,319 
acres. The highest mountain in North America, 20,269 
feet above sea level. It rises 17,000 feet above timberline 
and for about two thirds of the way to the summit is 
snow-covered throughout the year. No other mountain 
peak in the world rises so high directly from its base. 
The north and west sides drop abruptly to a treeless 
plateau, 2,500 to 3,000 feet in altitude, covered with 
mosses and grasses. Down the south and east slopes 
flow enormous glaciers. The foothills and valleys are 

covered with dense 
forests of black spruce. 
Mount Foraker, 17,395 
feet high, and many 
other peaks of the Alaska 
Range lie within the park 
boundaries. Caribou, 
moose, grizzly and brown 
bears, mountain sheep, 
and many smaller ani- 
mals flourish in this wil- 
derness, most of which is 
stiU unexplored. A mod- 
ern hotel accommodates 
visitors (A 7)*. 

Mount Rainier N. P,, 
1899, west central Wash- 
ington, 241,571 acres. 
An extinct volcano in 
the Cascade Range, with 
a snowy truncated cone 
14,408 feet high. From 
the three-mile crater 
at its summit glaciers 
spread down the slopes 
in all directions like 
the icy tentacles of a 
giant octopus. Nisqually 
Glacier is the best 
known. Rivers flow from 
the melting ends of the 
glaciers; forests and 
flowery alpine meadows 
cover the lower slopes. 
John Muir thus de- 
scribed the flowers for 
which Moimt Rainier is 
famous: “Above the for- 
ests there is a zone of the loveliest flowers ... so closely 
planted and luxuriant that it seems as if nature, glad to 
make an open space between woods so dense and ice so 
deep, were economizing the precious ground and trying to 
see how many of her darhngs she can get together in one 
mountain wreath — daisies, anemones, geraniums, colum- 
bine, erythroniums, larkspurs, among which we wade 
knee-deep and waist-deep, the bright corollas in myriads 
touching petal to petal. All together this is the richest 
subalpine garden I have ever found, a perfect floral 
elysium” (Al)*. 

Muir Woods N. M., 1908, California, 485 acres. A 
grove of redwood trees at the foot of Mount Tamalpais, 
near San Francisco. It is named for John Muir, the 
naturalist and writer, who was an outstanding cam- 
paigner for national parks and forest reserves (A3)*. 

Natural Bridges N. M., 1908, southeastern Utah, 2,650 
acres. Three natural bridges of great size and beauty, 
near the head of White Canyon. The largest is the 
Augusta, or Sipapu, 222 feet above the stream, with a 


A NATURE WALK IN YELLOWSTONE 



Naturalists conduct daily walks in the national parks. They answer 
visitors’ questions, point out flowers and birds, and explain the geological 
formations and other interesting features of the area. 



38 


NATIONAL PARKS 


LONELY RAINBOW BRIDGE 



In a wild and remote part of Utah, reached only by horseback, the beautiful 
Rainbow Bridge stands in lonely grandeur. Massive red cliffs tower SOO feet 
or more above the synunetrical curve of the bridge. 

span 261 feet long and 65 feet thick at the top of the 
arch. The Caroline, or Kachina, Bridge and the Edwin, 
or Owachomo, Bridge are 205 feet and 108 feet high re- 
spectively. These bridges, like the great Rainbow Bridge 
not many miles distant, w'ere formed by a meandering, 
or winding, river. Such a river wears away the inner 
side of the loops in its twisting course. Eventually it 
cuts through the neck of a loop and abandons the old 
course. In this region a hard capping layer of rock 
resists erosion while the softer layers beneath are washed 
away. The cap becomes a bridge beneath which the river 
pursues its new course. The inside of the old loop stands 
out as a mesa surrounded by canyons, which are the 
abandoned course. The bridge connects the mesa with 
the “mainland” of the plateau. In the vicinity are many 
ruins of cliff dwellings. (For picture, see Cliff Dwellers; 
see also Rainbow Bridge N. M., in this article) (C 4)*. 

Navajo N. M., 1909, northeastern Arizona, 360 acres. 

Three cliff-dwelling ruins in caves high on the walls of 
Laguna and Nitsie canyons. They contained from 100 to 
250 rooms each. Inscription House is so called from the 
words on one wall; “S-hapeiro Ano dom. 1661,” probably 
written by a Spanish explorer or missionary. Tree rings 
in the ceiling beams indicate these dwellings were 
built between 1242 and 1286. {See Cliff Dwellers.) (C4)*. 

Ocmutgee N. M., 1936, Georgia, 683 acres. The monu- 
ment is divided into two areas. The larger occupies a 


series of flat-topped bluffs encircling the me- 
andering course of the Ocmulgee River. Here 
are seven prehistoric Indian mounds, an elab- 
orate fortification system, a ceremonial earth 
lodge, an ancient trading post, and burial 
mounds. To the southeast, near the city of Ma- 
con, is a 40-acre tract known as the Lamar 
area. It is not yet fully developed. The mass 
of material excavated from the mounds shows 
several cultural levels. The primitive hunting 
state, the mound-building period, and the ad- 
vanced culture of the Creeks are all represented. 
A trading post built between 1690 and 1715 by 
English traders has been uncovered (H5)*. 

Old Kasaan N. M., 1916, southeastern Alaska, 
38 acres. An abandoned Haida Indian village 
on Prince of Wales Island. Totem poles, grave 
houses, monuments, and some of the original 
framework of the buildings are still standing. 
The Haida tribe migrated to Alaska from Brit- 
ish Columbia. The descendants of the residents 
of Old Kasaan live at Kasaan village, 12 miles 
distant, near a salmon cannery which gives 
them employment (B 7)*. 

Olympic N. P., 1938, northwestern Washing- 
ton, 887,987 acres. The rain-swept, fog-drenched 
western slopes of the Olympic Mountains on the 
Olympic Peninsula and a 50-mile strip fronting 
the Pacific Ocean. Here is the finest remnant 
of primeval forest in the country. Huge ever- 
greens lift their ancient crowns 300 feet high-- 
Douglas firs, Sitka spruces, red cedars, and 
western hemlocks, some of them a thousand 
years old. At their feet a luxuriant jungle 
matting of ferns, mosses, and lichens envelops 
rocks and huge decaydng logs. Swift rivers 
and streams slash through canyons across the 
forest tangle on their way to the sea. As the 
slopes rise from the warm, w^et seacoast to 
the colder mountain heights they open into 
flow'ery alpine meadow's studded with lakea 
Above loom the snowy glacier-scored peaks dominated 
by Mount Olympus, 7,915 feet high. This area is the 
home of the rare Roosevelt elk, named for President 
Theodore Roosevelt, who established Mount Olympus 
National Monument in 1909. The monument became 
the nucleus of the park in 1909. The Olympic Ocean Strip 
skirting the Pacific coast was added in 1953 (Al) . 

Oregon Caves N. M., 1909, Oregon, 480 acres, hides 
of underground chambers in Siskiyou Mountains (A 2) • 
Organ Pipe Cactus N. M., 1937, south central Arizona, 
328,162 acres. A sun-scorched, waterless desert on the 
Mexican border, famous for its rare organ pipe cactus, 
which grows only in this restricted area. The tubular 
arms of the plant, growing straight up for 20 or more fee 
resemble the pipes of an organ. Desert ironwood an 
many other unusual plants flourish here. Among its few 
living creatures are the Gaillard bighorn sheep and the 
Gila monster. Father Kino by 1700 had established a roa^^ 
across the desert, know'n as “El Camino del Diablo 
(Devil’s Highway). So great were the dangers and hard- 
ships of the road that hundreds of explorers, miners, an 
pioneers lost their lives along the way. It can be trace 
only intermittently today. The Indians of the Papago 
reservation have the privilege of harvesting the fruits o 
the organ pipe and other cacti (B5)*. . . 

Perry's Victory and International Peace Memoria 
N. M., 1936, Ohio, on Lake Erie, 14 acres. A granite 


♦Letlors and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18. 



38a 


NATIONAL PARKS 


shaft 352 feet high commemorating Oliver Hazard 
Perry’s victory over the British fleet at Put-in-Bay, 
Sept. 10, 1813, and the century of peace ensuing between 
the two nations (H3)*. 

Petrified Forest N. M., 1906, west central Arizona, 
85,304 acres. Six forests of petrified wood, strewn 
with sections of tree tnmks. There are no standing 
trees and but few instances of upright trunks and roots. 
One of the largest logs is the Agate Bridge, four feet 
in diameter and 100 feet long. It spans a gully 40 feet 
wide and 20 feet deep. Throughout the monument are 
ruins of prehistoric Indian dwellings. “Picture writings,” 
or petroglyphs, are carved on the cliffs. Newspaper Rock 
is a large rock with many of these signs and symbols. 

The monument also includes the most spectacular parts 
of the colorful Painted Desert. This is an area of bril- 
liantly colored rocks, carved by erosion into a series of 
cliffs, isolated mesas, and deep canyons. It was dis- 
covered in 1540 by Coronado, who named it “El Pintado 
Desierto” (see also Petrified Forests) (C 5)*. 

Pinnacles N. M., 1908, west central California, 12,818 
acres. Spirelike rock formations which rise 500 to 1,200 
feet above the floors of several canyons, eroded in a 
volcanic ridge. Also of interest are numerous caves 
and a variety of volcanic features. The highest point, 
Chalone Peak, commands a superb view (A 4)*. 

Pipe Spring N. M., 1923, northwestern Arizona, 40 
acres. A spring of cold pure water famous in Utah and 
Arizona history. Brigham Young, president of the Mor- 
mon Church, in 1856 sent William Hamblin on a peace 
mission to the Hopi Indians of Arizona. With his party 
of ten, he camped by the spring. It received its name 
when Hamblin, in a contest of marksmanship, shot the 


bottom out of a pipe without breaking the bowl. The 
Mormons established a cattle ranch here and built a 
stone fort around the spring. The presence of a large 
spring in this desert country is due to a break, or 
fault, in the earth’s crust. Underground waters drain- 
ing from the higher plateaus to the north find their 
way to the surface through this crack. The first telegraph 
station in Arizona was in the fort, known as “Winsor 
Castle” (B4)*. 

Pipestone N. M., 1937, southwestern Minnesota, 116 
acres. Quarries of red stone from which the Indians of 
ancient and historic times made their peace pipes. With- 
in the monument also are three granite boulders, known 
as the “Three Maidens,” at which many ceremonials 
were held. The region was considered a sanctuary for all 
Indians of all tribes. Quarrying is reserved exclusively 
for the Indians (F 3)*. 

Platt N. P,, 1906, southern Oklahoma, 912 acres. 
Sulfur and bromide springs of medicinal value in a pic- 
turesque region of wooded, gently rolling hills (F5)*. 

Rainbow Bridge N. M., 1910, southeastern Utah, 160 
acres. The largest known natural bridge in the world, 
not seen by white men imtil 1909. It lies in one 
of the wildest and most inaccessible regions in the 
United States. Even today it can be reached only on 
horseback, at least two days being required for the 
round trip. The bridge is a beautifully symmetrical arch 
of salmon-pink limestone, 309 feet high and 278 feet 
from pier to pier. It is unusual in having a curved 
top, like the arch of the rainbow. Fire-blackened stones 
indicate that prehistoric Indians worshiped here, and 
modern Indians regard it with religious awe (see also 
Natural Bridges N. M., in this article) (04)’*’. 


THE BEAUTIFUL, SCULPTURED PAINTED DESERT 



A section of the Painted Desert is included in the Petrified ridges, and domes. The rocks are white and yellow, gray, mauve, 
Forest-National Monument of eastern Arizona. It is a waste purple, pink, coral, and deep red. As sunshine and clouds play 
of bnlUmtly colored rocks, eroded into a wild confusion of cliffs, over them, the colors shift and glow as though they were alive. 


^Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18 




are wildlife sanctuaries. No huntine is 
permitted at any time, and the animals may not be disturfeif 
The bears are always interesting to visitors, for they com^clo^e 

Mountain N. P., 1915, north central Colorado, 
254,/ 36 acres. Part of the majestic Front Range of 
the Rocky Mountains. Within the park boundaries 65 
peaks rise more than 10,000 feet above sea level, domi- 
nated by Longs Peak 14,255 feet high. The eilst side 
drops down from the Continental Divide in sheer preci- 
pices from 2,000 to 3,000 feet deep. At the bottom of 
rock-bound gorges lie wild and lonely lakes. The gentler 
west side has flowery valleys, countless streams, and 
forest-rimmed lakes, flanked by the Never Summer Moun- 
tains. The east entrance to the park is the village of 
Estes Park. Froin here highways lead to the most sLnic 
I^p'ke IS the western gateway. The Trail 
Kidge Road, across the Continental Divide, reaches a 
height of 12,183 feet. (See Rocky Mountains.) (D 3)*. 

Saguaro N.M., 1933, Arizona, 54,972 acres. Thegiant 

“ear Tucson in the Santa Cata- 
hna Mountains Some of the plants are 50 feet high and 
about a hundred years old. (See Cactus.) (C 5)*. 

Saint Croix Island N. M. Project, 1949, Maine an- 
proximate area, 50 acres. An island in the Saint Crok 

StTi Maine and New Brunswick 

settled by the French in 1604 (J 1)* ’ 

Saratoga N. H. P., 1948, New York, 2,208 acres. Site 
of General Burgoyne’s surrender to General Gates on 
Uct. 17, 1777 ; regarded as the turning point in the Ameri- 
can Revolution (see Saratoga Springs) (J2)*. 

Scotts Bluff N. M., 1919, western Nebraska, 2,196 
acres. Famous landmark on the Oregon Trail. The bluff 

hrough R oubidou Pass, and later through Mitchell Pass, 
♦Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 1& 


to the hotels, camps, and highways to beg for food. They are 
ciangerous wild animals, however, and people are wamea not 
to approach them and never to attempt feeding them by hand. 

labored the covered wagons on their way to the Pacific 
coast. The Pony Express, the first stage lines, and 
the first transcontinental telegraph company established 
stations here. (For picture, see Nebraska.) (D 3)*. 

Sequoia N. P., 1890, east central California, 385,178 
acres. Forests of bigtrees on the western slopes of 
the Sierra Nevada. One of the largest and oldest living 
things in the world is the General Sherman Tree, 272.4 
feet high, 36.5 feet in diameter, and perhaps 4,000 
years old (for picture, see California). Within the park 
are Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the United States 
proper (14,495 feet), and Kern Canyon, 3,000 feet deep 
and 25 miles long. Moro Rock (6,719 feet above sea 
level), in the Giant Forest area, affords a magnificent 
view of the Great Western Divide, Alta Peak, the San 
Joaquin Valley, and the distant Coast Range to the west. 
From the summit of Moro to its base is an almost sheer 
drop of 4,119 feet. Kings Canyon National Park adjoins 
Sequoia on the north (see Sequoia) (A 4)*. 

Shenandoah N. P., 1935, northwestern Virginia, 193,473 
acres. The crest of the Blue Ridge Mountains, extend- 
ing about 75 miles from Front Royal on the north to 
Jarnam Gap, near Waynesboro, on the south. The park 
averages four miles in width. The area is characterized by 
a high ridge from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea level 
from which branch sharp spur ridges. Haw'ksbill Head, 
4,049 feet, is the highest point. Between the ridges 
lie narrow valleys or coves, w'ith rushing streams and 
waterfalls. Beautiful hardwood forests cover hill and 
valley. The park is most noted for the panoramic views 
from the Skyline Drive. Extending the length of tbo 




38c 


NATIONAL PARKS 


park, this drive is a part of the Blue Ridge Parkway 
between Shenandoah and Great Smoky Moimtains na- 
tional parks. To the east stretch the farmlands of the 
Piedmont Plain. On the west lies the Shenandoah Valley, 
from 20 to 25 miles wide, through which the Shenandoah 
River winds on its way north to join the Potomac. Mas- 
sanutten Mountain, a group of long, low ridges, crosses 
the valley to the north, and in the distant west rise 
the Allegheny Mountains. (See Virginia.) (1 4)*. 

Shoshone Cavern N. M., 1909, northwestern Wyoming, 
212 acres. A cave near the summit of Cedar Mountain. 
Its walls are encrusted with crystals and drip formations, 
but there are no large stalactites or stalagmites. The 
descent by ladders is perilous and the monument has 
been closed to visitors (C2)*. 

Sitka N. M., 1910, southeastern Alaska, 53 acres. Site 
of an ancient village of warlike Indians. They were 
subdued here by the Russians in 1804. Sixteen totem 
poles collected from different points on Prince of Wales 
Island are objects of interest. (See Alaska.) (B 7)*. 

Statue of Liberty N. M., 1924, New York City, 10 acres. 

A great statue of ‘Liberty Enlightening the World’, on 
Bedloe’s Island (see Liberty, Statue of) (J 3)*. 

Sunset Crater N. M., 1930, north central Arizona, 
3,040 acres. An area of comparatively recent volcanic 
activity. Sunset Mountain is an extinct volcano rising 
1 ,000 feet above the surrounding country. Its crater is 
rimmed with bright-yellow sulfur, shading down into 
bands of orange, red, and finally black volcanic ash, 
which give it the appearance of a sunset glow. The 
region is fantastically marked by lava flows hundreds 
of feet deep; fumaroles, or holes in the lava from which 
gases escaped; and cinder cones — all entirely without 
soil or vegetation. In the lava beds are numerous ice 
caves. Nearby are the lofty San Francisco Peaks, also 
extinct volcanoes (C5)*. 

Timpanogos Cave N. M., 1922, north central Utah, 
250 acres. Three limestone caverns on the northern slope 
of Mount Timpanogos in the Wasatch Range. They 
are reached by a steep trail up the wall of American 
Fork Canyon. The caves were washed out by American 
Fork Creek along the fines of a fault, or breakage, in the 
mountain which occurred, geologists say, some 50 million 
years ago. After creating the caves the stream carved 
out the canyon which lies below (C3)*. 

Tonto N. M., 1907, south central Arizona, 1,120 acres. 
Two cliff dwellings built in the 14th century but showing 
signs of recent Indian occupancy. They are structures 
of adobe, two and three stories high, built into caves 
in the face of a cliff. The supporting beams, window 
frames, and low doors are still in place (C5)*. 

Tumacacori N. M., 1908, southern Arizona, 10 acres. 
The Spanish mission of San Jose de Tumacacori, founded 
by Father Eusebio Kino, Jesuit missionary, about 1690. 

It was taken over by the Franciscans in 1769. The date 
of the present building is uncertain. A small chapel 
stood on the site until 1730, when a new building was 
erected. This was attacked and destroyed by Apaches 
in 1769; repaired, and again damaged in 1800. Once 
more it was rebuilt and dedicated in 1822. Soon after- 
ward it was abandoned, when the Franciscans were ex- 
pelled from Mexico. The ruins consist of the walls and 
tower of the church building, the walls of a mortuary 
chamber, and a courtyard surrounded by adobe walls. 
Nearbj' is a modern museum building (C6)*. 

Tuzigoot N. M., 1939, Arizona, 43 acres. An ancient 
pueblo on a ridge above the Verde River, occupied from 
about 1000 to 1400 by three different cultural groups. 

^Letters and numbers in parentheses give location on map on page 18 . 


They apparently lived here simultaneously. From the 
floors of the rooms and from hundreds of burials, scien- 
tists have recovered pottery; bone, horn, and stone 
implements; basketry; matting; and jewelry (B 5)*. 

Verendrye N. M., 1917, northwestern North Dakota, 
253 acres. The place on the bank of the upper Missouri 
River where Fran 5 ois and Louis Joseph de la Vdrendrye 
camped during their explorations in 1742. With their 
famous father, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de la 
Verendrye, they were the first white men to explore 
the interior of the Northwest (E2)*. 

Walnut Canyon N. M., 1915, north central Arizona, 
1,642 acres. About 300 cliff houses built under the sloping 
walls of Walnut Canyon. Unlike the communal type, 
these dwellings of from six to eight rooms each seem to 
have been intended for separate families. They were 
occupied from about 900 to 1100. Water was carried 
from the canyon bottom along trails which may still 
be traced. In the center of the canyon is an isolated 
butte apparently used as a fort. Observation Point offers 
a splendid view of the ruins (C5)*. 

White Sands N. M,, 1933, south central New Mexico, 
140,247 acres. Dazzling snow-white gypsum crystals, 
piled by the wind into huge dunes from 10 to 45 feet 
high, resemble snowdrifts. Gypsum in solution is washed 
down from the mountains onto alkali flats where the 
crystals are deposited by evaporation of the water. Some 
of them are derived from water pushing upward through un- 
derground beds of gypsum and evaporating at the surface. 

Most of the area is without plant fife, yet some 
plants have shown a remarkable ability to adapt them- 
selves to their strange environment of shifting sands. 
Some of them have long stems of more than 40 feet. The 
animals that do exist here have also adapted themselves 
to their peculiar surroundings. Mice and lizards have 
white coats that blend with the white sands (D 5)*. 

Whilman N. M., 1940, Washington, 46 acres. Site of 
an Indian mission and school, near Walla Walla; estab- 
lished in 1836 by Marcus Whitman and his wife (see 
Whitman, Marcus) (B2)*. 

Wind Cave N. P., 1903, southwestern South Dakota, 
27,886 acres. A large cavern in the Black Hills, notable 
for its unique boxwork or frostwork formations. The 
boxwork is composed of delicately colored crystals in 
honeycomb pattern, deposited by evaporating water 
along countless cracks in the cave walls and roofs. There 
are few stalactites or stalagmites. Strong currents of air 
blowing in or out of the cavern’s mouth suggested its 
name. Changes in the atmospheric pressure outside cause 
the winds. A game preserve within the park harbors 
bison, antelope, elk, and deer (D3)*. 

Wupatki N. M., 1924, north central Arizona, 34,853 
acres. Pueblo ruins overlooking the Painted Desert. 
They were occupied from the 11th to the 13th centuries 
by peoples who are believed to have been the ancestors 
of the modern Hopi Indians. (See Pueblo Indians.) (C5)*. 

Yellowstone N. P., 1872, northwestern Wyoming and 
parts of Montana and Idaho, 2,213,207 acres. A volcanic 
region famous for its geysers and hot springs, its boiling 
clay pools and steaming rivers. An exquisitely colored 
canyon with plunging waterfalls, the beautiful Yellow- 
stone Lake, petrified forests, and matchless mountain 
scenery make it an area of the most varied interest. 
The best known of its attractions may be visited by 
automobile or bus over fine highways, but nine tenths 
of the park is a wilderness inaccessible even by trail. 
As late as 1940 a new area of hot springs was discovered 
(see Yellowstone National Park) (C2)*. 





NATIONAL PARKS 

NATURE BOILS A BREW 



One of the weirdest sights in Yellowstone National Park is the 
Fountain Paint Pot. It is a well of brightly colored boiling 
clay. Heated by volcanic activity, the clay bubbles like a stew. 


Yosemife N. P., 1890, east central California, 757,617 
acres. Yosemite Valley (see Yosemite National Park) 
is a small part of this spectacular wilderness in the Sierra 
Nevada. The beautiful Hetch Hetchy Valley, Tuolumne 
Canyon, Lee Vining Canyon, the groves of big trees 
(sequoias) and sugar pines, and the magnificent Tioga 
Pass Road over the mountains are all remarkable (A 4)*. 

Yucca House N. M., 1919, southwestern Colorado, 
10 acres. Ruins of a prehistoric Indian village, most of 
it still buried. Not open to the public (C 4)*. 

Zion N. M., 1937, southwestern Utah, 33,921 acres. 
On the western border of Zion National Park; an area 
w'hich contains the Kolob canyons. They have been cut 
by stream erosion into the face of the 3,000-foot Hurri- 
cane Cliffs. The red walls of the eight canyons are from 
1,500 to 2,500 feet high. The region can be visited only 
on horseback (B 4)*. 

Zion N. P., 1919, southwestern Utah, 94,241 acres. 
A beautiful canyon cut by the Virgin River into the 
Vermilion and White Cliffs, which stretch across the 
plateau country of southern Utah. It is entered between 
two great blocks of stone, the West Temple, 3,805 feet 
above the valley floor, and The Watchman, 2,713 feet 
high. Beyond the impressive gateway the visitor finds 
himself in a canyon, a mile wide from rim to rim and 
half a mile wide at the bottom, with steep walls half a 
mile high. The lower walls are mauve and purple shales. 
Against the east wall of the canyon stands the Great 
White Throne, a flaUtopped dome towering 2,447 feet. 
In vivid contrast to the Throne is the dull red of the 
Angels Landing (1,425 feet) directly opposite. The 


automobile highway ends in a great parklike amphi- 
theater, the Temple of Sinawava. Be 3 mnd, a trail leads 
to The Narrows, where the canyon is 2,000 feet high 
and only 50 feet wide. From the top of Lady Mountain, 
reached by a trail, one obtains a grand view of the 
valley and plateau. The Zion-Mount Carmel Highway 
crosses the southern part of the park. A Mormon scout 
discovered Zion Canyon in 1858. Mormon settlers 
grazed stock and farmed in it until 1909, when it was 
made a national monument (B 4)*. 

National Recreation Areas 

Tlie National Recreation Areas are: 

Cape Hafteras N. Seashore R. A. Project, 1937, North 

C. arolina, 30,000 acres. Beaches, waterfowl, fishing, and 
lighthouse on barrier reef (J 4)*. 

Coulee Dam N. R. A., 1946, Washington, 98,500 acres; 
Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake, formed by Grand Coulee 
Dam on the Columbia (see Columbia River) (B 1)*. 

Lake Mead N. R. A., 1936, Arizona and Nevada, 1,899,- 
728 acres. Lake Mead, created by Hoover Dam, and Lake 
Mohave, by Davis Dam (see Colorado River) (B 4)*. 

Millerton Lake N. R. A., 1945, California, 11,605 acres; 
a lake in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, near Fresno, 
formed by Friant Dam, part of the Central Valley 
Project (A 4)*. 

Shadow Mountain N. R. A., 1952, Colorado, 10,231 
acres. Shadow Mountain Lake and Granby Reservoir of 
the Colorado-Big Thompson Project (D 4)*. 

Other Areas in the National Park System 

The National Park Service also administers the 
following national memorials; Coronado, nearBisbee, 
Ariz., commemorates the exploration of Coronado in 
the Southwest, 1540-42; De Soto, Bradenton, Fla., 
memorializes De Soto’s landing in Tampa Bay in 1539; 
Fort Caroline, Jacksonville, Fla., site of a French 
Huguenot colony founded in 1564; House Where Lin- 
coln Died, Lincoln Memorial, Lincoln Museum, 
Thomas Jefferson Memorial, and Washington Monu- 
ment, all in Washington, D. C.; Kill Devil Hill, Kitty 
Hawk, N. C., where the Wright brothers made the first 
sustained flight by airplane; Lee Mansion in Arlington 
Cemetery, Va., home of Robert E. Lee; and Mount 
Rushmore, near Keystone, S. D., huge figures of four 
presidents carved in the stone face of Mount Rushmore. 

The Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park is 
in west central North Dakota. Its 65,569 acres is 
split into two units — the Bad Lands along the Little 
Missouri River and part of Theodore Roosevelts 
Elkhorn Ranch. (See North Dakota.) 

National parkways are being developed along motor 
highways of unusual scenic and historic interest. 
Mount Vernon Memorial Highway follows the Poto- 
mac River, linking Washington, D. C., with Mount 
Vernon. It is part of the George Washington Memorial 
Parkway on the Maryland and Virginia shores of the 
Potomac. The Blue Ridge Parkway joins the Shenan- 
doah and the Great Smoky Mountains national parks. 
Part of it is the Skyline Drive on the crest of the 
Blue Ridge Mountains through Shenandoah National 
Park. The Natchez Trace Parkwmy follows the old 
Indian trail between Natchez, Miss., and Nashville, 
Tenn. The Suitland Parkway connects Washington, 

D. C., with Andrews Air Base in Maryland. 


^Letters and numbers in parentheses eive location on map on page 18. 



38e 


NATIONAL PARKS 


National parkway projects are under way. The 
Baltimore-Washington Parkway will connect the two 
cities named. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Park- 
way will follow the old canal in Maryland. The Foot- 
hills Parkway wall parallel the northern boundary of 
the Great Smokj’- Mountains National Park. 

National Battlefield Sites administered by the 
National Park Service are Antietam, Md.; Tupelo 
and Brices Cross Roads, Miss.; Fort Necessity, Pa.; 
White Plains, N. Y.; and Cowpens, S. C. The first 
two commemorate Civdl War battles; the rest. Revo- 
lutionary War battles. The Service also administers 
National Cemeteries (see National Cemeteries). 

The National Military Parks embracing Civil War 
sites are Chickamauga and Chattanooga in Georgia 
and Tennessee; Gettysburg, Pa.; Vicksburg, Miss.; 
Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County Battlefields 
Memorial, and Petersburg, Va.; Shiloh, Stones River, 
and Fort Donelson, Tenn. The military parks memo- 
rializing Revolutionary War battles are Moores Creek 
and Guilford Courthouse, N. C. ; and Kings Mountain, 
S. C. Kennesaw Mountain, Ga., and the battlefield 
at Richmond, Va., are National Battlefield Parks 
embracing Civil War sites. 

National Forests and Wilderness Areas 

Besides the areas administered by the National Park 
Service, there are many other publicly owned areas 
in which the people of the United States may find 
recreation. National forests, which cover many times 
the combined areas of the national parks, were created 
by the United States govermnent primarily to protect 
the nation’s lumbering and grazing resources. Hunting 
is permitted in season in the forests but never in the 


into these last strongholds of nature, the American 
Forestry Association has formed the Trail Riders of 
the Wilderness. Each expedition of about 25 persons 
is accompanied by a physician, a forest ranger, and a 
botanist. Expert guides and cooks are hired. Ex- 
penses are shared on a nonprofit basis. 

The Wilderness Society, with headquarters in Wash- 
ington, D. C., is a national conservation organization 
whose purpose is to preserve wilderness areas and to 
carry on an educational program concerning their 
value and how they may best be used in the public 
interest. It is supported by membership dues and 
private contributions. The Society publishes a quar- 
terly magazine. The Living Wilderness. 

State and Local Parks 

The National Park Service aids in the development 
of state, count 5 ’', and municipal parks. The Civilian 
Conservation Corps co-operated from 1933 to 1943 
by constructing buildings, cutting firebreaks and trails, 
and controlling erosion, plant diseases, and insects. 

Among the older state parks the Adirondack Forest 
Preserve, in New York, is one of the largest, covering 
over 2 million acres. The Catskill Forest Preserve, 
in New York, contains about 234,000 acres. Custer 
State Park, in the Black Hills of South Dakota, covers 
70,000 acres. The Dunes State Park, a 2,182-acre 
park in Indiana, on the shore of Lake Michigan, is 
within easy reach of the Chicago region. 

County and municipal parks on the fringes of large 
cities are growing rapidly. The Cook County Forest 
Preserves provide Chicago with over 38,000 acres of 
recreation area. Long Island and Westchester parks 
near New York City total about 28,000 acres. Phoe- 


parks. (See Forests and 
Forest Protection.) 

Wilderness areas were 
first set aside in 1937 on 
Indian reservations and in 
the national forests. They 
are held for the govern- 
ment by the Forest Service 
and the Bureau of Indian 
Affairs. Each area con- 
tains at least 100,000 acres. 
In nonforested regions 
the areas must be at least 
500,000 acres. There are 
no improvements, except 
the simplest trails. There 
are no roads, no hotels, no 
camps. In these romantic 
regions the traveler may 
enjoy the thrills and hard- 
ships of an exploring Cor- 
onado, the adventure and 
excitement of the gold 
seeker and fur trader. 
Here the life of pioneer 
America is re-created. 

To provide experienced 
leadership for journeys 


SPRING MILL STATE PARK, INDIANA 



Spring Mill State Park centers around a pioneer village of the early 19th century. It has been 
restored with private homes, gristmill, apothecary’s shop, bootshop, and other buildings of the 
period. This is the tavern, datmg from 1824. 



NATIONAL PARKS 


38/ 



Canada’s national parks extend from the mountains of British scenic wonders, protect wildlife, and mark places of great his- 
Columbia to the Atlantic shores of Nova Scotia. They preserve toric interest for the recreation and education of the people. 


nix, Ariz., has an out-of-the-city park of over 14,000 
acres, and Denver’s parks cover nearly 13,000 acres. 

National Parks of Canada 

Canada has set aside three types of national parks: 
National Scenic and Recreational Parks (N. S. R. P.), 
National Wild Animal Parks (N. W. A. P.), and Na- 
tional Historic Parks (N. H. P.). They are as follows: 

Banff N. S. R. P., 1885, Alberta, 1,640,960 acres; on 
east slope of Rockies; many peaks of over 11,000 feet; 
Mount Assiniboine, nearly 12,000 feet high; embraces 
vast Columbia ice field, a remnant of the Ice Age; park 
includes Lake Louise and town of Banff; scenic highways 
to parks to the north and west (B2)*. 

Cape Breton Highlands N. S. R. P,, 1936, Nova Scotia, 
249,600 acres; rugged coast line with mountain back- 
ground; sea views from highway (Cabot Trail); interior 
wilderness of lake and forest; picturesque fishing villages 
nearby (see Cape Breton Island) (G 3)*. 

Elk Island N. W. A. P., 1913, Alberta, 48,000 acres; 
herds of buffalo, moose, elk, and deer (B2)*. 

Fundy N. S. R. P., 1947, New Brunswick, 51,200 acres; 
scenic area overlooking the Bay of Fundy (G3)*. 

Georgian Bay Islands N. S. R. P., 1929, Ontario, 3,456 
acres; island reservations in scenic Georgian Bay (E4)*. 

Glacier N. S. R. P., 1886, British Columbia, 333,440 
acres; magnificent scenery in Selkirk Mountains (B3)*. 

Jasper N. S. R. P., 1907, Alberta, 2,688,000 acres; im- 
mense mountain wilderness; Mount Edith Cavell and 
Angel Glacier; Athabaska River valley, route of the his- 
toric Athabaska Trail to west coast; wildlife refuge (B2)*. 

Kootenay N. S. R. P., 1920, British Columbia, 347,520 
acres; highway park extending five miles on each side 
of 63-mile section of Banff- Windermere Highway (B3)*. 

Mount Revelstoke N. S. R. P., 1914, British Columbia, 
64,000 acres; alpine plateau formed by summit of moun- 
tain, on -west slope of Selkirk Mountains; spectacular 
highway (B 3)*. 

Point Pelee N. S. R. P., 1918, Ontario, 3,840 acres; 
most southerly' mainland point of Canada on Lake Erie; 
fine beaches; bird sanctuary'; unique flora (E4)*. 


Prince Albert N. S. R. P., 1927, Saskatchewan, 957,440 
acres; forested wilderness, many lakes and streams (C2)*. 

Prince Edward Island N. S. R. P., 1937, 4,480 acres; 
coastal strip on north shore of Prince Edward Island, 
Contains “Green Gables,” farmhouse made famous by 
Lucy M. Montgomery’s ‘Anne of Green Gables’ (G3)*. 

Riding Mountain N. S. R. P., 1929, Manitoba, 734,720 
acres; rolling woodlands; lakes; wildlife refuge (C3)*. 

St. Lawrence Islands N. S. R. P., 1914, Ontario, 189 
acres; mainland area and several of the Thousand 
Islands in the St. Lawrence River (F4)*. 

Waterton Lakes N. S. R. P., 1895, Alberta, 130,560 
acres; Canadian section of Waterton-GIacier Interna- 
tional Peace Park. Continental Divide forms the border 
line between Alberta and British Columbia and the west 
limit of the park (B 3)*. 

Wood Buffalo N. W. A. P., 1922, Alberta and North- 
west Territories, 11,072,000 acres; forests, plains (Bl)*. 

Yoho N. S. R. 1886, British Columbia, 324,480 acres; 
on west slope of Rocky Mountains; famed Yoho Valley, 
with waterfalls 1,200 feet high, and beautiful Kicking 
Horse Valley; several peaks more than 10,000 feet high; 
glaciers and vast ice fields (B3)*. 


PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND NATIONAL PARK 








The Gulf of St. Lawrence washes the sands of Cavendish 
This park is a coastal strip along the island’s north snore. 


♦Letters ond numbers in parentheses give location on map above. 













39 


NATIONAL PARKS 


Canada has 11 national historic parks. Fort Anne 
(G3)*, at AnnapoUs Royal, Nova Scotia, is the site of 
the Acadian settlement of Port Rojml. Nearby is 
Port Royal (G3)*, a reconstruction on the site of the 
“Habitation” erected by De Monts and Champlain in 
1605. Fort Beausejoiu- (G 3)*, in New Brunswick, and 
the Fortress of Louisbourg (G3)*, on Cape Breton 
Island, were built by the French in the 18th century. 
In Quebec are Fort Chambly (F 4)* and Fort Lennox 
(F4)*, both on the Richeheu River. In Ontario are 
Fort Wellington (F4)*, on the St. Lawrence River, 
and Fort ilalden (E4)*, on the Detroit River. In 
jManitoba are Fort Prince of Wales (D2)*, near 
Chm'chill, and Lower Fort Garry (C3)*, north of 
Winnipeg, built by the Hudson’s Bay fur-trading 
company in 1733-71 and 1831-39 respectively. South 
of North Battleford, in Saskatchewan, is Fort 
Battleford (B3)*, a North West Mounted Police 
post built in 1876. 

Some of Canada’s pro\dncial parks are larger than 
the national areas. Algonquin Park in Ontario covers 
1,754,240 acres; Laurentides Park in Quebec contains 
2,373,120 acres; and Tweedsmuir Park in British 
Columbia contains 3,456,000 acres. 

Similar Parks in Many Lands 

The largest park developments in other countries 
have been made in the more recently settled parts of 
the world. Alarmed by the disappearance of big 
game, African governments have set aside a large 
number of wild-animal sanctuaries. The wonderful 
Albert National Park in the Belgian Congo was re- 
served by King Albert of Belgium in 1925 at the sug- 
gestion of the American explorer Carl ^eley to pro- 
tect its gorillas and other rare animals. It covers more 
than 1,920,000 acres. The Union of South Africa in 
1926 estabhshed Kruger National Park, a big-game 
reserve of 5,632,000 acres. The tremendous Etosha 
Reserve of 17,664,000 acres in South West Africa, the 
3,840,000-acre Tsavo National Park in Kenya, and 
the Bontebok, Kalahari Gemsbok, Addo Elephant, 
Mountain Zebra, and Bamingui parks, all protect 
animals threatened with extinction. 

Australia has numerous parks to protect its unique 
native animals. In New Zealand are the scenic Ton- 
gariro. Mount Egmont, and Sounds parks. In India, 
Asiatic animals find sanctuary in the Hailey National 
Park of 80,640 acres in the foothills of the Himalayas. 
Krakatoa in the East Indies, scene of the greatest 
volcanic eruption of modern times, has been reserved 
for biological and geographical studies. 

In 1931 Japan passed a national parks law based on 
the American system. Among the many parks are the 
Fuji-Hakone, which embraces Mt. Fujiyama, the per- 
fect volcanic cone. Setonaikai (Inland Sea) includes 
varied island and coastal land forms that illustrate 
the geologic evolution of the islands. In Hokkaido 
park are beautiful crater lakes. The Japan Alps 
National Park, along the “backbone” of Honshu, is a 
mountain wilderness, including 40 peaks over 8,000 
feet high. Lovely Nikko, with its sacred temples amid 
ancient trees and gardens, lies in a mountainous area. 


Latin American nations have set aside some of their 
most interesting areas in recent years to save tliem 
from e.xploitation. The Galapagos Islands were de- 
clared a national park bj' Ecuador in 1936, and re- 
search stations were established to studj* their plant 
and animal hfe. Easter Island (see Easter Island) and 
the Juan Fernandez Islands (see Crusoe) are national 
parks owned by Chile. Argentina’s Nahuel Huapi 
includes in its 2 million acres a number of exquisite 
lakes in the foothills of the Andes Alountains; and 
the Iguassii National Park, on the Argentine-Brazilian 
boundarjq contains one of the world’s greatest water- 
falls. The Organ Alountains National Park of Brazil, 
near Rio de Janeiro, was created in 1939. Mexico has 
several national parks, including the Cacahuamilpa 
Caves in the state of Guerrero; the mountain peak 
known as Volcan Nevado de Colima, in Colima; Cerro 
de Gainica, a mountain in hlichoacan; and El Potosi, 
a wild-flower and wildlife reserve in the state of San 
Luis Potosf. The village of Taxco is a national monu- 
ment, preserved as a gem of colonial Spanish archi- 
tecture. No modem constmction is permitted. Vene- 
zuela’s Codazzi Park preseiwes 115 acres of ancient 
samuns, or rain trees. 

The Pan American convention on “Nature Protec- 
tion in the Western Hemisphere” came into force on 
May 1, 1942, for the United States, Guatemala, Vene- 
zuela, El Salvador, and Haiti. The treaty was later 
signed by the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Ecuador, 
Argentina, Nicaragua, Peru, and Brazil. 

The treaty provides for the creation of national 
parks, wilderness reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries in 
the signatory countries. It protects migratory birds 
and vanishing species. It encourages co-operation in 
scientific field studies and controls the illegal import 
and export of plants and animals. 

In Great Britain property is acquired under the 
National Parks and Access to the Countiyside Act. 
The Lake District (554,240 acres) and Peak District 
(346,880 acres) are the largest parks. Arg 3 dl National 
Forest in Scotland embraces about 64,000 acres of 
Highland countr 3 ^ Snowdonia National Park in Wales 
covers 19,200 acres of hills, lakes, and forests. The 
British “long-distance footpaths” correspond to the 
Appalachian Trail in the United States. 

Russia’s Kuban Park in the northwestern Caucasus 
is a wild mountainous area with large sections of vir- 
gin forest and fragrant alpine meadows inhabited by 
ibex and chamois. The Swiss National Park embraces 
37,120 acres in the wildest and most rugged i)art of 
the eastern Alps. Italj’'’s Gran Paradiso Park in the 
high Alps covers 185,600 acres. Stclvio Park, also 
in the Alps, harbors ibex, chamois, and other animals 
in its woodlands. The Abruzzi Park, in the central 
part of the peninsula, is notable for its forests, flowers, 
and animal life. France’s largest park is the Pel- 
voux (64,000 acres) in the Alps near Grenoble. The 
Camargue (38,400 acres) is in the Rhone delta, 
where the shallow ponds attract multitudes of water 
fowl and other migratory birds. German}' has many 
forested game reserves and “nature monuments.” 


^Letters and numbers in parenUieses give location on map on page 38/. 



NATIONAL SONGS 


40 


PROOF THAT “THE FLAG 


STILL THERE’ 


HYMNS that FIRE the Hearts of NATIONS 

The Spirit of a People Expressed in their Songs — Origin of the Famous 'Marseillaise' 
— How England's National Anthem is Echoed in Other Lands — 'The Star- 
Spangled Banned and the 'Battle Hymn of the Republic' 

risen to honor this patriotic song before Congress 
officially recognized it as the national anthem of the 
United States in March 1931. 

The tune of ‘America’ is the most popular patriotic 
air. Eleven nations have set verses to it. The 
stately rhythm goes back to a Saxon folk song. The . 
words of ‘America’ were written by Rev. Samuel F. 
Smith in 1832. To this air is also sung ‘God Save 
the King (or Queen)’, Great Britain’s national song. 

A rollicking jig-tune whose age gives it standing 
among America’s national songs is ‘Yankee Doodle’. 

This .is the only war 
song of Revolutionary 
days that is stiU com- 
monly sung today. Its 
homely rhymes mock 
the crude manners and 
costumes of the raw 
and ill-equipped Amer- 
ican troops. The tune 
is far older than the 
words we know, for 
more than a century 
earlier verses had been 
sung to it ridiculing 
the Cavalier troops of 
Charles I. Soldiers of 
the North in the Civil 
War and members of 
the American Expedi- 
tionary Forces during 
the first World War 
took their nickname, 

“Yanks,” from its title. 

‘Hail Columbia’, 
written by Joseph Hop- 
kinson in 1798, is al- 
most as old as the 
nation. Its tune came 
from ‘The President’s 
March’ composed by 
Philip Phylo in honor 
of George Washington. 
‘Columbia, the Gem of 
the Ocean’ is generally 
attributed to Thomas 
a Becket, an English actor who was in Philadelphia 
in 1843. A British version of the hymn is ‘Britannia, 
the Pride of the Ocean’. . . 

Some of the most inspiring American patriotic 
songs sprang from the turmoil of the Civil War. Julia 
Ward Howe’s stirring ‘Battle Hymn of the Republic^ 
and George F. Root’s ‘The Battle Cry of Freedom 
combine lofty sentiments with rousing marching tunes. 


ATIONAL SONGS. In every nation some tune is 
closely associated with the love of the people for 
their country. It moves them like the rippling folds of a 
waving flag, or the face of a loved ruler. 'To its patriotic 
words the national anthem adds the appeal of stirring 
music. Children chanting its verses feel a deep loyalty 
they but dimly understand. Its strains rouse men far 
more quickly than the most passionate orations. 

The best loved national songs have arisen in time 
of crisis. Francis Scott Key wrote ‘The Star-Spangled 
Banner’ during the bombardment of Fort McHenry, 
near Baltimore, in the 
War of 1812. Rouget de 
Lisle called fellow citi- 
zens to arms with the 
ringing phrases of the 
‘Marseillaise’ during 
the French Revolution. 

‘The Wearing of the 
Green’ was the outcry 
of the Irish rebellion of 
1798, when the display 
of the shamrock em- 
blem was forbidden. 

Francis Scott Key, a 
young lawyer, sailed 
down Chesapeake Bay 
early in September 
1814 to plead for the 
release of a friend who 
was held prisoner 
aboard a British war- 
ship. The British freed 
his friend, but detained 
both him and Key until 
after their surprise 
attack on Baltimore. 

They towed the Amer- 
ican’s small vessel, the 
Minden, to a mooring in 
Baltimore harbor. Key 
watched the bombard- 
ment from its deck, 
guarded by British ma- 
rines. All day on Sep- 
tember 13. the battle 



During the bombardment of Fort McHenry— that anxious night of “the 
Scott Key, held by the British in Baltimore 
kn old T**® Star-Spangled Banner’ on the back 

of an old letter. This painting by H. A. Ogden shows the scene. 


raged, and through the night. Key paints a picture of 
that crucial night, as he strained his eyes for a glimpse 
of the he called “the Star-Spangled Banner” 
floatirg'j'j. °j^'?the ramparts at Fort AIcHenry. 

poem .^ickly became popular, and was set to 
the mu.'ic of old Revolutionary song, ‘Adams and 
Liberty’, taken O^turn from an English air, 'Anacreon 
in Heaven’. Isfeny^fjenerations of school children had 



- 41 


NATIONAL SONGS 


Other popular Union marching songs 
were ‘John Brown’s Body’ and 
'Marching Through Georgia’, by H. 

C. Work. Though ‘Dixie’, by Daniel 

D. Emmett, originated in the North 
as a Negro minstrel song in 1859, it 
came to be the rallying song of the 
Confederate cause. Another popular 
Southern lyric was ‘Maryland, My 
Maryland’, by James Ryder Randall, 
sung to the melody of the German 
Christmas song, ‘Tannenbaum’. 

The Spanish-American W ar revived 
‘When Johnny Comes Marching 
Home’, written during the Civil War 
by Patrick S. Gilmore, under the pen 
name Louis Lambert. Other favor- 
ites of that war were chiefly popular 
music hall tunes, long since forgotten. 

So often did military bands play 
‘There’ll be a Hot Time in the Old 
Town Tonight’ that Cuban natives 
thought it was the American national 
anthem. 

During the first World War many 
new songs appeared. Singing was 
recognized as a valuable aid to mo- 
rale, and song leaders were in every 
camp of American soldiers. The new 
songs ranged from humorous and sentimental ballads 
to stirring march airs that rang with the tramp of feet 
along French highways. Civilians in England and the 
United States echoed soldier voices with ‘It’s a Long, 
Long Way to Tipperary’, ‘Keep the Home Fires 
Burning’, ‘Pack Up Your Troubles in Your Old Kit 
Bag’, ‘Over There’, ‘K-K-K-Katy’, ‘There’s a Long, 
Long Trail’, ‘Smiles’, and many more. 

War Songs of the Allies 

In the first World War America became acquainted 
with the national anthems of allied lands. Students 
learned the words, and audiences rose as bands played 


the airs. ‘La Marseillaise’, France’s 
flaming anthem, always aroused en- 
thusiasm. More familiar grew the 
British patriotic hymns: ‘God Save 
the King’, by Henry Carey; ‘Rule 
Britannia!’, by J. Thomson and Dr, 
T, A. Arne; ‘The Maple Leaf For- 
ever’, a patriotic song of Canada by 
A. Muir; ‘The Song of Australia’, 
by Mrs. C. J. Carleton and Carl 
Linger; the Irish ‘Wearing of the 
Green’; the Scottish ‘Scots Wha Hae 
wi’ Wallace Bled’ and ‘We’ll Hae 
Nane but Highland Bonnets Here’, 
and the Welsh ‘Men of Harlech’. 

Belgium’s ‘La Braban 5 onne’ had 
appeared during a previous life-strug- 
gle of this battle-scarred nation — 
the war that freed her from Dutch 
rule. The verses were written by 
Jenneval and set to music by Fran- 
Qois van Campenhout. 

After the first World War Europe 
saw many changes in national songs as 
well as in governments. To the Italian 
national air, ‘The Royal March’, by 
G. Gabetti, was added the Fascist 
hymn, ‘Giovinezza’. (When the Fas- 
cists were driven from power in 1943, 
‘Giovinezza’ was immediately outlawed.) ‘Garibaldi’s 
Hymn’ by Luigi Mercantini, music by Alessio Olivieri, 
has long been a favorite in Italy. 

The Austrian republic abandoned the national 
anthem of the empire, ‘Gott Erhalte Unsem Kaiser’ 
(God Preserve Our Emperor) sung to music by Franz 
Joseph Haydn. The various parties in power before 
Austria’s annexation to Germany tried to establish a 
successor. One favorite was ‘Oesterreichische Bundes- 
hymne’, with words by Karl Renner and music by Wil- 
helm Kienzl. The national anthem of the Hungarians 
is ‘Magyar Himnusz’ (Hungarian Hymn). 


AMERICA 

My country. His of thee, 
Sweet land of liberty. 

Of thee I sing; 

Land where my fathers died. 
Land of the Pilgrims’ pride. 
From every mountain side 
Let freedom ring. 

My native country, thee — 
Land of the noble free — 

Thy name I love; 

I love thy rocks and rills. 

Thy woods and templed hills; 
My heart with rapture thrills 
Like that above. 

Let music swell the breeze. 
And ring from all the trees 
Sweet freedom’s song; 

Let mortal tongues awake. 

Let all that breathe partake. 
Let rocks their silence break. 
The sound prolong. 

Our fathers’ God, to Thee; 
Author of liberty. 

To Thee we sing: 

Long may our land he bright 
With freedom’s holy light. 
Protect us by Thy might. 
Great God, our King. 


THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER 


0 say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light, 

What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming? 
Whose broadstripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight. 
O’er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming! 
And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air. 

Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there: 

0 say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 

On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep. 
Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes. 

What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep, 
it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses? 

N ow it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam. 

In full glory reflected now shines on the stream: 

'Txs the star-spangled banner! O long may it wave. 

O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave! 


And where is that band who so vauntingly swore 
That the havoc of war and the battle’s confusion 
A home and a country should leave us no more? 

Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution. 
No refuge could save the hireling and slave 
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: 

And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 

Oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand 
Between their loved homes and War’s desolation! 

Blest with victory and peace, may the Heav’n-rescued land 
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation. 
Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just. 

And this be our motto: “In God is our trust.” 

And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave. 

O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 




NATIONAL SONGS 


42 


In Russia, the ‘Internationale’ replaced a prayer 
for the czar. (In 1944, the ‘Hymn of the Soviet Un- 
ion’ replaced the ‘Internationale’.) The Poles sang 
‘Jeszcze Polska nie Zginela’ (Poland’s Not Yet Dead 
in Slavery), written 1830. In Czechoslovakia, before 
the German conquest, the Czech anthem was ‘Kde 
Domov Muj’ (Where Is My Homeland?), and the 
Slovaks sang ‘Nad Tatrou Se Blyska’ (Lightning 
Above the Mountains). The Bohemian ‘War-Song of 
the Hussites’ was first heard in the 15th century. The 
Yugoslav anthem ‘Boze Pravde’ (God of Justice) 
comprises the first stanzas from the old national 
hymns of Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. 

Songs of Germany and Scandinavia 
‘Deutschland, Deutschland fiber Alles’ (Germany 
Above All), the poem written by Hoffmann von Fal- 
lersleben in 1840 and set to the musie of Haydn’s 
‘Austrian Hjunn’, fell under the ban of the German 
republic after the first World War, but was later 
restored as the national anthem. More popular under 
the Nazi regime was the ‘Horst Wessel Lied’, written 
by a young Nazi leader, Horst Wessel, who lost his life 
in 1930. The melody is an old German folk-song. ‘Die 
Wacht am Rhein’ (The Watch on the Rhine), with 


verses by Max Schneckenburger to the music of Karl 
Wilhelm of Schmalkalden, is another favorite. 

Norway’s hymns are ‘Sinner af Norge’ (Sons of 
Norway) and the national song by their great poet 
Bjornstjerne Bjornson, ‘Yes, We Love with Fond 
Devotion Norway’s Mountain Domes’. In Sweden, 
‘Du gamla, du fria’ was written by Richard Dybeck to 
an old folk tune, and the King’s Song ‘Ur svenska 
hjertans djup’ was written by K. V. A. Strandberg 
with music by Otto Lindblad. In Denmark, the war- 
like words of ‘King Kristian stod ved hojen mast’ 
(King Christian Stood Beside the Mast) have been 
ringing since 1775. The words are by Johannes Evald, 
the music by John Hartmann. The national song of 
Finland is ‘Maamme Laulu’ (Our Land), with words 
by J. L. Runeberg and music by F. Pacius. 

An Anthem Without Words 

Two patriotic hymns are sung in the Netherlands— 
‘Wilhelmus van Nassouwe’ and ‘Wien Negrlansch 
Bloed’. The Swiss national anthem ‘Rufst du, mein 
Vaterland’, by Johann Wyss, is sung to the familiar 
tune of ‘America’. There are no words to Spain’s 
anthem, the centuries old ‘Marcha Granadera’, which 
used to be called ‘Marcha Real’. ‘Traeisca Regele’ 


ROUGET DE LISLE SINGING THE ‘MARSEILLAISE’ 



Ye sons of France, awake to glory. 

Hark, hark what myriads bid you rise! 
Your children, wives, andgrandsires hoary. 
Behold their tears and hear their cries. 


Shall hateful tyrants, mischief breeding. 
With hireling hosts, a ruffian band. 
Affright and desolate the land. 

While peace and liberty lie bleeding? 


To arms, to arms, ye brave! 

Th’ avenging sword unsheath! 

March on, march on, all hearts resolved 
To victory or death. 


43 


NATURALIZATION 


(Long Live the King) won for V. Alexandri the prize 
offered by the Rumanian government in 1861 for the 
best national anthem. The music is by E. A. Hiibsch. 

The Greek ‘Ethnicos Ymnos’ (The People’s H 3 ’mn) 
is known in English through the translation bj’- Rud- 
yard Kipling. Eastward, the Persians sing ‘Salamati 
Shah’; Egypt has the 'Salaam EfSndina’ (March of 
the Khedive) ; the Turkish anthem is ‘Istiklal Marsi’ 
(March of Independence); the Chinese favorite is 
‘Song of the Kuomintang’, whose fiery words came 
from a patriotic address by Dr. Sun Yat-sen. Japan 
sings ‘Kimi Ga Yo Wa’ (In the 
Reign of Our Emperor). 

Latin American national 
hymns blaze -with a fervent 
love of liberty and country. 

They include Argentina’s ‘Old 
mortales, el grito sagrado’ 

(Hear, 0 Mortals, the Sacred 
Call); Chile’s ‘Dulce Patria’ 

(Dear Fatherland) ; Peru’s ‘So- 
mos fibres, seamoslo siempre’ 

(We Are Free; Let Us Be So 
Ever); Brazil’s ‘Hymno .da 
Proclamacao da Republica’ 

(Hymn of the Proclamation of 
the Republic) ; Mexico’s ‘Mexi- 
canos, al grito de guerra’ (Me.xi- 
cans, at the Crj^ of War) ; and 
El Salvador’s ‘Saludemos la 
Patria’ (Let Us Hail Our 
Country). 

Naturalization. “I here- 
by declare, on oath, that I 
absolutely and entirely re- 
nounce and abjure all alle- 
giance and fidelity to any for- 
eign prince, potentate, state, 
or sovereignty of whom (which) I have heretofore been 
a subject (or citizen); that I will support and de- 
fend the Constitution and laws of the United States 
of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; 
that I \vill bear true faith and allegiance to the same; 
that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States 
or perform noncombat service in the Armed Forces of 
the United States when required by law; and that I 
take this obligation freely without any mental reser- 
vation or purpose of evasion: So help me God.” 

This is the usual oath a person takes as the final 
step in becoming naturalized, or admitted to citizen- 
ship, in the United States. It is administered in 
court and is often accompanied by a patriotic cere- 
mony especially on Citizenship Day, September 17 
(see Festivals and Holidays). After taking the oath, 
the new citizen receives his certificate of citizen- 
ship, or final -paper. 

The Process of Naturalization 

To become naturalized an alien first obtains from 
the Commissioner of Naturalization a certificate of 
arrival. This gives information showing that he has 
been lawfully admitted to the United States. At any 


time after his arrival, if he is at least 18 years old, 
he may make his declaration of interdion to become 
a citizen (or “take out his first paper”) before the 
clerk of a court. In not less than two nor more than 
seven years thereafter he may file his petition for 
citizenship (second paper), if he has lived continuously 
in the country for five years. He must provide two 
witnesses who are citizens to take oath as to his good 
character and his five shears of residence. 

An e.xaminer from the Immigration and Naturaliza- 
tion Service tests the applicant’s knowledge of the 
English language and of the or- 
ganization of the United States 
government; and makes certain 
that he understands and ac- 
cepts the fundamental prin- 
ciples of the Constitution. At 
his final hearing in open court 
the' applicant is further exam- 
ined. Aliens are trained for 
naturalization in adult educa- 
tion classes of public school 
systems and by other agencies. 

Not every applicant for citi- 
zenship is required to comply 
with the general provisions of 
naturalization laws. Certain 
exemptions are granted to such 
groups as members (or vet- 
erans) of the armed forces, 
former citizens, and the hus- 
bands or wives of citizens. 

There are no barriers to cit- 
izenship because of race, sex, 
or marital status. Citizenship 
is barred, however, to polyg- 
amists, anarchists, convicted 
criminals, and those who advo- 
cate subversive activities. A naturalized citizen may 
lose his citizenship in a munber of ways, such as by 
living two years in his native land or five years in 
other foreign countries after his naturalization. 

A United States citizen does not forfeit his cit- 
izenship solely through marriage to an alien, nor 
does an alien acquire citizenship by reason of his 
marriage to a United States citizen. Under certain 
circumstances, children under the age of 18 derive 
citizenship through the naturalization of one or both 
of their parents. A determination of such citizenship is 
made after considering the essential facts in each 
individual case. 

Laws and Treaties 

In the United States naturalization is regulated by 
Congress, which makes new laws or amends old ones 
from time to time. All the leading nations have natu- 
ralization laws and many of them have treaties with 
other nations, in order to avoid difficulties resulting 
from transfers of citizenship or from differences in 
nationality laws. The United States is a party to a 
number of such treaties. (See also Americanization; 
Citizenship.) 


JULIA WARD HOWE 



Author of the ‘Battle Hymn of the Republic’, which 
became one of the stirring songs of the North during 
the trying years of the Civil War. The words, which 
were published in 1862, were sung to the tune of ‘John 
Brown’s Body’. 



45 


NATURE STUDY 


LEARNING to Read in NATURE’S Wonder BOOK 



These tracks in the snow tell an exciting story with a happy ending. A rabbit loping up to this spot and turning to the left 
at the tall weed was attacked by an owl or a hawk, whose beating wingtips made these short “comma marks.” After a brief 
struggle, during which the snow was churned and trampled, the rabbit escaped and raced away. 


TVJATURE STUDY. Everyone 
loves adventure stories — 
tales of dramatic action, of 
struggle and danger, of dif- 
ficulties overcome, and of mys- 
teries solved. But how many 
people know they can find true 
stories of this kind in their own 
backyards? 

The book of nature is the 
most fascinating reading in the 
world. It is a book of living 
stories, always changing, al- 
ways new. It is a mystery tale 
in which you yourself play the 
detective, seeking the answers to the most exciting made the stories of the insects more interesting than 
questions. The story grows in interest as you grow in most novels, for 30 years never left his fittle farm 
experience. For this is the story of LifeitseK, and of (see Fabre). Another great nature writer, Thoreau, 
the Earth, which is your home. “traveled widely in Concord” (see Thoreau). You too 

YTat is the key to this enchanted book? How does may “travel widely” in your own backyard. For it is 
one enter its pages? Microscopes, binoculars, and not "where you go that matters, but how much you 
other tools of science are helpful. Some nature books see and how well you understand it. 


CAN YOU ANSWER THESE? 

Why are -plants green? 

How does a frog prepare for winter? A 
muskrat? A horse? A bat? 

Why should an aquarium contain plants as 
-well as fish? 

What group of plants lives on food manu- 
factured by other plants? 

What good does perfume do a flower? 

Why are some seeds so made that they can 
travel long distances? 

How does the wasp provide fresh food for 
the young it never sees? 


are dehghtful reading. The 
articles in this encyclopedia 
and the books fisted at the end 
of this article "will pro"vdde a 
starting point. But the real 
textbook is nature herself. 
Wherever "winds blow, sun and 
stars shine, snow and rain fall, 
plants grow, and animals five, 
there you find the materials 
for studying nature, if only 
you have the eyes and the 
•wish to see. It isn't necessary 
to travel far afield. The great 
French naturalist Fabre. who 






NATURE STUDY 


46 


How Plants Grow and Jnake Food 



The leaves take carbon dioxide from the air. The roots absorb 
water. It travels up to the leaves through tiny pipes. With the 
aid of sunlight, the green coloring matter in the ieaves breaks 
down the water and the carbon dioxide into their separate 
atoms and recombines them to form sugars and starches. Oxy- 
gen is given off to the air through pores in the leaves. 


A GOOD starting point for the study of nature is a 
flower and vegetable garden. Everybody loves to 
dig in the earth. You can help to plant the seeds 
and keep the garden weeded. If you can have 3'our 
own garden, or your own corner of the garden, so 
much the better. Then you are entirely responsible 
for its success or failure. 

Wouldn’t you like to know what happens to the 
seeds after you have placed them in the dark soil? You 
can’t pull up the plants and still have a garden, but 
you can make an interesting experiment. If you vill 
plant a lima bean in a glass-sided box you may watch 
it grow into a mature plant (see Bean). 

Green plants are nature’s miracle workers. The 
leaves of that plain little bean, the leaves of all green 
plants, are most amazing chemical factories. Turn- 
ing sunlight, air, and water into sugar and starch, 
they manufacture food not only for themselves but 
indirectly for all animal life. Read in the articles 
Leaves and Plant Life how the green coloring ma- 
terial in the leaf, called chlorophyll (klo'ro-fil), per- 
forms this wonderful work. Look at a leaf through 
the microscope. You can see the tiny green dots of 
chlorophyll and the little mouths or pores through 
which the leaf breathes in carbon dioxide and breathes 
out moisture and oxygen. 

Plants must also have water and certain minerals 
carried in the water. Look at the root of your bean 
plant through the microscope. Those tiny hairs ab- 
sorb water and dissolved minerals out of the soil {see 
Root). Little pipes carry the water up through the 
stems of the plant to the leaves. Other pipes cany 
the sap, containing dissolved plant food, back from 
the leaves to the stems and roots. 

We said that plants manufacture food for all ani- 
mal life. And this includes human beings as well as 
fish, insects, birds, and the four-footed creatures. Even 
meat eaters depend on green plants indirectly. You 
would have no beefsteak if there were no grass for 
cattle to eat. Owls eat field mice; daddy longlegs 
eat aphids. But field mice live on grain, and aphids 
eat garden plants. Without plants there would be 
nothing for the meat eaters to feed on. 

Since all life depends on the work of the green leaf, 
it should be interesting to make a collection of leaves. 
Learn to recognize the trees and shrubs in your 
neighborhood by their leaves. Learn the names 0! 
the weeds in your garden, lawn, and neighboring 
pasture or wood lot. Are they all harmful, or are 
some useful to man? Which ones provide food and 
shelter for birds and small animals? 

How Plants Store Food 

Plants are thrifty. They do not use all the food 
which the leaves manufacture for them. Some of it 
they store away to be used for future grotvth. It is 
this stored food that we eat. Some plants, such as 
carrots, beets, and turnips, which take two years to 
produce seed (biennials), store nourishment in their 
roots the first year. Spinach and cabbage store food 










1. The bud on the first day of its 
opening. 2. Sixth day, the inner 
scales break away. 3. Eighth day, 
the last and innermost scales are 
pushed out. 4. Ninth day, the leaf is 
exposed to view. 

in their leaves; asparagus and 
rhubarb, in their stems; pota- 
toes and onions, in tubers and 
bulbs. A seed contains concen- 
trated food to nourish the 
tiny plant inside until it can 
make its own food. We eat the 
seeds of corn and peas and beans, but the plant in- 
tended that food for the use of its own “children.” 

During the late summer and fall a tree pours food 
into its buds. After the leaves have fallen you can 
see very plainly a plump little bud at the point where 
the old leaf grew from the branch. Cut one open and 
you will find a new leaf tightly curled up in its prison. 
During the winter it will rest there, ready to burst 
out with the warm sun of spring. ITie outside of the 
bud is like a warm coat, formed of overlapping scales 
which protect the tender leaves. 


5. On the eleventh day the la®**®* 
becomes detached. 6. Three weeKs 
later, the leaves have assumed the» 
proper shape and the flower hues 
have sprouted. 7. Fifteen days late* 
the flower opens. 

In the late summer and fall 
too you will discover that your 
flowers and weeds are “going 
to seed.” How do plants pro- 
duce seeds and why (see 
Seeds)? Make a collection 
of seeds and mount them 
beside the leaves of the plant to which they belong- 
Find examples of seeds that float with filmy sails and 
seeds with stiff gliding sails; of cannon-shot seeds; 
seeds that steal rides on animals’ furry coats and boys 
trouser legs; seeds that fioat on water like tiny 
water wings; and seeds that pay for their rides with 
the nourishing fruit that surrounds them. Why is a 
seed so made that it can travel long distances? IITiat 
do you think would happen to the seeds if they all 
fell to the ground under the parent plant? Could 
very many of them develop into new plants? 




'. J i J \ When the ripe seed pod of the jewelweed (1) is touched it hursts open and shoots its seeds (2) to 

..V>' If \ a considerable distance. The wind carries the maple seed (3) on stiff, gliding wings. Milk- 

f’.vfr / \\ \ weed seeds (4) float on filmy sails. Red mulberry seeds (5) are scattered by birds. Cockle- 

> * barbed spines that stick to the hair of a dog or other animal. Squirrels disperse 

acorns (7) by burying them in some secret hiding place. The seeds of grains, such as wheat (8), 
are scattered throughout the world by the farmer. 


49 






NATURE STUDY 


50 


GHOST PLANTS THAT CANNOT MAKE THEIR OWN FOOD 


‘4-/ i 



m-: 



The four plants shown above contain no green coloring matter. 
They have to obtain their food from other plants. The Indian 
pipe (upper left) finds its nourishment in the decaying vegetable 
matter of moist woods. Bread mold (upper center), shown here 
as the microscope sees it, grows on stale bread. The mushroom 
(upper right) and the bracket fungi (lower left) are growing out 
of tree trunks. 

Some green plants are so small or so unlike the 
familiar flowering plants that you may not yet be 
acquainted with them. The scum on quiet pond water 
is made up of colonies of plants called algae (see Al- 
gae). If you have ever looked at the beautiful pat- 
terns of algae in a microscope you will never again 
think of scum as something ugly or unclean. 

Another lowly but useful and interesting group of 
plants are the mosses (see Moss). They too are very 
beautiful under the microscope, and you will want to 
learn their names. The algae and mosses were among 
the first plants to develop on the earth, the ones that 
prepared the way for the higher plants. 

How Non-Green Plants Get Their Food 

All the plants we have been talking about contain 
chlorophyll. Many plants, however, lack the magic 
greenness. They must obtain their food from dead 
plant and animal matter or from the living tissues 
of green plants and animals. In your walks through 
the woods you will find lichens and bracket fungi 


growing on tree trunks (see Fungi; Lichens). Down 
under the damp leaves are mushrooms and toad- 
stools. Perhaps you will find some of the “ghost 
flowers” — the Indian pipe, cancerroot, beechdrops, 
and coralroot; or the dodder, which wraps its stringy 
vines around other plants. Look at the dodder 
carefully and see how it thrusts suckers into the 
stem of its host, draining the food made by the 
green plant. 

The fungi are a large and varied family. Some of 
them cause the bacterial diseases of animals and hu- 
man beings. Others are the destructive smuts and 
rusts that attack plants. Some fungi, however, are 
very useful. One of them is yeast, which e.vtracts 
oxygen for its own use from the sugar in bread dough 
(see Yeast). Another is mold. Through your magnify- 
ing glass look at the strange blue forest on a piece 
of moldy bread. It is related to the wonderful new 
drug penicillin, which is curing many dangerous dis- 
eases (see Antiseptics). 

The Adaptability of Plants 

The remarkable adaptability of plants permits them 
to live throughout the earth and under the most un- 
favorable conditions. We have just learned about 
plants that have adjusted themselves to living with- 
out chlorophyll and without sunshine. Desert plants 
have learned to conserve water by reducing their 
leaves to spines and developing stems that are like 
thick storage tanks (see Cactus). In shallow ponds 
plants have broad, flat leaves that float on the sur- 
face of the water like rafts, anchored to the bottom 
by long, stout stems. In the oeean the ribbon-like 
leaves of many seaweeds keep afloat by means of 
countless little air bladders. 

You know, of course, that animals eat plants. Do 
you know that some plants eat animals in order to 
obtain certain minerals that are lacking in the soili 
Look in swampy places for a pitcher plant, bladder- 
wort, sundew, or Venus’s-flytrap. The endless va- 
riety of plant life is a fascinating study and one that 
cannot be exhausted in a lifetime. 


HOW PLANTS ADAPT THEMSELVES 



Here are four plants that live under special conditions. The cactus (upper left), with its thick, water-stonng stem and 
leaves reduced to spines, thrives in the desert. The pitcher plant (upper right) lives in swampy_ places where it supplies 
certain food needs by devouring insects. Each leaf is an exquisite little pitcher designed to attract its victims. The seaweed 
(lower left) floats on the surface of the ocean by means of air bladders. The water lily (lower right) lifts its leaves to the 
surface on long stems rooted in the lake bottom. Notice how the edges of the leaves turn up to form small “flathoats” that 

help to support the flowers. 


51 







NATURE STUDY 


52 


How Plants and Animals Depend on One Another 



TP YOU are taking good care of your garden the in- 
sects, bugs, and other small creatures will make 
you notice them whether you want to or not. Next 
time you go weeding, look at them with a magnifying 
glass. You’ve often seen daddy longlegs. Did you 
know that they carry their eyes on a sort of “conning 
tower” mounted in the middle of their backs? Did 
you ever look in the face of a June bug? It resembles 
a rather stupid puppy, with antennae like a pair 
of palm-leaf fans waving ridiculously where the ears 
should be. 

Watch bees, wasps, and moths. Like all the other 
insects, they are in search of food. Their food is the 
nectar at the heart of a flower. As they crawl about 
in the flower the pollen sticks to their furry legs. 
When they visit another flower some of the pollen 
brushes off. Every flower that these insects visit 
gets a little pollen from some other flower. Many 
plants depend entirely on insects to pollinate them. 
They cannot develop new seeds unless pollen gets 
down into the part of the flowers where the seeds 
grow. The beautiful colors and forms of flowers 
and their perfume are designed by nature to attract 
insects. So insects and flowers act as partners. We 
learned that animals cannot live without plants. 
Now we discover that many of the plants we know 


today cannot live without animals. 
For insects, you know, are animak 
Without insects we would have prac- 
tically no fruits. Many vegetables, 
trees, shrubs, and flowers would disajy 
pear. There would be no cotton or 
linen, no coffee or tobacco. 

_ Few of our plants could grow without 
birds. Do you know why? Birds eat 
enormous numbers of insects. Many of 
these insects are plant eaters. If they 
were not checked by their enemies they 
would increase in numbers and destroy 
all plant life. Watch the birds in your 
neighborhood and try to find out vhat 
they are eating. Snakes, frogs, toads, 
and bats also eat insects, and should 
be protected as good friends of thf 
farmer and gardener. 

On the stems of your garden plants, 
and where the leaves join the main stalk, 
you wiU probably find aphids. They 
are tiny insects, pale and fragile look- 
ing. With the magnifying glass look at 
the sharp beaks with which they pierce 
the plant tissues. Aphids are harmful 
to your garden, and you will have to kill 
them. But they are very useful to the 
ants, who “milk” them to obtain _s 
sweet substance that comes from their 
bodies. They even pasture them and 
provide them with shelter in under- 
ground “stables” (see Aphids). 

The policemen of your garden are the ladybugs. 
Don’t ever kill them, for these meat eaters help you 
to get rid of the destructive plant eaters (see Lady- 
bug). Dragonflies kill countless houseflies, mosqui- 
toes, and other pests. The villainous praying man- 
tis attacks both harmful and beneficial creatures, and 
sometimes becomes a pest himself (see Dragonfly; 
Mantis). Have you noticed that your garden is a 
veritable battleground? Here constant warfare is 
waged to eat and to keep from being eaten. 

The Earthworm’s Food Exchange 
Dig up a spadeful of earth. You will find some 
earthworms. Earthworms turn over and loosen soil 
like tiny plowmen (see Earthworm). Only through 
loose soil can air and water get down to the roots of 
plants. Thus earthworms make it possible for plants 
to grow by loosening soil and letting in air and water. 
The plants in turn provide food for the earthworms 
as their leaves drop off and decay in the soil. 

A walk through the woods and fields Mth wide 
open eyes will reveal many other examples of interde- 
pendence. We have already learned how non-green 
plants obtain their food from living green plants and 
from dead and decaydng plant and animal material. 
Plants help one another in other ways too. The vine 
climbs up into the light and air on the strong trunk of 






NATURE STUDY 


- 54 


THE MEADOWLARK USES PLANTS FOR SHELTER AND INSECTS FOR FOOD 



The mother meadowlark is bringing a grasshopper to her hungry babies. The nest, placed on the ground, is made of grasses. Its 
beautifully shaped dome conceals it from an enemy looking down from above. How do plants and animals serve the meadowlarK. 


the tree. The shade-loving violet hides from the too- 
strong rays of the sun in the shelter of the deep woods. 

Lie flat on your stomach on the edge of a shallow 
pond or stream and look down into the clear water. 
You will see queer little things moving about — 
bundles of sticks and rubbish. Collect them and keep 


SQUIRRELS AS TREE PLANTERS 



The squirrel gathers nuts as they fall from the tree in autumn 
and stores them in underground hiding places. Many of his 
hoards are never eaten. He may be killed, or he may store more 
than he needs. The nuts sprout to become new trees and they 
provide more nuts for future generations of squirrels. So nut 
trees and squirrels help each other. 


them in fresh water. Inside these odd houses are 
caddis fly larvae. The larva protects its soft body 
by building around it a covering 'of sticks or any 
other hard material available. A glue-hke substance 
from the body of the insect holds the sticks in place. 
If it has to move, it thrusts out its head and front 
legs and drags the house along with it. If an enemy 
appears, it draws back into the shelter of this 
“trailer” home and escapes notice. 

How many other animal homes can you find that 
are made of plant materials? The robin’s nest of 
sticks and leaves, the warbler’s nest of moss, and the 
woodpecker’s hole in a tree are examples. You 
may find a skunk’s nest of leaves and grass in a hollow 
log, a muskrat colony, or a fox’s den. Many animals, 
therefore, depend on plants not only for food, bu 
for shelter against enemies and weather. 

Other Ways in Which Animals Use Plants 

Termites make their homes in wood and then eat up 
their homes. They are thus doubly dependent on 
plant life. Moreover, they couldn’t exist withou 
the help of other animals — tiny creatures 
protozoa, which live in their intestines and d>g®® 
the wood fiber for them. Read in the article on 
Termites about the partnership between these m 
sects and the protozoa. _ . 

Plants serve all animal life in a very importan 
way by breathing oxygen and moisture into the aw 
through their leaves. Animals, in turn, breathe m a 
oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide, which tie 
plants need. This interesting exchange can be obsen'C 
in a home aquarium. From the leaves of the plan s 
you can see bubbles of oxygen rising in the wa er. 
The fish breathe in this’o.xygen and eat the leaves o 
the plants. The plants use the carbon dioxide breathe 
out by the fish, and the waste products of the hs 
supply them with their mineral needs. 






55 


NATURE STUDY 


Animals and How They Live 


"DEGIN YOUE- study of ani- 
mals with those nearest to 
you. If you have pets of your 
own, study them. Or visit those 
of your neighbors. Perhaps 
you can make friends with the 
owner of an animal store or 
one of the keepers at a zoo. 

Prom men Uke these you will 
hear many amusing stories. 

You may have the oppor- 
tunity to raise a baby bird 
whose parents have been killed. 

The greedy little creature will 
keep you busy hunting for 
worms, but it is a real thrill 
to make a friend of a wild bird 
who will fly to your shoulder 
at your call. Crows are in- 
telligent and amusing. They 
are thieves, and their mis- 
chievous tricks may keep the 
household in an uproar, but 
they are great fim. 

The things to watch for in animal study are endless. 
How do they care for their young? Kittens are bom 
blind and helpless. The mother feeds them with her 
milk for several weeks, keeps them clean, tries to 
hide them in a safe place. Have you ever noticed 
how she fusses when you play with her babies? At 
the flrst opportunity she carries them off to their 
bed. She will change their hiding place repeatedly 
if they are disturbed. 

Elephants and bears, who have only one or two 
young at a time, take care of them for about two years. 

A mother bear is a great disciplinarian. If her cubs 

A WOODCHUCK FAMILY 



Under the mother’s guidance, wild mallard ducklings take to the water almost immediately 
after they have hatched. When danger threatens, the young scatter and seek cover, while 
the mother attracts attention to herself by pretending that she is injured. 

don’t behave she boxes their ears. One was observed 
trying to teach the babies to swim. They preferred to 
ride across the stream on her back. As fast as she 
would roll them off, they would scramble back on 
again. When she finally got them across she gave 
them both a good sound cuffing. 

Skunks remain in the nest and feed on their 
mother’s milk for about 20 days. YTien they are 
strong enough, they go for walks with the mother to 
learn how to catch insects, mice, and other food. 
They march off in single file. If one strays, the watch- 
ful mother pushes him back in line. 


OUTSIDE ITS 


BURROW 



Four little woodchuck cubs investigate the food possibilities of the plants around the entrance to their home, while the mother 
listens alertly for any unwelcome sounds. At the slightest suspicion of danger she will hustle them into the burrow. 











The photographer has pushed the long grass aside tn matr^ iT '""' " » '* " '' t rf ■ Mw ir ,J P- . . 

and trustful they are. They need to be ^ell hidden to ® young cottontail rabbits. See how quiet 

thick undergrowth and has lined it with fur taken from her**ow]? mother rabbit has hollowed out this spot in 

you would not hear a sound of stirring or a sinele soumI “.y°“ caine close to the nest without knowing where it was, 

that i -ise"rufd%%%\^i's"a?tS?l‘rprs^n‘‘g“?o^Jtl^ 


Many wild babies are able to find their own food 
a few hours after birth, but they remain with the 
mother until they are strong enough to protect them- 
selves. You have seen chicks huddle under the hen’s 
wings when a hawk flies overhead. 

Some animals provide elaborate homes, others de- 
pend on clever concealment for the protection of the 
babies. The mother rabbit makes a shallow nest of 
leaves lined with fur plucked from her own breast. She 
places it in the open, away from trees and shrubs 
which might hide an enemy. When she goes away 
from the nest to hunt for her own food she covers it 
over Twth dried grasses. The mother deer hides her 
fawns in thickets near where she is feeding. They lie 
still and their spotted coats 


babies are well protected against their enemies. On 
sunny days they play out of doors at the entrance 
to their home, while one of the parents keeps a sharp 
watch for danger. At a signal they scramble instantly 
back into the den. Animal babies are obedient, for 
their lives depend on obedience. 

The mother carries her helpless young in many dif- 
ferent ways. The raccoon carries her baby by the 
loose skin of the neck, as a cat does a kitten {see Rac- 
coon). The bear holds the entire head of the tiny baby 
in her mouth. The opossum carries the newborn young 
in a pouch, as the kangaroo does. When they are older 
they ride on her back. A polar bear cub seizes its 
mother’s tail and is towed out of danger. Grey Owl, 


blend into the foliage. 

Muskrats, beavers, chip- 
munks, prairie dogs, and 
foxes build houses with un- 
derground runways and sep- 
arate exits and entrances. 
In warm, dry chambers the 


This family has been driven from 
its farmyard pen by rising flood 
waters. The sow is steering 
her eight piglets through the 
backwaters of the river to safety 
on higher ground. Although pigs 
are not fond of swimming, they 
will do so^ if their own lives 
and the lives of their young 
depend on it. 





A FAMILY OF ROBINS GROWS UP_ 






■sfm 


I - ^ ^ 


¥ 


m 






These pictures tell the story of a robin family froni the day 
the greenish-blue eggs were laid (1) until the last fledgling 
left the nest about four weeks later. Two weeks after the 
first egg waslaid (2) a moist, struggling baby robin pecked its 
way out of the shell. The eggs hatched at 24-hour intervals, 
in the order in which they were laid. At first the bird s eyes 


were greatly enlarged (3). They rapidly assumed a more 
normal size (4) but remained blind for about a week. Both 
parents fed worms to the babies (5), the birds opening their 
bills whenever the nest was touched. When they left the 
nest their tails were still short, their wing feathers unde- 
veloped, and their coats speckled (6). 





NATURE STUDY 


58 


THE TURTLE PREPARES TO HIDE HER EGGS 




-t: ' 













■; % ' ', " 

The froghopper, a sap^sucklng buf, 
clings to the'stem of a plant and covets 
itself with; a white mound of bufebk 
Some insects .taste so bad ttuit 
other creatures leave >thein al(«. 
The' -whirligig , beetle, ■ which lives 
on top' of ', a pond, has eyes that 
can see both .dowm and up at the 
same time. If; a bird flies' over’ the 
pond, it diyes'. If h hungry fishap 


CARRYING THEIR YOUNG 




The female snapping turtle bliries her eggs in a sandy spot where the heat of 
the sun can hatch them. She does not stand guard over them; her skill in hiding 
the traces of the hole is the only protection the 'eggs receive. 

the Canadian naturalist, tells of seeing a jmung beaver 
standing upright on its mother’s broad flat tail and 
holding onto the fur of her back w'ith its tiny claws. 

While it was dragged off to safety it looked around 
brightly. A squirrel holds the infant in her mouth 
by its stomach, w'hile the young one curis its head and 
tail on either side of her face. Baby bats cling to the 
mother’s breast (see Bat). 

Only rarely do the fathers assume all the house- 
hold duties. The stickleback, a fish, builds the nest 
and fiercely guards it until the eggs have hatched. 

The father sea horse takes the eggs laid by the female 
into a sort of vest pocket, like a kangaroo’s pouch. 

He hot only hatches the eggs in his pocket, but cares 
for the young until they are 
strong enough to fend for them- 
selves (see Sea Horse). 

Most of the insects and fish 
abandon their eggs before they 
hatch. Vast numbers of the un- 
protected young are killed by 
their enemies. Because of this 
destruction, an enormous num- 
ber of eggs must be laid to make 
sme that a few will escape to 
carry on the race. Even these 
primitive mothers are not en- 
tirely selfish, for they lay eggs in 
places most suited to the needs of the young. 

Blowflies seek out the carcasses of dead ani- 
mals, for the larvae feed on rotting flesh. 

Certain wasps place a paralyzed but living in- , 
sect in the nest, then lay an egg on the insect 
and close up the nest. I^en the larva hatches 
a few days later, it has a supply of fresh food at 
hand. The eggs of plant-eating insects are al- 
w'ays laid on the particular kind of plant 
which the larvae require for food. 

Every amnSsJ is provdded with some means 
of defending itsSlh They fight with claws, 
teeth, horns, tusks)sstings, or quills. Deer 
and rabbits run away\Many birds, insects, 
and animals are shielded tSV protective colora- 
tion, which blends so clev^y into their sur- 
roundings that they escape motice. 






for'Safe^ 
in' colonies, liie 
the beavers and prairie! dogs, help to 
protect one another. Scouts are id- 
ways pn the alert watching for’dan^, 
At a signal from a scout the members of the cobnv 
scramble to safety in their dens. ■ • , 

. Not all. of an animal’s life is devoted to the serious 
business of finding food and escaping, from, enemies. 
Even the adults find some time for fun. You have 
all watched kittens and puppies tumble and race, 
but to see a wild animal at play is a rare treat. 
Skunks have an odd little dancing circle game in 
which, the entire family joins (see Skunk). Otters 
slide by the hour on mud toboggans. In 
they coast on the snow and ice with as much deiig 
as any small boy. Admiral .Byrd's explorers in e 
South Polar seas watched penguins coasting into^ c 
water dowm slopes of ice. If a bird at the ® 
a. waiting line was too deliberate, t e 
bird behind gave him an impatient 
shove. Beaver cubs like' to vresl.e. 
With stubby front legs around eacti 
other’s necks, they tug and roll un 
they topple over in a grunting heap. 

This spider (left) packs her h(f 

'pouch or bag which she carries xhe 

until the baby spiders the 

mother opossum (below) is one o 
patient carriers of t**® her pontb 

newborn young at® ®'>'® *°. '®®J® nisenooih 
they ride on her back until **'®J flLin, to the 
to take care of ‘t®niselves, retuinmg 
pouch to sleep and rest. 0“® , ,.jj. 

■ climb trees with such a lose. 


she can i 




ANIMALS PROTECT THEMSELVES IN MANY WAYS 



The common mole (1) stays underground. Notice the big f^ont paws with which it digs. The porcupine (2) defends itself 
>wth needle-sharp quills barbed at their tips. The great claws of the lobster (3) seize and hold its food, and the armor plate 
of shell protects it from attack. The froghopper (4) builds a house of evil-tasting bubbles in which it lives safe from its 
toes. The insect ejects the waxy fluid from its body and with its tail lashes it into a sticky mass of foam. The peaceful 

beaver (5) simply retires to the security of its underwater home. 

59 . 







fc. ,.... - .. i.i ■ill■■ t ^ • I. la .ii. fc- r ui tt -a-^ -W i ^. i .i.j i . v ,« t ,. r <. fc > r -ii i t -■ri-m-wXgr .UJ >* ^ 

Two boys and a dog stroll through the gold and crimson glory of the autumn woods. The insect orchestra has fallen silent. An 
occasional wiry <‘screek” tells of a late-journeying bird still feeding on seeds and berries. Few animals remain active. 


r. -r-y.. 


SUMMER draws to a close the watchful nature 
student will see many signs of approaching Mn- 
ter. The sumach has turned scarlet. The trees are a 
blaze of red, orange, and yellow. The familiar birds 
are gone, and new birds are appearing on the lawn 
in the morning, only to vanish in the night. Soon 
you may be sitting by a bright fire listening to the 
snow hiss against the windo\vpane and wondering 
how the little people of the field and forest are far- 
ing. A few months ago the woods swarmed with life. 
Now the winter quiet is broken only by the rustling 
of the weed tops in the wind, the tinkle of the 
brook under the ice. What has become of the wild 
things? 

Some Run Away; Some Go to Sleep 
Some of them have run away from tvinter (see Mi- 
gration of Animals). Most of the birds fly at night. If 
3mu listen carefully you can hear their calls. AVith 
your field glasses watch them fly across the face of 
the full moon. 

Some animals escape winter by simply going to 
sleep and forgetting about it (see Hibernation). You 
will probably never see a hibernating bear in its cave 
or in a hollow tree, but you can find bats. Look in 
your attic or high in the eaves of a barn. If there is a 
cave near your home e.xplore its roof Mth a flash- 
light. There you are sure to find bats hanging upside 
down, sound asleep. AATien you pick one up it Mil 


seem to be dead. It is cold and stiff and hardly 
breathes. But in a warm room it will begin to stir, 
stretch its folded Mngs, and slowly drag open its 
sleepy eyes. Soon it will be as lively as ever. Many 
animals sleep only when the weather is very cold and 
waken on mild winter days to go in search of food. 

Some Fight Winter with Their Wits 

Many animals store away food just as your mother 
stores onions and potatoes and canned fruits and 
vegetables. You have all watched squirrels hide 
nuts. Something tells them that they will need 
the nuts in the hungry days to come. Beavers cut 
green logs and twigs and sink them beneath the water 
at the entrance to their lodges. Chipmunks hide nuts, 
seeds, and grain in their underground storerooms to be 
safe from weather and from theft by other animals. 
Foxes bury food and dig it up when necessary. 

Animals that can feed themselves through the win- 
ter, like foxes, wolves, and deer, simply put on heavy , 
shaggy coats and go on living as before. Some, like the 
weasel, snowshoe rabbit, snowy owl, and ptarmigan, 
change their brown coats for white. Against the snow 
it is hard for their enemies to see them. 

Among the foods that birds and animals can live on 
in the winter are bark and mosses, which remain 
green and nourishing under the snow, various seeds 
and nuts, dried berries and fruits, and insects and 
grubs hidden in the bark of trees. 
















NATURE STUDY 


62 


BEAVER PET 



OTTER SLIDE 


The Canadian Indian naturalist Grey Owl, through his delightful books and articles, 
showed the importance of protecting the beaver. Here he is seen feeding one of his pets. 

Most of the insects die in the fall, but they leave 
their eggs tucked away in safe places to hatch out 
in the spring. Many go through the winter rolled up 
in warm cocoons. Some hide in cracks in trees and 
buildings, or burrow down into the ground. House- 
flies sleep in the walls around mndows. On warm 
days they crawl out lazily 
to sun themselves. Honey- 
bees seal up the hive and 
live very comfortably on 
stored honey. Snails draw 
into their shells and seal 
them with a door of slime. 

Turtles, frogs, and toads 
bury themselves in mud 
below the frost line. 

Plants, like animals, 
must change their way of 



Otters enjoy coasting as much 
as any small boy or girl. 


living if they are to keep alive during the months 
when food, moisture, light, and warmth are all re- 
duced below their normal needs. 

The life processes of the tree slow domi. Its 
leaves stop manufacturing food, and the sap no 
longer flows through its limbs. It looks dead, but 
actually it is only asleep and resting. Like a hiber- 
nating animal (see Leaves). 

All the other plants too are getting ready for win- 
ter. Some of them die above ground, but their roots 
below ground remain alive. Manj"^ plants die below 
ground as well as above. Before they die they form 
seeds which live through the vdnter. They remind us 
of the insects that die but leave behind them the 
eggs ivhich will carry on their kind. 

Don’t give up picnics and walks in the country 
just because it is winter. Roasted wieners and hot 


chocolate never taste better 
than beside a log fire built in 
some spot protected against the 
wind. There is much to see in 
the winter. The birds are few, 
but they are unusually interest- 
ing. The siskins, redpolls, snow 
buntings, crossbills, and many 
others spend the summer in 
distant northern forests. In the 
w'inter they move south in 
search of food. A feeding tray 
will bring these rare and beau- 
tiful visitors to your window 
(see Birds). 

Now is the time to collect 
birds’ nests. Their owners have 
no further use for them, and 
they are easily found when the 
screen of leaves is gone. Ex- 
amine the materials of w'hich 
they are made and the skillful 
way they are woven and attached 
to the branches. Now too is 
the time to search for cocoons 
and chrysalises. Keep them in 
a cage or box and moisten them with a few drops 
of water occasionally, for the insects inside will die 
if they are permitted to dry out. 

In the winter you may learn to recognize trees by 
their shapes, the texture of their bark, and the 
shape and color of their buds. Make a collection of 
buds and mount them beside your leaf and seed speci- 
mens. Buds are just as distinctive as the leaves 
which develop out of them. 

Even dead weeds are worth studying and collecting. 
Goldenrod, teasel, and Queen Anne’s lace have beau- 
tiful patterns. Many are useful, for their seeds are 
eaten by birds and small animals. Some of the best 
winter lunch counters are the ragweeds and pigweeds. 
Try to find out w’hat winter seeds and berries are 
eaten and what wild things eat them. Tracks in the 
snow leading to the various plants will tell you which 
ones are being visited for their food and wiiich for 
the shelter they provide against the winds. Identi- 
fying tracks in the snow is a delightful detective 
game. The wiiite-footed mouse makes a track which 
John Burroughs describes as “a sort of fantastic 
stitch on the cover- 
lid of the snow.” This 
dainty little mouse 
also carves hidden 
passages and winding 
galleries under the 
snow. You can hear 
the mice squeak and 
twitter, but by the 
lime you have dug 
into their tunnels 

the fleet little animals In thls'odd circle game, they go in 

T j toward the center and then oacK 

ilEVG VEnisnGCl. out» over and over againi 


SKUNKS 




- 63 


NATURE STUDY 


The Balance of Nature 


HAVE learned that living things are depend- 
^ ^ ent on one another for food and that they must 
protect themselves against becoming the food of a 
larger or stronger animal. “Eat or be eaten” is the 
law in nature. 

If nature is undisturbed by man she tends to main- 
tain a balance between the numbers of living crea- 
tures and their food supplies. The attacks of ene- 
mies are one of her most effective means of prevent- 
ing a species from multiplying too fast. The chil- 
dren and grandchildren from just one pair of field 
mice can total a million mice in a single year. The 
world would soon be overrun at this rate. Fortunate- 
ly, field mice have many enemies — owls, hawks, 
weasels, skunks, black snakes, and house cats. All 
these animals are intent on getting food, and with- 
out knowing it they are keeping down the numbers of 
mice and maintaining the balance of nature. VTien 
farmers kill hawks and owls they reduce the enemies 
of the field mice. The mice multiply and damage the 
farmer’s crops. If the plants in a community become 
very abundant the plant eaters thrive and increase 
in numbers. They then become an attractive food 
supply for their enemies, the meat eaters, who 
kill enough of them to save the plants from 
destruction. The meat eaters never kiU aU 
of a species, however, for as the plant eat- 
ers are reduced in numbers they become 
increasingly difficult to find, and the 
meat eaters must move to another 
place or starve. The story of the 
gulls that saved the pioneer Mor- 
mons of Utah from the loss of 
their crops by a horde of black 
crickets is an example of how 
balance in nature operates (see / 

Gulls). 

Probably the greatest 
disturber of nature’s 
balance is man. When 
the pioneers came to 
America they found the 
richest land in the 
world. In order 
build a new nation 
they had to d 
stroy the wilder 
ness. They 
burned the 
forest 



drained the swamps, plowed up the prairies, and 
dumped wastes in the rivers. The results were disas- 
trous and far-reaching (see Birds, subhead “Protecting 
and Conserving Our Birds”; Ecology). Many of the 
consequences were impossible to foresee. The very act 
of planting a crop disturbs nature. Our greatest 
insect pests thrive because man has provided them 
with an abundant food supply, and so we have to 
wage bitter warfare with destructive enemies that 
were unknown to the Indian. 

When we kiU predatory animals to protect our live- 
stock and poultry, we create new problems. In the 
IVest the ranchers have almost wiped out the moun- 
tain lion and greatly reduced the numbers of coyote. 
As a resiUt the deer have enormously increased. Deer 
hunting is encouraged in season to save the forests 
from destruction by overgrazing. In one place the 
deer ate all the vegetation along the banks of a trout 
stream. Whth the plants gone, mud washed into the 
stream and kiUed the trout. No one anticipated 
that killing mountain lions would ruin trout fishing. 

It is unwise, therefore, for man to destroy any ani- 
mal or plant until he knows exactly what part it 
plays in nature’s plan. 

Many of our mistakes of the past are being 
corrected by wise conservation methods (see 
Conservation). In the work of restoring the 
balance of nature and preserving the re- 
sources still remaining, children may play 
an important part. Every time you re- 
fuse to pick a wild flower, you are 
helping. Every time you feed a win- 
ter bird or care for an orphaned 
wild animal, you are helping. W’hen 
you pick up all your rubbish 
after a picnic, when you put 
\ out every burning spark from 
your camp fire, when you 
plant a tree on .^rbor Day, 
\ and work on project to 
- beautify thcAschool- 
grounds, you a.re help- 
ing to preseiwe the 
wonderfully, deli- 
cate balance in 
which na'-ture 
finds a pi^ce 
and a use rPr 
most living, 
things. 


The owl is a fine example of the part played by predatory animals in maintaining the balance of nature. A single owl has been known 
to eat ten field mice at one sitting, and four hours later he was ready for a second meal. One mouse eats an estimated 24 to 36 
pounds of green field crops in the course of a year. At a single meal, therefore, one owl saves the farmer from 240 to 360 pounds of 
vegetation. A thousand mice in a field would consume at least 12 tons of food in a year. 



NATURE STUDY 


Ho w to Study Nature in Your Own Home 


'T'HE STRANGE affairs of wild things are enor- 
mously interesting, yet seldom observed by busy 
humans. Many people have no chance to study living 
animals in forest, meadow, pond, and stream. By 
providing them with the proper cages and food, how- 
ever, we can persuade them to cany on their normal 
lives in captivity, where we can watch them closely 
day by day. A home “zoo” of fish, insects, and other 
small land and water animals can be great fun. 

The terrarium is a glass-sided box with a movable 
lid, which houses land and amphibious animals or 
insects in their natural plant surroundings. Snakes, 
toads, frogs, chameleons, lizards, newts, salamanders, 


snails, and turtles may be guests of the terrarium. 
You won’t, of course, attempt to raise snakes and 
toads in the same box, or insects with insect-eating 
animals. You will determine which animals live to- 
gether peaceably. 

The terrarium may vary in size from a mason jar 
containing a few water plants and insect larvae to 
a furniture packing case housing a black snake. Ter- 
rariums three or four feet in length permit such plant 
associations as woodland, bog, desert, or meadow, 
with their appropriate small animal life. The draw- 
ings below show how to build a small box and how to 
prepare the various foundations. 


HOW TO MAKE A TERRARIUM 



A straight-sided glass 
tank makes the best ter- 
rarium. It is easier to 
plant than a round bowl, 
and it does not give a 
distorted view of the con- 
tents. It is preferable 
to a wire-screened box 
because it keeps out cold 
V. drafts and maintains a 
\ fairly even temperature- 
important factors in the 
well-being of many ani- 
mals. The size depends 
on the nature and number 
of its guests. A satis- 
factory small tank may 
measiire 12 inches high by 
18 inbhes long and 13 


HIHOt TOP WITH TAPE 



inches wide. Tape togeth- 
er the edges of four 
pieces of window glass, 
as shown in the illustra- 
tion above. Set the glass 
in fresh plaster of Paris 
in a baking pan, photo- 
graphic developing tray, 
or similar metal container 
of the desired size. Paint 
or shellac the tape to pro- 
tect it from moisture. 
Aquarium cement on the 
inside joints will make 
them waterproof. A 
hinged lid completes the 
box. The bases for dif- 
ferent types of terrariums 
are shown below. 


HOW TO ARRANGE BOTTOMS OF THREE TYPES OF TERRARIUMS 








' HUMUt 
\\ ORAVSL 

\ PLASTER OF PARIS 

Woodland Terrarium 


/HUMUS 

^DISH rot POOL 


Desert Terrarium 


Bog or Semi-Aquatic Terrarium 





65 


NATURE STUDY 


The gravel base serves as a drain which 
removes surplus moisture from the top soil 
and prevents it from becoming soggy. The 
gravel should be well washed to get rid of 
impurities before it is put into the box. For 
a woodland garden add one or two inches of 
rich humus. A bog garden requires acid soil 
found around swamps and peat bogs. In 
the desert terrarium cover the drainage base 
with three or four inches of sandy potting 
mixture, which you can usually get from 
any greenhouse. 

Plan the contour of your garden when you 
put in the base. Hills and valleys are more 
interesting than a flat surface. Lichen-cov- 

A WOODLAND BOG GARDEN 


PLAN FOR A DESERT TERRARIUM 




A frog will delight in a woodland hog garden. An enameled pan 
or glass dish sunk in the soil makes a pool. Pebbles and ^tiny 
water plants add interest, and a flat stone should be provided 
on which the frog may sun himself. Ferns, club mosses, ebony 
spleenwort, evergreen, laurel and blueberry seedlings, and small 
woodland flowers are all attractive plantings for the bog garden. 

ered rockslend variety to the “landscape” and pro^'^de 
resting and sunning places for some animals and hid- 
ing places for others. A mossy tree branch at one side 
of the box will be used by snakes and lizards. And a 
small pool is welcomed even by desert animals. 

The plants in the box may include ferns; club 
mosses; evergreen seedlings, such as white pine, cedar, 
spruce, and hemlock; and small flowering species, such 
as wood sorrel, violets, and bluets. In the bog garden 
add a pitcher plant or sundew, surrounded by sphag- 
num moss. The desert garden may be stocked with 
potted plants from a florist. 

How to Care for the Terrarium 

Keep the gravel bottom layer of the box moist, 
but don’t let the top layer become soggy. Use pond 
or rain water if possible. The amount of moisture can 
be controlled with the hd. If you want a warm, 
damp bog garden, open the lid only a crack. If you 
want a dry “desert” atmosphere, open the lid wide 
or remove it. The terrarium as a rule should receive 
only an hour or two of direct sunlight daily. Temper- 
atures of 60° to 75° F. are preferable. 


The desert terrarium (above) may house a horned 
toad, collared lizard, desert tortoise, or snake. 
Buy potted plants from a florist and sink them, 
pot and all, into the sand. Small cacti, aloes, 
sedums, crassulas, stapelias, and the crown of 
thorns may be used. These desert plants and 
animals will require a warm, sunny, dry location. 

Feeding the animals is the greatest prob- 
lem in maintaining a terrarium. One should 
of course carefully study the habits of the 
creature he proposes to care for in captivity 
and provide it with natural foods as far as 
possible. Earthworms are the most useful 
all-round food, for many animals who are 
accustomed to other insects will accept a 
wriggling piece of worm. They can be col- 
lected in large numbers after a rain and 
stored in the basement in a box of moist soil covered 
with well-decayed leaves. If they are fed bits of 
chopped beef suet and hard-boiled egg they will sur- 
vive indeflnitely. Lizards, frogs, toads, and sala- 
manders may be induced to eat raw chopped- beef or 
liver if it is moved in front of them on the end of a 
toothpick or straw. Some insect exterminatoj-^^ sell live 
insects for use in terrariums and aquariiq .s. Your 
walks in the woods will become 
more interesting if you have a 
hungry toad or chameleon at 
home demanding that you re- 
turn with a jar full of food. 

A net, a covered jar, and a 
flashhght for night hunting are 
the only equipment necessary. 

In capturing the insects you will 
learn much about them, and 
many of them you wiU want to 
keep in their own terrarium for 
further study. A simple insect 
cage is shown at the right. 

Insects "and caterpillars will live in a 
cage made out ot a flowerpot and a 
lamp chimney covered with gauze to 
prevent them from flying or crawling 
out. A jar of water sunk into the pot 
holds fresh foliage where the insects 
may feed and find shelter. 


AN INSECT CAGE 



"m 




66 


NATURE STUDY 


How to Manage a Balanced Aquarium 

A WELL-PLANNED AQUARIUM ^ 



Use a combination of the plants and fish shown at the right. 
A well-balanced aquarium can maintain itself for long periods 
with no further attention than the addition of a little water 
from time to time to replace the amount which has evaporated. 


A BALANCED aquarium shows clearly how plants 
and animals depend on one another (see Aquarium) . 
The best aquarium is a rectangular glass tank with 
metal frame and slate or metal bottom. The round 
fish bowl gives a distorted view; it does not expose 
enough water surface to the air; and it cannot be 
properly stocked with plants. 

A good aquarium plant is one which produces a 
plentiful supply of oxygen. Among the best are 
Elodea, Myriophyllum, Vallisneria, Sagittaria, and 
Ludwigia. Plants also provide food for various species 
of water life and protection for eggs and young fry. 
Over ^e bottom of the tank spread an inch-deep layer 
of rich toil, covered with one or two inches of clean 
fine gravel and sand. Set the plants in this founda- 
tion, after planning carefully their artistic arrange- 
ment. Add clear pond water and let the tank stand 
for a week before putting the fish into it. 

Native fishes taken from ponds and lakes thrive in 
the aquarium, but not those from cool, running 
streams or/rapids. If the gill-breathing animals come 
to the surface and gasp for air, there are too many 
fish and not enough plants. If the glass sides and 
the water become green, the aquarium needs more 
snails to eat the algae. Gray scum or fungus growths 
indicate decaying material in the water and call for 
more snails as scavengers. Snails are entertaining 
and beautiful. The red ram’s-horns are like pink 
rose petals. Their method of cleaning algae from 
the glass by means of their file-Uke radula or tongue 
is fascinating to watch through a magnifying glass. 
They lay their eggs on the glass sides of the tank, 
and the embryo snails can be watched as they de- 
velop within the transparent jelly. Clams live on 
microscopic organisms and help to keep the water 
in the aquarium clean. 


WATER PLANTS 



HOW TO MAKE A WATER INSECT AQUARIUM 



The plants shown at the top are recommended for the balanced 
aquarium because they give off plenty of oxygen. Such comnion 
native fish as the black bullhead and the sunfish 
be raised successfully. Snails, tadpoles, crawfish, and clams 
are interesting additions. In an insect aquarium (below) one 
may watch water beetles and the larvae of other species. A tew 
are suggested. Put a layer of sand in a tumbler or mason jar» 
plant a branch of Elodea in it, fill the container with pono 
water, and let it settle before putting in the insects. 


67 


NATURE STUDY 


JVays of Watching Ants and B 

1 i-i. .___i 


ees 


HOW TO BUILD AN ANT HOUSE 



when the shields are removed you can see them clearly 
working in their tunnels and imderground chambers. 
Between times the paper shields should be replaced or 
the ants will try to shut out the light with earth. 

Collecting the Ant Colony 
Ant colonies may be found under logs, stones, and 
debris in practically every backyard, pasture, and 
wood lot. The best time of year to go hunting is from 
late July to early September, when the winged males 
and females are present in the nests as well as the 
common workers. Be sure to capture the queen, for 
the colony will not work without her inspiration. 
You can recognize her by her large size. Try to get 
eggs, larvae, pupae, and parasites such as aphids. 

Take the ants home in a jar and transfer them to the 
box. Then place it in a dark closet for about a 
week and do not disturb it. The ants will need to 
recover from their violent house-moving. They are 
easily excited and one should avoid jarring the nest 
at any time. Unless you are careful you will be unable 
to watch their normal behavior. 

Feeding the colony is very simple. Into the food 
opening drop bits of groimd beef, dead insects, bread 
crumbs, and watered honey. Keep the sponge in the 
water hole moist. Ants must have moisture. 

An observation beehive must be purchased from a 
bee supply house. No amateur should attempt to 
capture these well-armed insects. The hive stands on 
the window sUl with one side open to the outdoors and 

AN OBSERVATION BEEHIVE 


An ant house is very simple to make. Find two pieces of 
photograpUc plate glass or thin window glass, about 10 
inches wide by 6 inches high. In each of the four pieces 
of the frame cut two grooves with a circular saw. The 
glass fits into these grooves. In the top bar of the frame 
bore two round holes. These are the food and water 
openings, and are kept plugged with bits of sponge. 

Tape the corners of the glass “sandwich” to^ hold it 
together and set it in the bases. Then fill it about 
two-thirds full with earth found near an anthill. 

"^OTHING in nature is more fascinating to 
watch than the family affairs of an ant 
colony. The endless toil of the workers as 
they clean and feed the queen, forage for 
supplies, and tidy the nest; the care of the 
nursemaids for the eggs and larvae; the spinning of 
the cocoons and appearance of the young ants — 
all these and many other interesting activities may be 
observed in a properly built ant house. 

The type of house shown above is one of the most 
successful. If black paper shields are made for the 
sides, the ants vill burrow down along the glass, and 



This observation beehive stands on a window sill with one side open to 
the outdoors so that the bees fly about freel 3 r. It is provided with 
frames for the storage of honey. The lower frame is the brood chamber. 

requires no attention. Many of the activities go on 
inside the cells where they caimot be seen, but you 
may watch the building of the cells, the feeding and 
development of the larvae, the storage of honey, per- 
haps even some of the duties of the queen. The hive 
may be brought indoors during the winter and its 
inmates fed with water and honey. 



NATURE STUDY 68 


REFERENCE-OUTLINE 

HOW PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
DEPEND ON ONE ANOTHER 

I. How plants depend on other plants 

A. Plant partnerships: bacteria and legumes P-297, 
A-151, B-13, N-240; algae and fungi Ii-220, P-80 

B. Nongreen plants which live on green plants: 
fungi F-316; mildews and molds M-247; mush- 
rooms M-455; rusts and smuts R-297 

C. Decayed and rotting plant life enriches soil 

' ■ S-228 

D. Reaching the sunlighPby climbing other plants 
A-111; ivy 1-284; orchid 0-406; Spanish moss, 
color picture P-291 

E. Pa ra si t es P-80 : dodder, pictures P-294 ; mistletoe 
M-326 

II. How plants depend on animals N-52, 66 

A. Insects pollinate plants F-185, B-93, 0-406, 
Y-345 

B. Birds and animals scatter seeds S-96: birds 

' B-158 

C. Earthworms plow soil E-197 

D. Birds destroy insect enemies of plants B-158, 
G-230 

E. Wastes and decayed animal matter enrich soil 
S-228 

F. Some plants "eat" animals P-297: bladder- 
wort, picture P-295; pitcher plants P-274, pic- 
tures P-295, N-51; sundew S-454; Venus’s fly- 
trap V-448 

III. How animals depend on plants N-52, 66 

A. Food: birds B-188; cattle C-145; deer D-44; in- 
sects 1-153 

B. Shelter 

1. Holes in trees: chickadee C-238; nuthatch 
N-316; opossurn 0-399; owl 0-430; raccoon 
'R-19;'squiiTeliS-359a; woodpecker W-l 88' 

2. Plant material used in building nest, den, or 
' burrow: birds B-171, 188; insects 1-158; 

bear B-85-6; ^beaver B-90; muskrat M-473; 
skunk, S-193 

IV. How animals d,epend on animals 

A. Food: Orders Carnivora ("flesh eaters’’) and 
Insectivora,^(“inseQt eaters’’-)- See the Reference- 
Outline for Zoology 

B. .Social colonies: ant A-253; bee B-93; wasj) W-49 

■C. Parasites P-77 , ' ' ' - 

' y. How'man depends on.plapts and animals P-301, 
F-236, pictures P-288, 1-153. See also the'Reference- 
' Outlines for Botany, section . ‘iEconomic Botany-^ 
Uses of Plants’’; Agriculture, section .“Livestock 
and ■ Livestock Products”; .and Zoology, section 
(‘Importance of Anipials to htani’ 

.HOW PLANTS LIVE . 

I. How to study plants N-64 

1 A. Grow'them in garden and window box P-300, 
G-12 

B. Make experiments to observe their life proc- 
esses P-297 

C. Special books tell how to collect, mount, and 
identify plant specimens B-265, H-394, N-68?»- 
69; herbarium F-181 

II. How plants get their food P-290-5 
A. Green plants P-293, B-148, N-46 

1. Leaves as food makers L-i51, P-293-4 

2. Roots' R-226, P-290-2 


FOR NATURE STUDY 

3. Stems P-292, T-1 78 

4. Mineral needs S-228, F-55, M-267, P-293, 
■ 294, 295 

B. Nongreen plants P-288-9, P-80, N-50; ifungi 

F-316; mildews and molds M-247; mushrooms 
M-455;!rusts and smuts R-297 ' , ■ . . . 

C. Special ways' for getting and digesting food 
1. Catching and digesting insects P-297, P-274, 

pictures P-295, S-454, V-448 ^ 

‘2. Plants that get food from others (parasites): 

mistletoe M-326; dodder, picture P-294 '• 

3. Plaints that live in .air (epiphytes) A-111, 
picture P-291 : orchid 0-406 '' ' ' . 

V d. Plants that live as partners: lichens L-22p 

III. How plants make new plantsT-295, F-184 

A. Seeds S-96-8, IV-Se: bean, pictures B-84; com 
C-484, picture P-296; wheat, picture 'W-118 

. B. Spores S-355-6: ferns F-53-4; liverworts Lr279; 
•. moss M-404-5; puffball, picture P-297 

C. Bulbs, tubers, and rootstocks: B-348, pictures 
■P-297 

•IV. How seeds are scattered S-96, B-158, W-66, N-48, 
.pictures S-97, N-49 

. A. Seeds with filmy sails: dandelion D-14w; milk- 
weed. M-254 • . 

B. Seeds with stiff, gliding sails: ash A-401; elm 

E-336; hemlock H-332; maple M-82; t^me, pic- 
ture P-258 . • , 

C. Seeds that steal rides from animals 

1. By clinging with hooks and barbs: cocklebur, 

picture N-49 ■ • - 

2. '^By tempting animals to eat fruit and, drop 

undigested seeds S-96, B-158 
• ' . • 3. Hard-covered -fruits (nuts) • buried by squir- 

rels and other animals', picture N-54 
,D. Seeds that man uses S-96: fruits F-303-6, color 
> pictures F-307-12;'nuts N-316-17 

E. Seeds with water wings "W-hS 

F. Flpqting seeds: coconut C-374; lotus L-317 

G. Explosive 'scattering:' jewelweed picture S-97; 

,. witch hazel W-180 ‘ ‘ ' 

' 'H. Whole plant carried by wind: tumbleweed S-96 

I. .Seeds that people scatter by planting for food: 
. ■ barley B.-55; beans.B-84; corn C-480; oats 0-321; 

‘ peas P-iob; rice R-147; wheat 'W-115 , . 

V. How plants meet unusual conditions P-297, pic- 
tures N-50, 51 

A. Plants that live in water W-66, 0-332; .color 
pictures P-286, 287: diatoms E)-82; seaweed 
S-94; water lily W-65 

B. Plants that live in the desert, color picture 
P-290. See also in FacLindex Deserts, subhead 
vegetation 

C. Plants that live in the air A-111; orchid 0-406 

D. Plants that live in cold regions A-3'28, T-184, 
color picture P-287 

VI. Protection against enemies, pictures P-297 

A. Bark B-55 , , 

B. Bitter juices: milkweed M-253 

C. Thorns and nettles P-297, picture P-299: cactus 
C-9; hawthorn H-294; thistle T-120. For nettles, 
see Nettle in FacWndex 

VII. How plants hold themselves up on stems P-292, 
T-179, pictures P-297 

A. Toll, erect stems: trees T-178 



B. Three types of climbing sfems P-296a: root type, 
ivy 1-284; tendril type, pea P-100; twining type, 
hop H-424, morning glory (bindweed) M-393, 
color picture F-180 

C. Surface stems (runners): strawberry S-427 

D. Underground stems, picture P-296a 

HOW ANIMALS LIVE 

I. How to study animals 

A. Care for pets P-181: training dogs D-116(i-17 

B. Build an aquarium N-66, A-279 

C. Build a terrarium N-64: lizards in a desert 
terrarium L-284 

. D, Observation beehive and ant house N-67 

E. Insect cages, pictures 1-161, N-65: butterflies 
and moths B-368; crickets C-513 

F. Make an insect collection 1-1606 

G. Birds B-187 

H. Books to read H-392 

II. How animals care for their young N-55 

A. Animals with small families and helpless young 
give them much care: aardvark A-2; albatross 
A-139; armadillo A-373; bear B-86; condor 
C*432; elephant E-323; giraffe G-112; kangaroo 
K-2; lion L-261; sloth S-275; whale W-111 

B. Young that develop rapidly require less care: 
birds B-174; cat C-135a; chickens, ducks, tur- 
keys P-402a, T-2206-221; emu E-341; muskrat 
M-473; opossum 0-399; ostrich 0-4266; rabbit 
R-15; raccoon Ib-19; spider S-345, 347, 348 

C. Families cared for by the father alone: 
phalarope B-177; sea horse S-87; stickleback 
S-395; midwife toad T-141 

D. Animals with enormous families that never see 
their young: fish F-103; frog F-299; insects 
1-157-8; bee B-93-100; caterpillar wasp W-50; 
fly F-188; grasshopper G-168a; oyster 0-437-8; 
toad T-141 ; turtle T-222 

III. How animals build for protection N-56 

A. Nest builders: alligator A-171; ant A-253, 255; 
beaver B-90; bee B-93, 99, 100; birds B-I71, 
pictures B-173; hornbill H-427; insects 1-158; 
mole cricket C-513; orangutan 0-402; oriole 
0-424d-5; rabbit and hare R-15, 16, picture 
R^18; spiders S-342, 346; squirrel S-359a; stickle- 
back ^395; sunfish S-454; tailor bird T-6; 
weaverbird W-82 

B. Mound builders, masons, and carpenters: ant 
A-255; beaver B-90; carpenter bee B-99; leaf- 
cutting bee B-lOO; muskrat M-473; swifts and 
barn swallows S-458; termite T-74; wasp W-49 

C. Diggers who live in burrows and trees: ant 
A-253; ant lion A-269; armadillo A-373; badger 
B-15-16; chipmunk C-288; cricket C-513; earth- 
worm E-197; fox F-254; gopher G-140; ground- 
hog G-219; mole M-332; prairie dog P-406; rab- 
bit R^15, 16; trap-door spider S-342, 346, picture 
S-348; bank and rough- winged swallow S-458; 
Woodpecker W-188 

D. Dwellers in caves and hollow trees: bat B-77; 
bear B-85; mink M-275; skunk S-193; squirrel 
S-359fl 

E. Traveling homes: caddis fly larva, pictures 1-157, 
P-4206; mollusks M-333; clams and mussels 
C-338; oyster 0-436; snail S-203; shellfish S-138; 
turtle T-222 


68a NATURE STUDY 

IV. Striking ways of getting food, wafer, and air 
A-250-2506 

A. Water dwellers: ocean life B-150, 0-330, 332, 
color pictures 0-333, 334, F-105 

1. Surface feeders and divers: birds A-140, 
F-297, D-159, 160, P-112-14, P-118-21; water 
spiders S-346; water bugs and beetles 'W’-64-5, 
B-107-8 

2. Water dwellers: fish F-99-102, color pictures 
F-113-14; jellyfish J-195-6; squid and cuttle- 
fish 0-338-9; sharks S-134 

3. Bottom feeders: shellfish C-288, L-287; flat- 
fish F-140; octopus 0-338; sea anemone 
S-86, color picture F-105; skates and rays 
S-190; starfish and sea urchins S-383 

4. Microscopic water creatures: amoeba A-237; 
hydra H-455-6, picture H-455 

6. Straining food from water or mud: baleen, 
or right whale W-114, picture A-250a; barna- 
cle B-56; clam C-338; duck, picture D-158; 
flamingo F-139 

B. Getting food in the air 

1. Birds: insect hunters F-190, H-444, N-236, 
S-458, W-120-1; birds of prey E-167-8, 
F-14-15, H-291-3 

2. BatB-77-8 

3. Dragonfly D-126, 128 

C. Food from life in the soil: aardvark A-2; 
anteater A-261-2; earthworm E-197; mole 
M-332 

D. Getting food from bark and wood: chickadee 
C-238; termite T-74; titmouse T-139; wood- 
pecker W-188 

E. Overcoming scarcity of water A-2506-c; camel 
C-51-2; mudfish M-443-5 

F. Snaring and stinging prey: ant lion A-269; 
hydra H-455-6, picture H-455; jellyfish J-334; 
spider S-342-5, T-15; torpedo fish and electric 
eel T-155 

V. Special ways of eoting 

A. Teeth for different uses T-34, 36 

1. Digging; walrus W-6 

2. Gnawing: rodents R-176 

3. Holding prey: alligator A-171; 

4. Poison fangs: snakes S-207-8, R-78, V-476-7 

B. Use of tongue T-147; chameleon C-183, picture 
C-184; toad T-140, picture T-141 

C. Unusual ways of gathering plant food: ele- 
phant E-324; giraffe G-112 

D. Cud chewing: ruminants R-254-5 

E. Insect jaws 1-155 

F. Sucking liquids: aphid A-272; fly F-189; mos- 
quito M-400; parasites P-77-80 

G. Rasping organs: cat C-135a; lamprey L-88, pic- 
ture P-78; snail S-203 

H. Bird beaks, color pictures B-176 

VI. Special ways of getting about 

A. Running and jumping: animal feet F-224-6; 
bird types B-175; antelope A-262; flea F-142; 
grasshopper G-168; jerboa and kangaroo rat 
R-77; kangaroo K-1-2; ostrich 0-4266; rabbit 
and hare R-16 

B. Flying: bat B-77; bird adaptations for flight 
B-156-7, F-46-8; flying fish F-191; ballooning 
spider S-342, 343; flying squirrel pictures S-359a 

C. Crawling: walking and climbing fish M-444, 
pictures M-445, F-107; snail S-204; snakes S-205 



68 & 


NATURE STUDY 

D. Burrowing: badger B-16; European rabbit R-16, 
picture R-18; gopher G-140-1; mole M-332; 
mole cricket C-513; desert tortoise, picture 
T-158 

E. Squirting liquid: cuttlefish, octopus, and squid 

0- 339 

F. Swinging: ape A-271; lemur L-162; monkey 
M-349, 353 

VII. How animals protect themselves 

A. Protective coloration and mimicry P-419-22, 

1- 158. See also in Fact-Index Protective colora- 
tion and resemblance 

B. Remaining motionless or feigning death: badger 
B-16; opossum 0-399; ostrich 0-427 

C. Armor: shells S-138-41, M-333-4, color pictures 
S-139-40; armadillo A-373; nautilus N-69; oyster 

0- 438; turtle T-222, pictures T-223 

D. Losing parts of body: walking stick insects 

1- 159; lizard’s tail L-281 

E. Quills, spines, and poison: bee sting B-94, pic- 
ture 1-158; bombardier beetle B-104, picture 
B-107; ladybug L-84; porcupine P-374; skunk 
S-193 

VIII. Instincts and responsive behavior E-238 

A. Adaptability that resembles intelligence: 
beaver B-89; chimpanzee C-256; dog D-116c 

B. Birds: nest building B-171-2; crow C-519 

C. Social instinct for community living: ant A-253, 
255-7; bee B-93-6; termite T-74-6; wasp W-49 

D. Insect tropisms (responses to stimuli) 1-160 

E. Communication V-517, S-200 

1. Insect sounds 1-155-6: cicada C-306; grass- 
hopper G-168; katydid K-19 

2. Bee’s flight signals, picture B-lOO 

3. Light signals P-208: firefly F-92 

4. Danger signals: deer D-45 

HOW PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
PREPARE FOR WINTER 

I. Plants P-297, N-62 

A. Trees lose leaves L-154 

B. Annuals store food in seeds S-98, P-297, W-84 

C. Biennials and perennials store food in roots and 
stems N-46, B-348, P-297-8, W-84 

II. Animals N-60 

A. Hibernation H-352-3. See also Hibernation in 
Fact-Inde.x 

B. Migration of animals M-241-4. See also Migra- 
tion in Fact-Index 

C. Food storage: beaver B-92; chipmunk C-288; 
gopher G-141; prairie dog P-406; squirrel, pic- 
ture N-54 

D. Color changes: birds B-177; grouse G-220; snow 
bunting B-177; ermine E-392; rabbit R-15, 18; 
weasel W-77 

E. Heavier coats of fur or hair: deer D-43 

F. Provision for survival of young: insects 1-157; 
caterpillars C-137 ; cocoon of moth B-367c, d 

BALANCE OF NATURE 

I. How the struggle for existence adjusts itself E-213, 
B-190, N-63 

A. Insects 1-152 

B. Plants P-297: trees F-237 

II. Man's part in the balance of nature C-451. See also 
the Reference-Outline for Conservation 


III. How children can help 

A. Plant trees A-295 

B. Protect birds B-187 

C. Put out camp and picnic fires C-62 

D. Avoid picking wild flowers N-63 

NATURE HOBBIES FOR OLDER CHILDREN 
Nature Study may be broadly interpreted to include 
all the natural sciences, such as astronomy, biologj', 
mineralogy, geology, and climatology, and such related 
activities as photography and microscopy. Some nature 
hobbies for the older student with suggested bibliographies 
are outlined below: 

I. Bird study B-159, 187 

—Books to read B-196, H-393, N-686-69, Z-365 

II. Insect study 1-1606. See also in Fact-Index Insect 
pests; Insects; and Insects, beneficial 

— Books to read H-394, N-686-69, Z-36S 

III. Reptiles and amphibians R-110: frog F-299; toad 
T-idO; salamander S-25; lizard L-281; snake S-205; 
tortoise T-158; turtle T-222; how to build a ter- 
rarium N-64 

— Books to read H-393, N-686-69, Z-365 

IV. Fish and fishing F-99, F-118 

— Books to read H-392, Z-365, F-118/i 

V. The seashore: collecting shells S-141 
— Books to read H-392, Z-365 

VI. Nature photography P-211 
— Books to read H-396, P-227 

VII. The story of the sky A-427: learning to recognize 
the stars C-457, S-370 

A. North and south polar constellations, charts 
S-374, 375: mythological associations, charts 
S-380, 381 

B. Stars of the spring, summer, autumn, and winter, 
charts S-376-9 

C. Books to read H-395 

VIII. Collecting minerals and fossils M-261, F-243: how 
fossils tell geologic time G-52 

— Books to read N-686-69, H-393-4 

IX. Microscopy M-232-6 

A. Things to see in the microscope (all references 
are to pictures): algae A-153; amoeba A-2366; 
bacteria B-13-15; cell division B-149; hydra 
H-455; insects I-154a-d, B-367c; feather F-46; 
hair H-243; plant sections R-226, T-184; proto- 
zoa P-423 

B. Books to read H-396 

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR NATURE STUDY 
Beauchamp, W. L. and others. Discovering Our World, 3v. 
(Scott, 1947). 

Craig, G. S. and others. Our World of Science, 8v. (Ginn, 194C- 

Knox, W. W. and others. Wonderworld of Science, 8v. (Scrio- 
ner, 1950). 

Patch, E. M. and Howe, H. E. Nature and Science Readers, Gv. 
(Macmillan, 1932-35). 

Picture Books and Books for Easy Reading 
Buck, M. W. In Woods and Fields (Abingdon-CokesbuO'> 
1950). 

Huntington, H. E. Let’s Go Outdoors; Let’s Go to the Seashore, 
Let’s Go to the Desert (Doubleday, 1939-49). 

Kane, H. B. Tale of the White-Faced Hornet; Tale of the Wild 
Goose; Wild World Tales (Knopf, 1944-49). 



69 


NAUTILUS 


Smith, E. B. The Seashore Book (Houghton, 1912). 

Tresself, A. R. Kain Drop Splash (Lothrop, 1946). 

Webber, I. E. S. Anywhere in the World; Bits That Grow Big; 
Travelers All; Up Above and Down Below (W. R. Scott, 
1943-49). 

Williamson, Margaret. First Book of Bugs (Watts, 1949). 

Books for Younger Readers 

Bronson, W, S. Children of the Sea (Harcourt, 1940), 

Fenton, C. L. Along Nature’s Highway (Day, 1943). 

Gall, A. C. and Crew, F. H. Flat Tail; Little Black Ant; Ring- 
tail; Splasher; Wagtail (Oxford, 1932-45). 

Gould, Dorothea. Very First Garden (Oxford, 1943). 

Hylander, C. J. Out of Doors in Autumn; Out of Doors in 
Spring; Out of Doors in Summer; Out of Doors in Winter 
(Macmillan, 1942-43). 

Johnston, E. F. Strange Visitor (Macmillan, 1947). 

Lucas, J. M. Where Did Your Garden Grow? (Lippincott, 
1939). 

McClung, R. M. Sphinx; the Story of a Caterpillar (Morrow, 
1949). 

Patch, E. M. and Fenton, C. 1. Forest Neighbors; Mountain 
Neighbors; Prairie Neighbors (Macmillan, 1936-40). 

Seisam, M. E. Play with Trees (Morrow, 1950). 

Webb, Addison. Birds in Their Homes (Garden City, 
1947). 

Webb, Addison. Song of the Seasons (Morrow, 1950). 

Books for Older Boys and Girls 

Andrews, R. C. This Amazing Planet (Putnam, 1940), 

Beaty, J. Y. Luther Burbank, Plant Magician (Messner, 
1943). 

Carr, W. H. Desert Parade (Viking, 1947). 

Carrighar, Sally, One Day at Teton Marsh (Knopf, 1947). 

Carson, R. L. Sea Around Us (Oxford, 1951). 

Chace, L. M. Look at Life (Knopf, 1942). 

Comstock, A. B. Handbook of Nature Study (Comstock, 
1939). 

Devoe, Alan. This Fascinating Animal World (McGraw, 
1951). 

Fenton, C. L. and M. A. The Rock Book (Doubleday, 1940). 

Harpster, H. T. Insect World (Viking, 1947). 

Hausmon, E. H. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of American 
Wild Flowers (Garden City, 1947). 

Hausmon, L. A. Beginner's Guide to Seashore Life (Putnam, 
1949). 


Nau'TILUS. Eeferences to the nautilus abound in 
literature, but few persons know anything definite 
about this curious sea animal. The pearlj'' nautilus 
is a mollusk of the group called cephalopods. This 
group also contains the octopus and squid (see 
Mollusks; Octopus). The pearly nautilus lives in the 
warm seas surrounding the East Indies and the Fiji 
Islands. Its large, cream-colored shell is beautifully 
streaked with brown on the outside and divided in- 
side into a number of chambers lined with mother-of- 
pearl. This beautiful iridescent lining gives the 
pearlj" nautilus its name. 

The young nautilus at first lives in a nearlj" cy- 
lindrical shell. As the animal grows, a new chamber 
is secreted and a partition made between this and the 
old one. The nautilus slips forward into the new 
chamber, leaving behind it only a narrow cord, the 
siphtmcle. This is formed from the structure called the 
mantle, which all mollusks have. A large number of 
chambers are formed in the same way, the animal mov- 
ing fonvard each time, until a stage is reached when 
no new chambers form. All the chambers are air-tight 


Jaeger, Ellsworth. Wildwood Wisdom (Macmillan, 1945). 
Jaques, F. P. As Far as the Yukon (Harper, 1951). 

Jordan, E. 1 . Hammond’s Guide to Nature Hobbies (Ham- 
mond, 1953). 

Jordan, E. L Hammond’s Nature Atlas of America (Ham- 
mond, 1952). 

Kieran, John. Footnotes on Nature (Doubleday, 1947). 
Krulch, J. W., ed. Great American Nature Writing (Sloane, 
1950). 

Lemmon, R. S. How to Attract the Birds (Doubleday, 
1947). 

Mafschat, C. H. American Butterflies and Moths (Random, 
1942). 

Moore, C. B. Book of Wild Pets (Putnam, 1937). 

Morgan, A. H. Field Book of Animals in Winter (Putnam, 
1939). 

Morgan, A. H. Field Book of Ponds and Streams (Putnam, 
1930). 

Morgan, A. P. Pet Book for Boys and Girls (Scribner, 
1949). 

Morris, P. A. Boy’s Book of Snakes (Ronald, 1948). 

PeaHie, D. C. and N. R. Cup of Sky (Houghton, 1950). 
Peterson, R. T, Wildlife in Color (Houghton, 1951). 

Pettit, T. S. Birds in Your Back Yard (Harper, 1949). 
Sawyer, E. J. Bird Houses, Baths, and Feeding Shelters 
(Pam) (Cranbrook, 1940). 

Shuttlesworth, D. E. Exploring Nature with Your Child, 
(Greystone, 1952). 

Teole, E. W. Byways to Adventure (Dodd, 1942). 

Teale, E. W. Dune Boy (Dodd, 1943). 

Teale, E. W. Lost Woods (Dodd, 1945), 

Thoreou, H. D. Walden (Modem Library, n. d.). 

Yates, R. F. Fun with Your Microscope (Appleton, 1943). 
Zim, H. S. Frogs and Toads (Morrow, 1950). 

Zim, H, S. Plants, a Guide to Plant Hobbies (Harcourt, 
1947). 

Zim, H. S. and Cooper, E. K. Minerals (Harcourt, 1943). 

Among the many periodicals and leaflets which contain 
valuable material on Nature Study are: American Wildlife, 
Audubon Magazine, Cornell Rural School Leaflets, Fauna (The 
Zoological Society of Philadelphia), Frontiers (The Academy 
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia), Junior Natural History 
Magazine, School Nature League Bulletin (National Associa- 
tion of Audubon Societies). 

{See also bibliographies for Animals, Astronomy, Biology, 
Birds, Botany, Hobbies, Insects, and Zoology.) 


HOW THE CHAMBERS ARE ARRANGED 



This nautilus shell has been split lengthways. In front, on 
the ri^t, is the cream and brown exterior. At left is the in- 
terior of the shell, with its curious chambered structure. 


cavities filled with a gas rich in nitrogen. The 
siphuncle e.xtends through all the chambers into the 
first one formed. The living animal does not ordi- 



NAUTILUS 

THE NAUTILUS IN ITS SHELL 



narily rise to the surface, but the shell is often found 
floating after its occupant dies. The gas-filled 
chambers serve during the life of the animal to make 
its shell lighter and easier to carry about. 


70 

The odd life history of the pearly nautilus was 
what prompted Oliver Wendell Holmes to write ‘The 
Chambered Nautilus’, containing the famous stanza: 

Year after year beheld the silent toil 
That spread his lustrous coil; 

Still, as the spiral grew, 

He left the past year’s dwelling for the new. 

Stole with soft step its shining archway through. 
Built up its idle door. 

Stretched in his last-found home, and knew the 
old no more. 

The nautilus swims by forcing water from a siphon, 
just as the octopus and squid do. The natural posi- 
tion of the animal is with the head downward and the 
shell vertical. Nearly a hundred small tentacles, 
with which food is caught, surround the mouth. None 
of these have suckers. Each can be withdrawn into a 
sheath. When the tentacles are expanded, the head of 
the animal looks like the open disk of a sea anemone. 

One of the most remarkable features of the nautilus 
is its eye, which is' constructed on the principle of the 
pin-hole camera. No other animal has a similar tjpe 
of eye. The eyes are rounded hollow boxes about a 
half inch in diameter. They are opaque, but in the 
center of each is a tiny hole that allows sea water to 
enter and fill the eye. There is no lens. 

The pearly nautilus is often confused in litera- 
ture with its distant relative the argonaut, or paper 
nautilus. This animal is found in warm seas around 
the world. The female secretes a thin, scalloped 
shell in which she deposits her eggs. The ancient 
Greeks thought that the creature used its shell as 
a boat and its arms as sails. (For picture of paper- 
nautilus shell in color, see Shell.) 


WHERE the NAVY TRAINS /fe OFFICERS 


■^A^VAL ACADEMY, United States. The original 
-I- ’ training school for officers of the United States 
Navy is the famous Naval Academy at Aimapolis, 
Md. The Academy was formally opened in 1845 ac- 
cording to plans of George Bancroft, secretary of the 
navy under President Polk. It is supervised by the 
Bureau of Naval Personnel of the Navy Department. 

“June week” is the traditional graduation time at 
the Academy on the Severn River. From a position in 
the center of the quadrangle, the visitor sees midship- 
men everywhere. Many of them, in the regular uni- 
form of navy blue, are hurr3dng to the farewell “hop” 
in the vast gymnasium to the left of Bancroft Hall. 
Others stroll along the Severn River docks to the left, 
where the masts of many little sailboats bristle. 
The administration building lies to the right as does 
the chapel, where John Paul Jones is buried. Behind are 
the academic and the marine-engineering buildings. 

Midshipman life, with its combination of academic 
and military studies, is far more strenuous than that 
of any other college in the country except West Point. 
Rising at 6:15 A.M. with the reveille gun, midshipmen 
have 30 minutes to dress, form in ranks, and stand in- 
spection. After breakfast they .must clean up their 
rooms. They attend a full schedule of alternate study 



71 


NAVAL ACADEMY 


RULES FOR MIDSHIPMEN 

A superintendent of the Naval Academy drew up the 
following rules designed to meet the needs of young 
men in the naval service: 

Do your day’s work every day. 

Strive to make 100 per cent in everything you under- 
take. 

Obey orders cheerfully, honestly, and conscientiously. 
Do your full duty on time, all the time. 

Practice self-control and self-denial. 

Be considerate of others. Be helpful and cheerful and 
courteous. 

Don’t be a “growler” or a “sea-lawyer” or a “drifter” 
or a “dud.” 

Be true to yourself, to your messmates, to your task. 
Be true to the great naval service to which it is your 
priceless privilege to belong. 

Always steer a straight course and answer with a 
cheerful “aye, aye, sir!” 

Be a man and never say die. 


and class periods during the day and engage in drill 
and sports later- in the afternoon. After dinner they 
study, with taps and lights out at 10:00 P.M. 

In their first year at the Academy fourth classmen, 
or "plebes,” start the rigid training in infantry drill, 
rifle range, watch duties, seamanship, parades, and 
sports. This continues throughout the four years. 
All four classes receive instruction in 11 main de- 
partments — leadership; seamanship and navigation; 
ordnance and gunnery; marine engineering; aviation; 
mathematics; electrical engineering; history, govern- 
ment, and English language; foreign languages; hy- 
giene; and physical training. Beginning in their second 
year, as third classmen, or “youngsters,” they go to 
sea each summer for a three-month practice cruise. 


The four-year course may be shortened in time of 
emergency. Graduates receive the bachelor of science 
degree in electrical engineering. Most of them are 
commissioned in the United States Navy. Some be- 
come second lieutenants in the Marine Corps. 

Most candidates for the Naval Academy are ap- 
pointed by senators, representatives, and delegates to 
Congress. Each may appoint 5. The vice-president 
also appoints 5. The president appoints 5 from the 
District of Columbia; 75 from the country at large; 
40 from sons of veterans killed or injured in serv- 
ice; an undetermined number of sons of wiimers of 
the Congressional Medal of Honor; one from Puerto 
Rico; 4 from the Philippines; and 20 from Latin 
America and Canada. The resident commissioner nom- 
inates 5 from Puerto Rico. The secretary of the Navy 
appoints 320 men from the Navy, Marine Corps, 
and their reserve forces; 20 honor graduates from 
certain schools; and one from the Canal Zone. Candi- 
dates must be from 17 to 21 years old (reserve vet- 
erans may be 23 years old) . Midshipmen are paid S936 
a year for expenses. The total number of midshipmen 
averages about 3,500. 

Candidates for admission to the Academy must meet 
the school’s scholastic requirements. Congressional 
candidates and candidates who are sons of holders of 
the Congressional Medal may do so with an acceptable 
high-school record and passage of an examination in 
mathematics and physics. Certain college work may 
be substituted for the examination. All other candi- 
dates must take the regular entrance examination in 
mathematics, English, United States history, and 
physics. Many members of Congress make their initial 
selection of candidates by competitive examinations. 


THE NAVAL ACADEMY AS VIEWED FROM THE AIR 



The airplane camera took this view of the United States Naval and the gymnasium. The building with the dome is the chapet 
Academy at Annapolis, Md. Bancroft Hall, in the foreground, The central structure in back is the academic building, with the 
IS the midshipmen’s living quarters, flanked by the armory chemistry and marine-engineering buildings on either side. 




NAVIGATION 


72 


How Men NAVIGATE over SEAS and in the AIR 



N avigation. 
who rows a 


A man 
boat 

knows that he must keep 
turning his head to see 
where he is going. If he 
does not, wind and current 
will probably push him off 
his course. Every time he 
turns his head and changes 
the direction of his boat, 
he is navigating. 

“Navigation” means 
finding out where you are 
on the water and whether 
you are steering correctly. 

(Airmen can use the sea- 
men’s methods with some 
changes). Near shore the 
navigator of a ship often 
uses the same method as 
the man in the boat. If 
he is coming into a port he may select a landmark, 
such as a hill or a lighthouse. Then he tells his helms- 
man to steer toward it. If the ship is sailing along a 
coast, the navigator checks on landmarks as he 
passes them. Steaming 


The man in the rowboat (upper left) is navigating. He may look 
ahead now and then to be sure he is going right. Or he may get 
on his course, then notice a tree or other landmark that lies 
squarely astern. Then he keeps that landmark in line as he rows. 
The helmsman of a steamer (upper right) is using one of the 
oarsman’s methods. He is steering toward a lighthouse at the 
harbor mouth. To help him steer accurately, the ship carries 
a pole called a “jackstaS” in the bow. The helmsman keeps the 
jackstaff tip on the landmark. Aviators (bottom) also use land- 
marks for daytime flying. They call this "contact” flying. 


along coast lines in this 
way is called “coasting” 
or “piloting.” 

Dead Reckoning 

But how does the navi- 
gator guide his ship over 
the open ocean with no 
landmarks in sight? He 
may use a system called 
dead reckoning. For this 
he needs a chart, or map 
of the water he is crossing, 
a compass to tell direc- 
tions, and a device to tell 
the number of miles the 
ship has run since leaving 
port. One such device is an 


WHY DEAD RECKONING NEEDS CORRECTION 



Suppose a ship starts from A to get to C, traveling 10 miles an 
hour. After 24 hours, it should be 240 miles on its course by dead 
reckoning at the point marked D.R. Actualiy, a cross wind has 
blown it off course and it is at B. (This crosswise drift is called 
leeway.) If the navigator should keep going by dead reckoning, 
the next day’s travel mi^ht bring the ship to X. But at B the 
navigator checks his position by observing the sun or the stars 
and knows he has been blown off his course. So he puts the 
ship on a new course (heading a little north of C to allow for 
leeway) and he reaches his destination. 


revolution count- 
works something 
like an automobile speed- 
ometer. Another is called 
a log (see Log, Ship’s). 

As the ship leaves the 
harbor mouth on its voy- 
age, the navigator “takes 
a departure.” He orders a 
sailor to set the log run- 
ning and checks the di- 
rection or bearing of one 
or more landmarks. He 
notes his bearings and 
the time they were taken 
in the log book, an official 
record of the voyage. 

The navigator then tells 
the helmsman to steer the 
ship in a certain direction 
called a course. To find 
the course he draws a line on his chart from the har- 
bor mouth to the next land he wants to reach. He 
checks the ship’s speed from hour to hour. Every few 
hours he calculates how far the ship has traveled and 

marks this distance on 
his course line. Each 
mark is labeled “D. E.” 
because it is the “dead 
reckoning” position for the 
ship at the moment the 
mark is made. 

Sometimes this dead 
reckoning position is the 
actual position. But often 
wind and current carry 
the ship off its course or 
affect its speed. Then 
the navigator must cor- 
rect his course. 

Correcting the Course 
To make this correction, 
he must learn where the 


73 


NAVIGATION 



1. We see how the Phoenicians and Greeks used the Pole Star to 
tell latitude by measuring how high it stood above the horizon. 
The next pictures show why this method works. 2. First we must 
appreciate how far away the Pole Star is. The diagram shows 
the earth as a dot 1/32 of an inch wide and the Pole Star above 
it. But even with the earth made this small, the line point- 
ing to the star should be about 186,000 miles long to indicate 
the distance correctly. At such a distance it would be in the 


same direcUon wherever we view it from the earth. 3. We see 
observers A, B, and C. The dome over each one represents 
the sky as he sees it. The lower edge of each dome is the 
observer’s horizon and the dotted lines show where each sees 
the Pole Star. As we can see, observer A at the North Pole 
sees the star directly overhead (at his zenith). Observer B at 
latitude 45° N. sees it halfway between the horizon and his 
zenith. Observer C on the equator sees the star on the horizon. 


ship has been taken off its track. He does this by 
finding the latitude (location north or south of the 
equator) and the longitude (location east or west of 
the Greenwich meridian). If the 
ship is north of the equator, the 
navigator can find latitude from 
the Pole Star (also called Polaris 
and the North Star). Sailors have 
known how to do this since the 
days of the ancient Greeks and 
Phoenicians. 

The Pole Star indicates north 
because it stands almost exactly 
above the North Pole of the earth. 

It also tells latitude by its height 
above the horizon. If you lived at 
the North Pole, the Pole Star would 
be right over your head every 
night. If you went south from the 
pole, the star would seem to move 
down toward the northern horizon. 

It would move down as many 
degrees as you travel south from 
the North Pole. 

For example, if you found that 
the Pole Star was 30 degrees down 
from your overhead point (zenith), 
you would be 30 degrees south of 
the North Pole. But the latitude 
of the North Pole is 90 degrees north. Hence you 
would be at 90° minus 30°, or 60° N. latitude. 

The sun also tells latitude, but not so easily as the 
Pole Star. The calculations are more difficult because 
the sun shifts north and south with the seasons. But 


an almanac tells where it is every day and hour. Once 
the navigator knows this location, he can use the sun 
like the Pole Star by figuring from wherever it is 
at the moment. By observing the 
Pole Star at night and the sun 
during the day, the navigator can 
fix latitude several times through- 
out the 24 hours. 

To find longitude, navigators use 
the time of day. To see how they 
do tliis, we must understand the 
relation between lime and distance. 
Remember that the earth rolls 
around completely once in 24 hours. 
Every place on the earth goes 
around in exactly that time. In six 
hours, each place goes around one- 
fourth of the way. So six hours in 
“time” means one-fourth of the 
way around the earth in “distance.” 
Any other time means a correspond- 
ing amount of distance. 

The picture on the left shows 
how navigators can use this rela- 
tion between time and distance. 
From it we see that the time can be 
6:00 A.M., noon, and 6:00 p.m. at 
the same instant but at different 
places on the earth. If navigators 
at these places know this difference, they know how 
far apart they are from each other around the earth. 

However, narigators compare the time wherever 
they are with the time of the observatory at Green- 
wich (pronounced grin'ich), England (see Time). 


TELLING 


LONGITUDE 


o 





If you were in outer space, looking over 
the North Pole toward the sun, you could 
see an observer at A watching the sun rise. 
His time would be about 6:00 a.m. An ob- 
server at B would see the sun in the south 
and his time would be noon. At C the sun 
would be setting at 6:00 p.m. The times 
difier because each observer is one-fourth 
of the way around the earth from his 
neighbor. The observers could learn their 
difference in longitude by comparing their 
times at this instant. 



NAVIGATION 


USING 


HAND SOUNDING LEAD 


74 


FOG 





*. i : f, »7v ‘‘•4 - '>'■' 



1 *' ‘ /-^r' 





Two leadsmen are taking soundings as a ship creeps 
ahead in a fog. They stand on portable stages outside 
the rail. The sailor on the starboard side has swung 
his lead line and let it fly forward. This is called 
“heaving the lead.*’ The lead will reach bottom at 
the time the ship’s motion brings the sailor over the 
lead. The lead line will then hang straight down, and 
he can tell the depth from a mark on the line, just as 
the otner sailor is now doing. 


THE LEADSMAN’S CALLS 


They carry Greenwich time on chronom- 
eters and determine their own time by ob- 
serving the sun and stars. Details of the 
method are given in the article on Latitude. 

In this way the navigator finds his latitude 
and longitude several times a day. From each find- 
ing he decides what course to steer next in order to 
keep heading toward his destination. 

Charts and Instruments 

The navigator needs many aids to help him do his 
work. First, he needs charts of all the waters he ex- 
pects to sail. The charts show coast lines, islands, 
landmarks, lights, depths, buoys, and other vital 
facts. These facts rarely change from year to year. 

Changing conditions are shown on pilot charts. A 
pilot .chart tells how strong the winds and currents 
are along the sea routes, where storms are to be ex- 
pected, and where icebergs and wrecks are located. 
This information helps the navigator to figure out the 


The lead line is marked at various lengths 
with knots or strips of leather or rags. 
These are called “marks” and they show 
depths in fathoms. A fathom is 6 feet. 
The leadsman may call out, “By the mark 
five!” meaning that the water is 5 fathoms, 
or 30 feet, deep. The call, “And a quarter 
five !” means that the depth is 5M fathoms. 
“And a half five!” means 5 }^ fathoms. If 
no mark shows at the water’s edge, the 
depth is estimated and reported as a 
“deep.” “By the deep four!” means an 
estimated 4 fathoms. 


safest and quickest route. American 
navigators get a new pilot chart every 
month from the government. 

All ships have compasses for steering 
and for taking bearings. They show where 
north is because the compass needle is 
attracted by the earth’s magnetism in 
the north (see Compass, Magnetic). They 
usually show directions in degrees. Many 
ships also have gyrocompasses, worked 
by electricity (see Gyroscope). 

Navigators use a very accurate time- 
keeper called a chronometer. The best 
ones lose or gain only a few seconds a 
day. The Naval Observatory in Wash- 
ington, D. C., sends radio time signals 
daily for cheeking ship’s cluonometers 
(see W^atches and Clocks). 

The lead line is a length of cord vdth 
a lead weight at one end. Navdgators 
use it near shore to find the depth of 
the water. Markers along the length of 
the cord show various depths in fath- 
oms. (One fathom is six feet.) A sailor 
drops the lead in the water, and when 
it hits bottom he reads the depth of 
the w’ater from the marker nearest the 
water’s edge. Sometimes there is a 
small hole coated with tallow in the 
imder side of the lead. A sample of 
the bottom sticks to the tallow when 
the sailor brings up the lead. Tliis 
sample helps the 
navigator find the 
ship’s exact posi- 
tion, for he can 
compare it with the 
type of bottom 
shown on his chart. 
It also tells him if 
the bottom will hold 
the anchor strongly- 
Navigators also use 


the lead line to fol- 


low’ an unmarked 
channel in a shallow 
harbor. 

Large ships often have a machine called a sonic 
depth finder or a fathometer. This device automat- 
ically measures the depth of the water. It sends a 
supersonic signal directly' dow'ii into the water and 
measures the time an echo takes to return from the 
bottom. One type of instrument can keep a constant 
record of the depth on a moving strip of paper. 

The navigator would not put to sea without hri 
copy of the Nautical Almanac. This book is published 
yearly by the United States Naval Observatory- it 
contains all kinds of facts useful in nav'igation. For 
each day of the year it tells the location of the sun, 
moon, and stars in the heavens, and, if necessary', 
how the positions change from hoiur to hour. 




75 


NAVIGATION 


Radio helps the navigator in many ways. Most 
countries have special radio stations on their coasts. 
If the navigator is not too far from land, he can ask 
one of these stations for help in checking his position. 
A.n aviator can make the same request. Other 
stations send out special automatic signals. Ships 
uith “radio direction finders” use these signals to find 
their position. 

Many airplanes and large ships carry radar sets. 
With these a navigator, traveling at night or in a fog, 
can see a picture of land sometimes as much as one 
hundred miles away. This picture shows him where 
he is and helps him plot a course. Loran is a long- 
range radar aid to navigation (see Radar). 

Sailing Across Oceans 

■ On a long voyage across open seas to a distant 
port, the navigator can simply steer by compass if 
he likes. However, he must know the actual direc- 
tion between his starting point and his destination. 


USING PARALLEL RULERS 



The navigator lays one section of the parallel rulers along the 
course line AB and the other through the center of the compass 
rose. He reads the direction of the course line at the point 
where the second section crosses the numbered edge of the com- 
pass rose. The ruler arms keep the sections always paraUel. 

but he can learn this from his chart. First he draws 
a straight line from one port to the other. This line 
will cross the lines of longitude at a certain angle. 
By measuring the angle, the navigator learns the 
direction of the course. If he does not want to meas- 
ure, he can “carry” the course line to a compass rose 
on the chart with parallel rulers. Then he can read 
the direction from the rose. 

A line which crosses all meridians of longitude at 
the same angle is called a rhumb line or loxodrome. 


A COMPASS FOR MAPS AND CHARTS 






1 . •s \>\ 






Here we see a circle called a compass rose marked oS with 360 
degrees. The compass rose appears on all navigational charts, 
with 0’ pointing due north. The inner circle shows how magnetic 
compass bearings vary from true bearings in the region shown 
by the chart, as eipiained in the article on Compass. This com- 
pass rose is for an area where “magnetic north” is O’SC' east of 
“true north" for the year the chart was printed. The picture in 
the adjoining column shows bow the navigator applies bis parallel 
rulers to the course line and to the center of the compass rose 
to find the direction of the course line. 


The use of rhumb lines for courses is called plane 
sailing, because the navigator follows courses just as 
he gets them from the flat or plane surface of the map. 
But usually these courses are not the shortest ones, 
as the surface of the ocean is not flat like the chart. 
It is curved; so, as a rule, the straight line on the chart 
gives a false impression of the best course to follow. 
To see just how wrong it is, let us suppose we want 
to go from Seattle to Tokyo, Japan. Let us check 
where a straight line between these points would 
actually go on the earth or on a globe. 

To get a straight line from Seattle to Tokyo on a 
globe, you would have to poke a wire through the 
globe from one port to the other. To follow this line, 


BUOYS AND BEACONS FOR PORTS AND CHANNELS 














Here a ship is making its way along a channel edged with buoys. In American waters, the right edge of the channel (as a ship enters 
port) is marked by nun buoys These have cone-shaped tops, are painted red, and are marked with even numbers. The left side 
IS marked by flat-topped can buovs. These are black and marked with odd numbers. Buoys may be lighted at m'ght. The two bea- 
cons beyond the ship form a range By keeping them one above another, the helmsman stayed on the correct course as he came up 
the channel to his present location. At the right, the buoy with perpendicular striping marks the middle of a channel. Ships pass 
this close aboard. The buoy with horizontal striping marks an obstruction. Ships sail wide of this. 



NAVIGATION — 76 

HOW GREAT CIRCLE AND COMPASS COURSES LOOK ON GLOBES AND CHARTS 




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c 




’ / 
% 



1 







1 



V- ■ 

ivV 



1 

Jr' 

' ' “ 



' 


1 

'‘"S- 

€ ? 


Circle 

Course 


I 


r 




' — 








’SeoUle;? 


i 


""'Comp' 







At the left are the great circle and compass courses between Seattle and Tok^o as they appear on the globe. You can see that 
the great circle course is actually the shorter distance. The compass course, which must cut all the meridians at the same angle, is 
much longer. In the flat map at the right, the compass course only appears shorter because a map distorts global distances. 


a ship would have to sail through the earth. Naturally 
it cannot do that. It must go along the curved 
surface of the earth. Hence its course must be some 
sort of curve. The straight line as the shortest dis- 
tance between two points on the chart is an illusion 
caused by the fact that the chart is flat. 

Great Circle Courses 

Along what route does the best course actually go? 
A simple experiment will show you. Take a piece of 
string and a globe of the world. Cut the string so that 
it is just long enough to go all the way around the 
equator on your globe. Then stretch the string around 
so that it passes over Seattle and Tokyo. Make sure 
that the ends just reach around the globe and the 
string cuts the earth exactly in two parts just as it did 
on the equator. 

Now notice that the string makes a circle around 
the earth, and the center of the circle is at the center 
of the globe. A circle of this kind is called a great 
circle. It follows the shortest distance along the 
curvature of the earth between any two points it 
passes through, such as Seattle and Tokyo. If you 
doubt this, try shifting the string to one side or the 
other. Whenever you do this, you have to use more 
string to reach between your ports. 

How can the navigator follow the course marked out 
by the string? Look at the globe again and see 
where the string crosses the various lines of latitude 
and longitude. Now take a chart and mark these 
crossing points on the chart’s lines of latitude and 
longitude. Con- 
nect the points 
and the chart will 
show the great cir- 
cle course. If you 
do not want to 
mark a chart, the 
picture on this 
page shows you 
how the course 
line will look. 

Does this mean - 
that a navigator 


must use a globe in order to find a great circle course? 
Many of the early navigators did so; you often see 
globes in old-time pictures of Columbus, Magellan, 
and Drake. But today the maritime governments 
provide simpler methods. They print tables of cal- 
culations that help a navigator figure out great circle 
courses quickly and easily. 

A navigator can also use a special kind of map 
called a gnomonic map (see Maps). This map works 
like a globe in reverse. It has the parallels and 
meridians drawn so that a straight line between two 
ports crosses them exactly as the string crosses the 
same lines on a globe. Hence the straight line shows 
the great circle course. 

But navigators use ordinary charts rather than 
gnomonic charts because they are the most convenient 
kind for most purposes. On shorter voyages a rhumb 
line or compass course is almost as short as a great 
circle one and it can be determined easily by the 
plane-sailing method. Even on great circle voyages, 
the ordinary chart is more convenient, once the nav- 
igator has laid out his curving great circle course on 
it. After that he can plot his positions easily, as he 
finds them from day to day, and compare them with 
where he should be on the great circle course. In this 
way he can tell directly from the map in what direc- 
tion to steer to get back on the course. 

Navigators sometimes veer off the shortest great 
circle courses to avoid danger of collision or going 
aground. For example, maritime governments have 

agreed that the 
great circle tracks 
in the North At- 
lantic both start 
and end at 50° W. 
longitude rather 
than at New York 
Harbor. This 
keeps ships clear 
of the New Eng- 
land coast. The 
government regu- 
lations require that 


GREAT CIRCLE TRACKS ON THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



I -I i: i: j : ^ i 

The arrows in this picture show the eastward and westward great circle track 
in the North Atlantic. They start and end at about SO* W. longitude so that 
ships will stay clear of the rocky New England coast. 






77 


NAVIGATION 


ships must use separate eastbound and westbound 
tracks. The tracks are one degree (about 69 statute 
miles) apart. Both tracks are shifted southward when 
icebergs are adrift and northward when the ocean is 
ice-free to take advantage of the shortest route. 

Coastal Piloting 

“iMien close to land, the navigator uses special 
methods. He follows straight compass courses and 
checks his position constantly by noting the bearings 
of landmarks, buoys, and lights. He draws these 


USING BEARINGS TO FIX POSITION 




Near shore a navigator uses compass bearings to landmarks to 
learn his position. Here he has taken the bearings to landmarks 
A and B. On his chart he draws the reverse bearing from each 
landmark, using the compass rose and parallel rulers, as shown 
on the preceding page. The two lines cross at point C. This 
was the ship’s location when he took the bearings. 


Navigating by 

A SHIP sails over the open seas, its navigator 
can use the sun and stars as his guides. But these 
guideposts are not fixed. They seem to move across 
the heavens in a majestic procession. The naHgator 
must use special methods to allow for this movement 
and find his position. The methods are called celestial 
navigation, because they use the heavenly bodies. 

The methods vary, but the general principle is 
that at any instant of time, each heavenly body is 
directly above some point on the earth. Nautical al- 
manacs have information that tell where this location 
is for every important celestial body at every minute 
of Greenwich time. If a na^’igator identifies a bright 
star directly overhead and checks the time, he can 
look up the location of the star in the almanac. 
His position on the earth will be directly below the 
star. (Tlie overhead position is called the zenith.) 

Usually, however, circumstances prevent use of this 
simple method. Then the navigator must select some 
heavenly body and calculate how far he is from being 
directly imder that body. To check upon the dis- 
tance, he measures the angular height {altitude) of 
the body above the horizon. 

To measure the altitude of the sun or stars, the 
naHgator uses an instrument called a sextant. The 
picture on the next page shows how it is used. Aviators 
use a smaller instrument called a bubble octant. This 
has a bubble suspended in a container of liquid, and 
the aviator uses the bubble as an “artificial horizon.” 



To keep a safe distance offshore, navigators may use the method 
shown above. When the ship at position A has a landmark (L) 
45“ off the bow, the navigator notes the ship’s mileage on the 
ship’s log. When the ship has the landmark squarely abeam 
(position B) the navigator notes the mileage again. The distance 
run (AB) is equal to the distance offshore (BL). 

bearings on his chart. Where they cross his course 
line is his position at the time the bearing was taken. 
Two bearings taken at approximately the same time 
will cross if drawn on a chart to form a or a 
crossfix. 

The na\dgator can find his distance to shore as he 
sails along a coast bj’ taking “bow and beam” bearings 
as shown above. Since angle A is 45°, the triangle 
ABL has a right angle at B. Hence the sides AB and 
BL are equal and he learns his distance offshore. 


Sun and Stars 

He does this because often the horizon is obscured or 
below his line of vision. Now let us see how the spe- 
cial methods work. 

Measuring the Altitude of the Sun 

The simplest method is called “shooting the noon 
sun.” The term means measuring the height of the sun 
at noon with a sextant. As the sun reaches the high- 
est point, at approximately noon, the navigator meas- 
ures the angle it makes above the horizon. Let us 
say that he is in the North Atlantic in summer and 
he finds the angle to be 70 degrees. This means that 
the sun is within 20 degrees of being directly over his 
head (that is, at zenith). Thus the ship is 20 degrees 
north of the sun. 

But the navigator also can find from his Naut- 
ical Almanac at what latitude the sun is directly 
overhead at tliis moment. Suppose that he finds that 
it is 15° N. This tells him Iris own latitude. If the 
sun is 15 degrees north of the equator and the ship 
is 20 degrees north of the sun, the ship must be .35 
degrees north of the equator. In other words,' the 
ship is at latitude 35° N. 

The naHgator can determine his longitude from 
this same sight. He keeps measuring the sun at mid- 
day with his sextant imtil he finds it at its highest 
point above the horizon. Now the time is noon at his 
position. His chronometer tells him the time at 
Greenwich at this same instant. The difference be- 
tween the two times tells him his longitude — once he 





NAVIGATION 


78 


has changed his local time, as 
judged by the sun, to “mean” 
or “clock” time (see Time). 

The method can be applied 
with suitable variations to 
the sun at other hours or to 
stars at night. 

The Sumner Line 
of Position 

Until early in the 19th 
century, these methods were 
standard with all navigators. 

But in 1837 an American sea 
captain named Thomas H. 

Sumner devised another in- 
genious method. A storm 
drove his ship dangerously 
close to the west coast of 
Ireland and he was unable to 
check his dead reckoning 
position with any celestial observation. Finally he 
was able to take several sights and, by a series 
of brilliant deductions, he established his ship’s 
position. 

Sumner based his method on two facts already men- 
tioned. Every heavenly body is always directly 
above some point on the earth; and the location of 
this “sub-stellar point” can be computed from the 
time of observation and from data in the almanac. 
A similar rule holds equally true if an observer sees 
a star on a slant instead of directly overhead. He will 
be somewhere on a circle which has the star’s sub- 
stellar point as its center. We can see this in the 
right-hand picture below. 

The observer can calculate the radius of the circle 
from the angle at which the star stands off the ver- 
tical. This will teU him how far he is from the star’s 
sub-stellar point. It will not tell him his direction 
from the point, but he can remedy this by determining 


a second circle from another 
star. The two circles vill in- 
tersect at two points, and one 
of these points must be the 
observer’s position on the 
earth. Since the navigator 
nearly always knows his ap- 
proximate position, he can 
choose the correct intersection. 

The circles cover a great 
portion of the globe, much 
too large for a chart, so the 
navigator draws only the 
small intersecting portions. 
These are so small in compar- 
ison with the circles that they 
can be drawn as straight lines, 
called lines of 'position. So the 
position of the ship lies some- 
where along each line — actu- 
ally where the lines cross. The pictures at the bottom 
of the page show how you can demonstrate the Sum- 
ner method for yourself. Finding position in this 
way is sometimes called “taking a celestial fix.” 

History of Navigation 

Since the dawn of civilization men have crossed 
the water in boats (see Boats and Boating; Ships). 
They learned early to travel by water, carrying 
their trade goods to other countries. Going to sea 
became highly important to many people living near 
the Mediterranean Sea — the Sumerians, Cretans, 
Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Greeks (see Aegean Civ- 
ilization; Phoenicians). The Scandinavians too were 
daring sailors from early times. 

The sailors in very ancient times never went very far ■ 
from land. Their voyages consisted largely of “coast- 
ing” — skirting the coasts and sighting on knovm land- 
marks. Usually they traveled only by day and pulled 
their boat up on a beach at sunset. They stayed ashore 


“SHOOTING THE SUN” 



Here the navigator measures the height of the sun with 
a sextant. He sights on the horizon through the unsiU 
vered half of the mirror A. Then he moves arm C until 
the upper mirror B, attached to C, throws an image of the 
sun on the silvered half of A. The pointer on arm C 
shows the altitude of the sun on the scale B. 


THE SUMNER METHOD OF FINDING LONGITUDE AND T.ATTTUDE 



These two pictures show how the Sumner method works. At the places, and one of them was his starting place. The radius 
left is a schoolvard with two flagpoles. A boy stops and looks of each circle is the boy*s distance from the flagpole. Now 

up at the top of one of the poles. His head and eyes tilt at a we can see how a navigator uses a variation of this method, 

certain angle. He walks around the flagpole, keeping his head Instead of flagpole tops he uses two stars. And he does not 
and eyes always at the same angle. He returns to his starting sail around to trace the circle^. He simply measures the al- 

f dace and finds that he has walked in a perfect circle. Now he titude of each star with his sextant, and from these measure- 
ooks up at the second flagpole top. His head and eyes tilt at meats he calculates the radius of each circle. Then he cal; 
a new angle. He circles around the second flagpole to his orig- culates where the circles will intersect on his chart and 

inal starting point. He finds that the two circles intersect in two thereby learns his real location on the face of the carta. 



o 


79 


NAVIGATION 



AN ASTROLABE 


WORLD 


This old picture of a cross-staff was taken from ‘The Seaman’s 
Secrets’, a book by John Davis, printed in 1594. To use the 
cross-staff, the observer sighted from the base to the tip of 
the farther crosspiece and adjusted the two crosspieces to 
line up with the sun and the horizon. He then read the angu- 
lar height of the sun from a scale marked on the staff. 

to cook their evening meal and to rest for the night. 
They did not have charts but sometimes they found 
their way by a list of directions. (The Romans called 
such a hst a •periplus.) The list contained details 
about landmarks, good anchorages, and such hazards 
as shoals and reefs. 

The Phoenicians and Greeks were the first of the 
Mediterranean sailors to navigate far from land and 
to sail at night. They made primitive charts and 
they knew a crude form of dead reckoning. The sun 
and the Pole Star told them direction. From the 
height of the Pole Star above the horizon they learned 
to tell how far north they were. They estimated 
distances from the time it took to cover them. 

Advances in seamanship — that is, the art of hand- 
ling a ship — went along vith navigation. The Egyp- 
tians used rowers, and the 
Phoenicians and Greeks 
increased oar power by 
putting rowers in upper 
“banks” or tiers. The 
Greeks put a second mast 
in the bow, and the 
Romans a third mast in 
the stem. The Romans 
also used a topsail on the 
mainmast. By the first 
century b.c., the Gauls in 
Brittany abandoned row- 
ers completely. They were 
perhaps the first to do so. 

They also learned to sail 
partly into the wind (to 
windward) by tacking. 

One great improvement 
in seafaring came when 
men learned to store wa- 
ter in wooden casks with 
tight lids instead of in 
goatskin containers or 
earthern jars. This new 
method kept down a nim al 
and vegetable growths 
that made the water imfit 
to drink on long voyages. 


Another great aid was the magnetic compass. Men 
had known of the north-seeking properties of the lode- 
stone for many centuries before the Christian Era. 
But the first use of the magnetic compass by navi- 
gators seems to have been in the 12th centurj’’. A 
century later the 
Italians learned 
how to make a 
good chart called a 
portolano . It 
showed an outline 
of the coast and 
it had crosslines 
to help in find- 
ing compass direc- 
tions. 

Other Aids 
At this time 
navigators used 
the cross-staff and 
the astrolabe, two 
defaces which the 
Greeks had in- 
vented to measure 
the altitude of 
heavenly bodies. 

The cross-staff 

was a stick or staff about a yard long with a shorter 
sliding stick set at right angles to the staff. To make 
an observation the navigator pointed the staff at a 
point about halfway between the horizon and the sun 
or a star. He moved the crossbar until the sights at 

MAP AFTER THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 



The diagonal bars form the alidade, or 
pointer. The other parts were used to 
find the time of day. This instrument 
is In the Adler Planetarium, Chicago. 


\ ■ . / // //-'.aS 



This world map was published about 1513 end was used for many years thereafter with minor cor- 
rections. The points with their radiating crosslines were used by mariners to find compass di- 
rections; they were the forerunners of the compass roses found on present-day maps and chartsi 
The original of this chart is now in the John Carter Brown Library in Providence, R, ^ 


NAVIGATION 

its ends were in line with the observed body and the 
horizon. A scale placed along the staff showed the 
angle, or height above the horizon, of the body. 

The astrolabe was a circular plate of brass or 
bronze, from four to twenty inches in diameter. A 
pointer, called an alidade, was pivoted at the center 
of the plate. One man held the astrolabe by a small 
ring at the top. Another man crouched or knelt so 
that he faced the rim of the instrument. He then 
pointed the alidade at the sun or a star and measured 
the angle from the markings on the plate. 

Great explorers like Columbus and Magellan made 
their voyages with these nardgating aids. But the 
instruments were not satisfactory; and for two cen- 
turies after Columbus, no clock could keep time well 
enough to help in fixing longitude. 

In the 17th century, however, Britain, France, and 
other maritime countries began aiding the develop- 
ment of navigation. They founded astronomical ob- 
servatories to produce good almanacs and encouraged 


mapmaking and invention of needed instruments. In 
1730 Hadley of England made good observation pos- 
sible by inventing the quadrant. This soon became 
the sextant used today. The problem of fixing longi- 
tude was solved when Harrison of England produced 
several chronometers between 1729 and 1765, and 
Le Roy of Paris perfected the instrument in 1765 (see 
Watches and Clocks). At this time, Capt. James 
Cook’s memorable voyages of discovery proved that 
navigation had become an exact science (see Cook). 

Early in the 19th century, Nathaniel Bowditch of 
Salem, Mass., devised many improved methods. His 
book was adopted by the government as the American 
Practical Navigator. In 1837 another American, Capt. 
Thomas Sumner, devised the Sumner Line method of 
fixing position while caught in a storm off Ireland. 
Matthew Fontaine Maury made memorable studies 
of wind and weather and helped to develop govern- 
ment aid to navigation. Today radio, radar, and other 
electronic devices help the navigator. 


- 80 


The NAVY- 
STALWART 
FIGHTER 
on the 
SEAS > 



~>Suiritr. 


'A 


X 


\ 


\ 




“ WM the’^NY^yVars? PrankUn D. Roosevelt. The Phantom 

was me imvy s nrst earner-based jet fighter. Cartier planes provide the Navy’s front line of striking power. 


^AVY. “The use and control of the sea is and has 
^ been a great factor in the history of the world.” 
These words of the famous naval historian Capt. 
Alfied T. Mahan are as true todaj’ as when he wrote 
them in 1889. 

In peacetime, the seas pro^^de great avenues of 
transportation for all merchant nations. - In time of 


war only the nations with the strongest navies can 
protect their vital, commerce and carry an attack 
overseas. 

Control of the seas is the principal function of tiie 
United States Navy. It gains and keeps this con- 
trol by defeating enemy attacks from the air, on 
the sea, and under the sea. It guards friendly naer- 



81 


NAVY 


FIGHTER PLANE READY FOR STOWAGE 



This rear viow of the Phantom shows the plane after it has landed on a earner. Crewmen 
have folded the wings to save space when the plane is sent below to the hangar deck. 
On either side of the vertical rudder are exhaust nozzles for jet propulsion. 


chant shipping and denies the use of the sea to enemy 
commerce. The Navy also transports troops, equip- 
ment, and supplies to foreign shores for counterattacks ; 
and it supports these attacks with planes and guns. 
These tasks seldom change, although the weapons and 
tactics needed to accomplish them constantly change. 

Naval Combat in Two World Wars 

Allied naval strength provided control of the sea 
throughout the first World War. The chief enemy 
threats came from surface ships and submarines. In 
the second World War, the United States dominated 
the Pacific Ocean only after winning the great naval 
battles of the Coral Sea, Midway, and the Philippine 
Sea (see World War, Second). 

In previous wars surface vessels fought with their 
naval guns. But the second World War matched car- 
rier and land-based planes against enemy planes and 


equipped group of destroyers. 
Carrier planes < attacked the 
“U-boats” with rockets and 
depth charges. If the submarine 
evaded destruction, the planes 
called on destroyer members of 
the team to drop their barrages 
of deptli bombs. Sonar buoj^s 
dropped from the air and the 
sonar and hydrophones of des- 
troyers made it difficult for sub- 
merged submarines to escape. 

Another method of combating 
subniarines was to assemble all 
merchant shipping in convoys. 
These were protected by aircraft 
and antisubmarine vessels such 
as destroyer escorts. Sometimes 
a small aircraft carrier accom- 
panied the convoy. Its fighter 
planes provided protection 
against enemy air attack as well 
as against submarines. Small 
patrol craft (subchasers) also 
proved effective in combating 
the submarine menace, espe- 
cially in the Caribbean area. 
Improvements in submarine design since the second 
World War have made them more effective and dif- 
ficult to detect. A snorkel supplies air under water, and 
a submarine can remain submerged for long periods 
to conceal its location {see Submarine). To meet the 
danger from enemy submarines the Navy developed 
hunter-killer destroyers \vith special antisubmarine 
equipment. It also experimented with antisub- 
marine cruisers and small submarines (called “killers”) 
designed to seek out and destroy enemy submarines. 

Other Improvements in Naval Weapons 
The development of the atomic bomb also affected 
naval tactics. The major changes made hy the Navy 
provided greater dispersion of ships in formations 
and alterations in design to minimize damage from 
radioactive materials. These changes grew out of re- 
search in 1946 when two atomic bombs were dropped 


sliips. Air attacks proved decisive 
long before opposing fleets got within 
gun range. In each battle United 
States planes provided the margin of 
victory by destroying Japanese 
planes and carriers. Thus control 
of the sea depended first upon con- 
trol of the air over the sea. 

Meanwhile the American and Brit- 
ish fleets controlled the surface of the 
Atlantic. But here German sub- 
marines took a heavy toll of Allied 
ships and at times even dominated 
local areas. The most effective anti- 
submarine opposition came from 
“hunter-killer” teams composed of 
an aircraft carrier and a specially 


ONE OF THE NAVY’S SWIFTEST FIGHTERS 



The Banshee (F2H) was developed from the earlier Phantom. The jet in each thickened 
wing root has a thrust of about 3.000 pounds. The plane carries four cannon in the 
nose. A bulletproof windshield and armor plate behind the cockpit protect the piloti 





NAVY 


- 82 


on a target fleet at Bikini Atoll. 

The Navy also studied how to 
use atomic power and in 1951 be- 
gan construction on the world’s 
first atomic-powered submarine, 
the Nautilus. 

Another object of naval re- 
search was guided missiles. In 
1949 the Navy announced that 
it had successfully launched 
guided missiles from surface 
vessels and submarines. These 
weapons were designed to hit 
targets in the air and on the 
sea. It was believed that guided 
missiles could be used against 
even submerged submarines. 

By the end of the second 
World War some people thought 
that the development of air- 
craft and new weapons had made 
navies obsolete. But one physi- 
cal fact makes a navy necessary 
as long as there is a prospect of 
war. Warfare requires enormous 
cargoes of men, equipment, and 
supplies. Planes can carry only 
part of this vast tonnage over- 
seas. The bulk of it must be 
transported in ships. And as 
long as ships are used, a navy will 
protect them from enemy attack. 


HOW NAVY SHIPS ARE NAMED 
Battleships (BB) : states (Missouri) 
Aircraft Carriers .-Large FleetType (CVB) , 
Fleet Type (CV), Light Fleet Type 
(CVL), battles, ships, famous men 
(Midway, Wasp, Forrestal) ; Escort 
(CVE), sounds and bays (Puget Sound) 
Cruisers: Large or Battle (CB), posses- 
sions and territories (Guam); Heavy 
(CA), large cities (Des Moines); also 
Light (CL) (Cleveland) 

Destroyers (DD): Navy and Marine 
men, congressmen, inventors (Sumner) 
Submarines (SS) : marine creatures (Cod) 
MineLayers(CM) : abstract wordslTcrror) 
Mine Sweepers (AM): birds (Auk) 
Ammunition Ships (AE): volcanoes and 
terms for explosives (Vesuvius) 

Hospital Ships (AH): synonyms for re- 
lief (Haven) 

Cargo Ships (AK) : stars (Fomalhaut) 
Oilers (AO) : rivers (Merrimack) 
Transports (AP) : Navy, Marine, and 
Army officers (Gen. William Mitchell) 
Repair Ships (AR): mythological char- 
acters (Briareus) 

Submarine Tenders (AS): submarine 
pioneers (Fulton) 

Seaplane Tenders (AV) : sounds and bays 
(Salisbury Sound) 

There are exceptions to these usual 
ways of naming ships. Vessels such as tor- 
pedo boats (PT), submai?ne chasers (PC), 
and landing craft are only numbered. 


be needed to 


Organization 
of the Navy 


To FULFILL its duties the Navy needs 
first of all a network of bases, start- 
ing on the American shores and 
spreading far out across the oceans. The course of 
events in the second World War provided most of 
the areas needed for a complete array of protective 
bases. These bases also gave the Navy launching 
sites for amphibious attacks. 

ONE OF A CARRIER’S DEADLY FLOCK 



The Mauler (AM-1) attack plane serves as a carrier-based torpedo and dive 
bomber. It is carrying three 2.200-pound torpedoes and twelve 2S0-pound bombs 
Jutting from the front edges of the wings are four 20-mm. aerial cannon 


On the Atlantic coast the 
Navy maintains major bases at 
Boston, New York (Brooklyn), 
Philadelphia, and Norfolk. The 
Navy leases a base from Cuba 
at Guantdnamo Bay on the 
south coast of Cuba. This base 
controls the Windward Pas- 
sage — the main opening be- 
tween the Caribbean and the 
Atlantic. Other bases are main- 
tained as far south as Trinidad 
and in the Panama Canal Zone. 

On the Pacific coast the Navy 
has bases at Bremerton in Puget 
Sound, on Mare Island in San 
Francisco Bay, at San Pedro 
(near Los Angeles), and at San 
Diego. Pearl Harbor on Oahu in 
the Hawaiian Islands is the 
largest base in the Pacific. Guam, 
in the Marianas, is the largest 
beyond Pearl Harbor. Since the 
second World War, bases have 
been maintained at Yokosuka in 
Japan, on Okinawa, and at 
Subic Bay in the Philippines. 
Navy’s Combat Organization 
During the second World War 
Great Britain and Germany used 
most of their aircraft in independent air forces un- 
der separate commanders. The United States divided 
its air strength between the Army and Navy. Thus 
the Navy could combine air strength, surface vessels, 
and submarines in the most effective groups to strike 
whatever blows seemed best for winning the war. 

Under this plan the Navy organized a task force to 
accomplish each mission. The number and kind of 
ships and aircraft varied according to the mission. 
Some forces were sent to win air supremacy over an 
island, island group, or lane of ocean travel. Others 
went to bombard enemy positions. 
The largest forces were organized to 
carry and support invasions of enemy- 
held islands, island groups, and con- 
tinental coasts. A task force was 
usually called by number, such as Task 
Force 58. The largest forces were some- 
times called fleets and given a number, 
such as the Third Fleet or Fifth Fleet. 

In 1946 the Navy divided all its fight- 
ing forces into two huge groups called 
the Atlantic Fleet and the Pacific Fleet. 
Each fleet consisted of all the vessels, 
aircraft, and shore establishments m 
its area. Under these were smaller but 
more compact forces called the 1st, 2d, 
6th, and 7th fleets. The normal 
position of these fleets were: 1st Fleet 
in the vicinity of the United States 
west coast and Hawaiian Islands; 





83 


NAVY 


TWO OF THE NAVY’S HUGE 



1. Planes of the fleet carrier Lexington (second 
ship of that name) laud to refuel. 2. The large- 
fleet carrier Franklin D* Roosevelt has a forward, 
after, and outboard elevator to lift planes from 
the hangar deck to the flight deck. 




2d Fleet in the east-coast waters of 
the United States and in the Caribbean 
Sea; 6th Fleet in European waters and in 
the Mediterranean Sea; and 7th Fleet 
from Hawaii to Asia. 

For tactical handling of ships at sea, 
similar types of ships were subdivided 
into divisions, squadrons, and flotillas. 

A division comprised two or more ships 
such as destroyers; a squadron was made 
up of two or more divisions; and a flo- 
tilla consisted of two or more squadrons. 

In order to provide better coordination in the armed 
services Congress passed the National Security Act 
of 1947. It established a new secretary of defense and 
created a Department of the Air Force, co-equal with 
the Army and Navy. The Navy, however, retained 
its own air arm including carrier- and land-based air- 
craft. The Marine Corps also kept its own aviation 
branch (see United States Government). 


Ships That 
Make Up a 
Modern Navy 


The Navy builds many different 
types of ships to accomplish its 
various tasks. Each type is con- 
structed to fulfill a specific duty. 
In modern naval warfare hard-hitting planes make 
aircraft carriers the most powerful ships on the sea. 
Other members of the fighting team are battleships, 
cruisers, destroyers, submarines, and amphibious 
landing craft. To augment or service these types the 
Navy uses mine layers, mine sweepers, tankers, sup- 
ply ships, patrol craft, and other fleet auxiliaries. 

The Fighting Aircraft Carriers 
The aircraft carrier is a vessel with a long flat deck 
covering its whole upper surface. Planes with landing 
wheels can land on and take off from this flight deck. 
When the deck is covered with planes, the first planes 
are launched by catapult. The ship is maneuvered 
from an island superstructure at the starboard (right) 
edge of the flight deck. 

An aircraft carrier is essentially a floating 


base which provides the landing field, all necessary 


FLOATING AIR BASES aircraft supplies, re- 
pair facilities, and liv- 
ing quarters and food 
for the aviators as well 
as for the carrier crew. 
It is an air base that 
can move at high speed 
anywhere on the ocean 
and can operate its 
planes wherever they 
are needed. 

The largest car- 
riers are protected by 
armor, at vulnerable 
spots, but other car- 
riers have none. As in 
most Navy ships, their 
hulls are divided into 
many watertight com- 
partments. The hull 
or flight deck may be 
pierced by gunfire, 
bombs, or torpedoes. 
By closing off the 
damaged compartment 
the crew can localize 
the harm and thus 
keep the ship afloat. 

The Navy has five 
general types of car- 
riers — attack, large 
fleet, fleet, light fleet, and escort. The newest and 
largest type is the fast attack carrier which is more 
than 1,000 feet long and displaces about 60,000 tons. 
The first ship of this type, the Forrestal, was scheduled 
for launching late in 1954. 

Next in size are the three large-fleet carriers — the 
Midway, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Coral Sea. Each 
of these ships displaces '45,000 tons and carries 137 
aircraft, including fighter and attack planes. Such 
carriers have a complement of 4,085 officers and en- 
listed men and can make a speed of 33 knots. Their 
chief armament consists of 18 “5-inch-54” antiair- 
craft guns. (In naval usage both the caliber, or bore, 
and the length of the barrel may be given. Here the 
caliber is 5 inches and the length 5 times 54 or 270 
inches.) In addition, they carry 84 40-mm. and 82 
20-mm. guns, also for use against aircraft. 

The third largest type is the fleet carrier, or Essex 
class. These ships displace 27,100 tons and carry 
about 100 planes. Some ships of this class have been 
converted to carry faster, heavier jet aircraft. 

Most of the light-fleet carriers belong to the Inde- 
pendence class. They were originally built on cruiser 
hulls and carry 45 aircraft. Fleet and light-fleet 
carriers have speeds of about 33 knots. 

The escort type was built on merchant ship hulls 
as a makeshift to get carriers in a short time. A 
total of 79 were completed of three major classes — 
the Commencement Bay, the Casablanca, and the Bogue. 
Escort carriers had speeds varying from 16 to 20 



air 




NAVY 


84 


knots and carried 21 to 36 planes. They were nick- 
named “jeep carriers” or “baby flattops.” 

When planes land or take off, carriers head into 
the wind. The force of the wind plus the ship’s speed 
creates a “wind over the deck” which enables the 
planes to use the short run afforded by the deck. 
For landing, planes are equipped with a hook which 
can be lowered to engage the cross wires of ar- 
resting gear. This stops the plane in a very short 
distance. Emergency harriers of heavy wire rope are 


also provided to stop planes that fail to engage the 
arresting gear. 

During the second World War carriers were equipped 
with fighter planes, torpedo planes, and dive bomb- 
ers. The aircraft were armed according to the mis- 
sions they were to perform. Their armament consisted 
of light, medium, and heavy bombs, torpedoes, 50- 
caliber machine guns, 20-mm. cannon, and rockets 
varying from 6 to 12 inches in diameter. The de- 
velopment of rockets armed the planes with projectiles 
as speedy as those fired from the biggest guns on a 
surface ship. 

Types of Naval Aircraft 

Naval aircraft are now divided into five separate’ 
classes, each designated by a letter symbol. They are: 
V — ^Heavier-than-air (fixed wing) 

H — Heavier-than-air (rotary wing) 


K — Pilotless 
M — Guided missiles 
Z — Lighter-than-air 

For combat operations the most important of these 
classes is the “V.” These planes are subdivided into 
fighter (F), attack (A), patrol (P), observation (0), 
and transport (R). In designating such planes 
the Navy usually drops the “V” and adds a letter to 
represent the name of the airplane manufacturer. Most 
planes also carry a number to describe the type of 
model. Thus the F3D is a fight- 
er plane, and it is the third 
such model produced by the 
Douglas Aircraft Company. 
Like the Air Force, the Nary 
also gives each type of plane a 
name. For example, the F3D 
is called the “Skyknight.” 

Navy fighter planes carry 
out missions similar to the 
fighters of the Air Force. Ah 
tack planes operate much as 
the light bombers of the Air 
Force (see Air Force). They 
are usually armed with 20-mm. 
guns, five-inch rockets, and 
two or three 2,000-pound 
bombs or 1,300-pound (11.75- 

inch) “Tiny Tim” aircraft rock- 
ets. After the second World 
War many fighter and attack 
planes were powered by jet 
propulsion or turbojet propul- 
sion (see Jet Propulsion). Some 
of these fighters such as the 
Panther (F9F) and the Ban- 
shee (F2H) could attain speeds 
up to 650 miles an hour. 

Patrol planes operating from 
shore bases are usually multi- 
engine planes able to fly great 
distances. One of them, a 
Neptune (P2V) called the 
“Truculent Turtle,” set a 
world's record for long-distance flight in 1946. It flew 
11,236.6 miles from Perth, Australia, to Columbus, 
Ohio, in 55 hours, 15 minutes. Patrol planes are used 
chiefly for scouting and for antisubmarine warfare. 
Most models are equipped with electronic devices for 
locating submarines. 

For combat, a Neptune is armed with 6 20-mm. 
cannon, 4 .50-caliber machine guns, 16 5-inch 
rockets, and an 8,000-pound bomb load (usually 2 
2,165-pound aerial torpedoes and 12 325-pound depth 
charges carried in the bomb bay) . Patrol planes may 
be seaplanes for landing on the water, land planes with 
conventional landing gear, or amphibious planes able 
to land on either land or water. Seaplanes are some- 
times serviced by ships called seaplane tenders. 

For fighting duty, the fighters and attack planes 
on a carrier are divided into squadrons of 18 planes, 


THE ARMAMENT AND ARMOR OF A BATTLESHIP 



The mam battery of the Missouri consists of nine 16-inch gans with barrels more than 6C 
teet long. Their fire is directed from the main fire-control tower. Light planes, launched 
® catapults, help observe and direct fire. The antiaircraft battery comprises 5-inch 
and 40- and 20-mm. guns. The hull is protected by armor from 16 to 19 inches thick. Turrets 
and the upper and main deck are less heavily armored. 


85 


NAVY 


THE ‘NORTH CAROLINA’ FIRES A SALVO 



The three 16-inch forward guns can send tons of steel and high explosives as far as ?S,000 
yards (nearly 20 miles). The photograph shows the blast from the muzzles as a white and 
gray cloud. It is really glowing flame, edged with brownish fumes. 


directed by a commander or 
lieutenant commander. A large- 
fleet carrier normally carries 
three squadrons of fighters 
and two of attack planes. All 
the planes on a carrier make 
up a group, usually under a 
commander. 

Land-based patrol planes are 
also divided into squadrons. 

In peacetime, three or more 
squadrons make up a jleel air 
wing, commanded by a rear ad- 
miral. For combat, this unit 
is called a patrol wing and 
it is commanded by a captain. 

After the second World War 
battleships and cruisers began 
carrying helicopters instead of 
light, fixed-wing planes. These 
aircraft perform scouting duty 
and direct long-range gunfire. 

Transport planes are the 
cargo- and troop-carrying 
planes of the Fleet Logistic 
Air Wings. These large planes carry men and sup- 
plies from shore bases to the fleet in the battle zone.' 
The Navy also uses nonrigid airships (blimps), diri- 
gibles, and helicopters for patrol and rescue work. 
(See also Airplane; Balloon.) 

The Decline of Battleships 

After the first World War the average battleship 
displaced about 30,000 tons. 'When Germany and Ja- 
pan started building new ships in the early 1930’s, a 
trend set in toward even greater size. In 1939 Con- 
gress appropriated funds for starting construction of 
new battleships. Each cost more than 100 million dol- 
lars. By 1944, four such battleships were in service — 
the Iowa, New Jersey, Missouri, and Wisconsin (con- 
struction on a fifth, the Kentucky, was suspended). 

These huge vessels displaced 
45,000 tons. They had armor 
from 16 to 19 inches thick at 
the sides and could make a 
speed of 33 knots. They car- 
ried 9 16-inch guns in their 
main batteries and 20 5-inch- 
38’s for antiaircraft weapons. 

In addition they carried 80 
40-nun. and 50 20-mm. guns 
for use against enemy air- 
craft. Their wartime com- 
plement was about 2,650 men. 

In 1950 the Navy had four 
other classes of battleships, 
all of smaller size and less 
heavily armored. 

During the second World 
War airplanes replaced battle- 
ships as the decisive factor in 
naval engagements. By 1950 


the Navy had decommissioned and laid up in protec- 
tive coating “moth balls” all its 15 battleships except 
the Missouri. But when the Big Mo was sent to 
Korea to perform offshore bombardment, the Navy 
restored others to active service. 

Closely related to the battleship is the battle 
cruiser. During the second World War, the Navy 
placed two such ships, the Alaska and the Guam, in 
service. (Construction on a third ship of this class, 
the Hawaii, was suspended after it was 84 per cent 
completed.) 

These were the first so-called battle cruisers built 
by any navy since 1921. They displaced 27,500 tons 
and carried more than 1,500 men. Their main arma- 
ment was nine 12-inch guns and they had a speed 



NAVY 


86 


ALWAYS OUT IN FRONT AND READY TO FIGHT 



One of the hunter-killer destroyers desigiied for antisubmarine 
warfare is the Robert A. Owens. Its equipment includes elec- 

of 35 knots. After the war these ships became part of 
the inactive reserve fleet. 

Cruisers— Heavy and Light 
Cruisers are smaller and usually faster than bat- 
tleships. After the disarmament conference at Wash- 
ington in 1921 cruisers were divided into two classes. 
Heavy cruisers carried guns of 8-inch caliber or larger. 
Light cruisers carried guns smaller than 8 inches. 

Since the second World War, cruisers have been 
assigned the primary mission of protecting carriers 
against air attack. In this role they have become the 
Navy’s second most valuable fighting ship. Cruisers 
are also effective in close shore bombardment. 

In 1948 and 1949 the Navy completed three “super- 
heavy” cruisers, the Des Moines, Newport News, and 
Salem. These ships displaced 17,000 tons and had a 
complement of 1,860 men. They were the first vessels 
to mount fully automatic, rapid-fire 8-inch guns. 
Their 5-inch-38’s, mounted in six twin turrets, are 
dual purpose — that is, they can fire against either 
surface or aerial targets. Of the same ship size but 
faster and less heavily armed is the Northampton, 


tronic aids for detecting submarines. Once the enemy submarine 
is located the destroyer releases a deadly barrage of depth charges. 

commissioned in 1953. This was a new type of cruiser 
specially equipped to serve as a command vessel for 
task forces. It has a speed of 33 knots and carries 
four 5-inch-54’s and eight 3-inch-70’s. 

Included among the Navy’s light cruisers are those 
of the San Diego class, designated as antiaircraft 
cruisers (CLAA). These vessels bristle with dual- 
purpose 5-inch-38’s and 40- and 20-mm. antiaircraft 
guns. Most of these ships also carry eight 21-inch 
torpedo tubes in quadruple deck mountings. The 
speedy CLAA’s displace only 6,000 tons in contrast 
to the 14,700 tons displaced by the light cruisers 
Roanoke and Worcester, both completed in 1947. 
These “lights” have a speed of 32 knots and are 
armed with 12 6-inch (semiautomatic) and 12 3-inch 
(rapid fire) dual-purpose guns. They also carry 68 
40-mm. and 12 20-mm. antiaircraft guns. 

Destroyers, “PX” Boats, and Submarines 
The “big ship” navy fights with planes or heavy 
guns. In contrast, the vessels of the “small ship 
navy fight with torpedoes, bombs, rockets, or mines 
(see Torpedoes and Mines; Rockets). 

Destroyers, called “cans” by 
Navy men, are used today m 
large numbers in all the princi- 
pal navies. They are the “work 
horses” of the sea. Destroyers 
are found in , antisubmarine 
screens of all task forces and con- 
voys. They transfer mail, paS' 
sengers, and minor supplies be- 
tween ships at sea and give anti- 
aircraft support against air 
attack. They deliver torpedo 
attacks against surface ships 
(principally at night), lay 
screens, and fight enemy sum 
marines with gunfire and dep 
charges. They may also re^ua 
aviators adrift at sea after their 
planes have been shot down. 

The displacement of a modern 
American destroyer ranges fro® 
1,700 to 2,500 tons, and i® 
speed from 36 to 41 knots. 


DESTROYERS SPREADING A SMOKE SCREEN 



• smoke generators. Wind carries the smoke and envelops the larger ships in the convoy, 
within a few minutes destroyers can hide an entire fleet from the enemy. 



87 


NAVY 



Here six United States Navy submarines tie up alongside a submarine tender for repair work and to 
take on supplies. Tenders also serve as communication and intelligence centers. In a combat zone 
. tenders usually meet and serve submarines in friendly waters. 


destroyer is armed 
with antiaircraft 
machine guns up to 
40 mm. in caliber, 
and its main batteries 
of 3-inch to 5-inch- 
38’s are dual purpose. 

Some destroyers carry 
a multiple rocket pro- 
jector in place of a 
forward 5-inch gun. 

The torpedo arma- 
ment usually includes 
ten 21-inch tubes. 

For safety the thin- 
hulled destroyer de- 
pends on speed rather 
than on its fire power. 

The ship can steam 
6,000 miles without 
refueling. 

Today the Navy 
has four types of de- 
stroyers. The most 
numerous class is the plain destroyer (DD). Radar 
■pickets (DDR) have additional radar equipment in 
place of the customary torpedoes. Escorts (DDE) are 
large "sister” ships of the destroyer-escorts used dur- 
ing the second World War. (These wartime DE’s are 
now classified as patrol vessels.) Sometimes called 
“hunter-killers,” escorts seek out and destroy enemy 
submarines. The newest and biggest destroyers are 
the leaders (DL). Heading tlris class is the DL-1 
Norfolk, which displaces 5,500 tons. It was originally 
laid down as a cruiser. Four DL’s of the Mitscher 
class (3,650 tons) were launched in 1952. 

In the second World War wooden-hulled motor- 
boats, called PT (patrol torpedo), or mosquito, boats, 
were driven by three engines at speeds up to about 
40 knots. These boats attack enemy ships by dashing 
in to close range and firing one or two torpedoes. 
For defense, they have only machine guns, plus their 
speed and abihty to maneuver. In 1951 the Navy be- 
gan building PT boats with aluminum alloy hulls, 
powered by four engines. Bigger and faster than the 
wartime models, they carry a crew of two officers 
and 12 enlisted men. 

Submarines, Uke destroyers, rely on the torpedo 
for their attacking power. A submarine tries to ap- 
proach unseen to within torpedo range of its target. 
This is hard to accomplish when the target is pro- 
tected by destroyers equipped with underwater detec- 
tion devices. The submarine therefore has only lim- 
ited value in fleet action. It is extremely dangerous, 
however, when it can lie in wait in a narrow water- 
way through which the enemy must pass. It is danger- 
ous also to damaged warships trying to get to port 
and to merchant ships. The submarine is called the 
"lone wolf” of the seas because it usually operates 
alone. In the second World War, however, they occa- 
sionally worked in groups called “wolf packs.” 


A new era in the history of sea power began in 1954 
with the launching of the atomic-powered submarine, 
the Nautilus. The second submarine to use nuclear 
power was the Sea Wolf. Their construction details 
and capabilities were closely guarded secrets. 

Submarines of the Corsair class, which have con- 
ventional engines, can dive to a depth of 600 feet. 
They displace 1,570 tons and can make a surface speed 
of about 21 knots. They carry a 75-man crew. In 


WORLD’S FIRST ATOMIC-POWERED SUBMARINE 



The first ship to be propelled by atomic power, fiie Nautilus, 
was laimched in 1P54 at Groton, Conn. Its submerged speed is 
estimated at more than 20 knots. 



NAVY 


88 


SWIFT AND DEADLY MOTOR TORPEDO BOATS 



LAYING AN ANTITORPEDO NET 


These craft can achieve high speed, but they are particularly effective when 
running slowly with muffled engines in darkness. By such a stealthy approach 
they can fire their torpedoes at close range. They then turn tail quickly and 
escape in the confusion that follows unexpected attack. 

1951 the Navy laimched the Tang and the Trigger, the 
first of a new class (K-1) of killer submarines de- 
signed to destroy enemy submarines. 

A submarine’s crew is made up entirely of volun- 
teers. To be accepted for submarine duty, a man must 
have a physical and mental constitution which can 
withstand the strain of long periods of constant yet un- 
seen danger. {See also Submarine.) 

Small Fighting Vessels 

A host of smaller ships assist larger ships and 
submarines in their tasks. Some small ships are de- 
signed to attack and destroy enemy submarines. Other 
ships are equipped to protect 
friendly harbors and the ships 
moored in them. Still others are 
made to land fighting forces and 
equipment on enemy shores. 

Several different types of sub- 
marine chasers are used. They 
carry sonar equipment to detect 
and track submerged submarines. 

They are also equipped with depth 
charges and launching devices to 'Aj f* 
attack enemy undersea craft. A 
three-inch deck gun is generally 
mounted for use against surfaced 
submarines. Machine guns give protection 
against air attack. Submarine chasers are 
powered with Diesel engines and can travel 
at from 14 to 20 knots. One type is con- 
structed of wood. Scores of these vessels 
and other craft formed a “splinter fleet” 
which helped to cripple the German U-boat 
threat in the second World War. 

Net layers place antitorpedo nets wher- 
ever needed to ward off submarine attacks. 

Mine layers are vessels equipped to lay 
explosive mines in areas where an enemy 
may be expected. They may be of contact, 
antenna, magnetic, or acoustic type {see 
Torpedoes and Mines). Mine sweepers are 


used to sweep up enemy mines with 
special sweeps, or “paravanes.” 

In the second World War the United 
States suffered the military disadvan- 
tage of having to land its armies on 
far-off hostile shores. This it did by 
means of landing craft which brought 
men, weapons, and supplies ashore in 
joint army-navy amphibious operations. 
Most of these amphibious craft had flat 
bottoms and could be grounded on a 
beach shelf. WTien the huge bow doors 
were opened they provided a ramp to the 
shore. Thus troops and even heavy 
equipment could unload rapidly. These 
operations vv'ere often carried out in the 
face of heavy enemy fire. 

The chief types of landing craft are: 
Landing Vehicle, Tracked (LVT)— 
an amphibious tractor, the treads of 
which can swum or climb beaches; knowm as the 
“Alligator.” LVT(A) is an armored tractor. 

Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel (LCVP)— about 
36 feet long; used mainly from ship to shore for land- 
ing infantry and light vehicles. 

Landing Craft, Medium (LCM) — used from ship 
to shore to land tanks, troops, supplies. 

Landing Craft, Support (LCS) — lightly armored craft 
mounting machine guns from .50 caliber to 40 nun,, 
also rockets, to augment the landing fleet’s firepower. 

Landing Craft, Infantry (LCI) — 158 feet long, 400 
tons; has accommodations for 25 crew and 210 troops; 

powered by Diesel engines. 


Landing Ship UtilUy 
(LSU)— (formerly Landing 
Craft, Tank) — can carry 
tanks to the beach at speed 
of 10 knots; some adapted 
for Arctic sendee. 

Landing Ship, 

(LSM) — designed 


Medium 
to carry 



i- d 

{Vi:- 
Ui 

At the left above, is the strange craft which lays heavy steel 
the mouths of harbors or around anchored warships. The 
any torpedoes fired by enemy submarines. At the bottom is a stern view 
vessel as it hauls the float-supported net in its wake. 


- 89 


NAVY 


mechanized equipment. Has a speed of 12 knots and a 
complement of 59. LSM (R), for rocket, is larger. 
Armed with many rocket projectors, four 4.2-inch 
mortars, and antiaircraft guns. 

Landing Ship, Tank (LST) — about 382 feet long, 
6,000 tons fully loaded; delivers tanks, trucks, etc., 
through a bow ramp. 

Landing Ship, Dock (LSD) — a 450-foot dock; can 
cross ocean under its own power; used for further 
unloading after a beachhead has been secured. 


The president of the United States 
is commander in chief of the Na%^, 
Army, and Air Force. He exercises 
direct command through a member of the Cabinet, 
the secretary of defense. Under this official is a 
civilian secretary of the navy, assisted by an under- 
secretary and two assistant secretaries. One of 
these is designated the assistant secretaiy for air. 

In charge of all operating forces is the chief of 
naval operations (CNO), the highest military com- 
mand in the Navy. His principal assistants are the 
vice-chief of naval operations, the naval inspector gen- 
eral, and five deputy chiefs in charge of personnel, 
administration, operations, logistics (supply), and air. 
Other assistants are the judge advocate general, the 
heads (chiefs) of the shore-based bureaus, and the 
commandant of the Marine Corps (see Marine Corps). 

Commissioned Officers of the Navy 
Navy officers are either line or staff. Line of- 
ficers are qualified for leadership in naval combat. 
Staff officers are specialists in such fields as supply, 
medicine, and dentistry. Commissioned officers of 
the line begin their careers as ensigns after gradua- 
tion from the Naval Academy or a universit 3 ’’ with 
special naval training (see Naval Academy). Of- 
ficers are promoted under a system started in 1916. 
This program maintains the following percentages 
by ranks for each 100 officers: rear admirals, 1; 
captains, 6; commanders, 12; lieutenant com- 
manders, 18; lieutenants, 25; lieutenants (junior 
grade) and ensigns, 38. 

A captain in command of a large ship has a com- 
mander as executive officer and several commanders or 
lieutenant commanders as department heads. These are 
the operations officer, the gunnery officer or the first 
lieutenant, the. medical officer, the dental officer, and 
the supply officer. Some ships also have an air officer 
and others a repair officer. Enlisted personnel are 
grouped into divisions under a lieutenant or lieutenant 
junior grade. Ensigns (called junior officers) assist 
these division officers. 

Warrant Officers and Enlisted Men 
In addition to the officers, who hold their commis- 
sions from the president, the Navy also has warrant 
officers. These men are specialists, appointed by 
the secretary of the navy. They are selected by com- 
petitive examinations from among the highest enlisted 
grades. After serving six years as warrant officers 
thej'' are eligible for promotion to chief warrant 
officers. This is a commissioned grade ranking just 


below that of ensign. Chief warrant officers may 
eventually earn pay and allowances equal to those 
of a lieutenant commander. 

Enlisted recruits must be 17 to 31 years old and 
unmarried for their first enlistment (“hitch”); the 
usual term is four or six years. Recruits are trained 
at naval-training centers (“boot camps”). They may 
advance through the grades of recruit, apprentice sea- 
man, and seaman to petty officer. There are four 
classes of petty officers from 3d class to chief. 

Men may be trained as electricians, radiomen, 
photographers, motion-picture technicians, ordnance- 
men, machinists, metalworkers, woodworkers, deep- 
sea divers, cooks, musicians, clerks, journalists, or 
as various other specialists. Aviation training is also 
open to selected candidates. 

Base pay begins at 875 a month for recruits and 
rises to 8198.45 for chief petty officers on permanent 
appointment. Additional pay is based upon length of 
service, hazardous duty, and sea duty. (For pay of 
all ranks, see Army.) Each man receives a clothing 
allowance and free food, quarters, and medical care. 
He may retire on half pay after 20 years or three- 
quarters pay after 30 years’ service. (For picture of 
uniforms and insignia, see Uniforms.) 

Naval Reserves and the WAVES 

During emergencies the Navy adds to its strength 
by calling to active duty the officers and men of the 
Naval Reserve. This group consists of five reserve 
classifications. The Fleet Reserve is made up of officers 
and men of the regular Navy who have retired from 
active duty. The members of the Organized Naval Re- 
serve attend regular weekly drills and take an annual 
two-week training cruise, both with pay. The VoL 
unteer Naval Reserve consists of officers and men who 
may voluntarily receive training in small specialized 
units without pay. The Merchant Marine Naval Re- 
serve is dra^vn from officers qualified to serve on mer- 
chant vessels. The N^aval Air Reserve trains in flight 
operations at naval air stations. 

The Coast Guard (under the Navy in wartime) and 
the Marine Corps have their own reserves (see Coast 


NAVY RANKS AND APPROPRIATE COMMANDS 
Fleet Admiral. All naval operations in a particular 
theater of war. 

Admiral. The principal fleet or separate fleets. 

Vice Admiral. Major division of the fleet. 

Re.ar Admiral. A division of heavy ships, a flotilla of 
lesser ships, a naval district, or a task force. 
Commodore (a wartime rank). A small force that war- 
rants a “flag” ofBcer but not an admiral. 

Captain. A heavy ship, a squadron of destroyers, or 
a naval station. 

Commander. A destroyer, auxiliary ship, or a division 
of destroyers or submarines. 

Lieutenant Commander. A destroyer escort, sub- 
marine, or small auxiliary. 

Lieutenant. Patrol craft. 

The following officers do not ordinarily command ves- 
sels: lieutenant (j.g.), ensign, commissioned warrant 
officer, warrant officer. 

Note. — For comparative ranks of army and navy 
officers, see the table with the Army article. 


Personnel 
of the Navy 





NAVY 


90 


Guard). Many Navy and Marine Corps officers come 
from Naval Reserve Officers’ Training Corps in about 
52 universities. In emergencies, civilians are com- 
missioned after several months of training. Enlisted 
men may be commissioned after passing examinations. 

The second World War brought a great many wom- 
en into the Navy. The WAVES (Women Accepted for 
Volunteer Emergency Service) were organized July 30, 
1942. WAVES are trained for duty in shore establish- 
ments of the Navy, thereby releasing male personnel 
for combat duty. They hold regular 
ranks or ratings and receive regular 
pay. WAVES were not permitted 
to serve outside the continental limits 
of the United States until late 1944, 
when the first overseas contingent 
was sent to Hawaii. 

Two other organizations of women 
served with the Navy in the second 
World War; the SPARS (Women’s 
Auxiliary Reserve, Coast Guard), 
created Nov. 23, 1942; and the Ma- 
rine Corps Women’s Reserve, estab- 
lished Feb. 15, 1943. Both the 
WAVES and women marines became 
part of the regular NaA^y in 1948. 

The Navy’s Fighting Builders 

The construction battalions — pop- 
ularly known as the “Seabees” — 
build naval shore establishments 
overseas for the Navy. Prior to the second World 
War, this work was done by civilians. But after the 
loss of American bases at Guam and Wake Island 
the Navy wanted men who could both build and fight. 

The Seabees were organized Dec. 28, 1941, with an 
authorized strength of 3,300. This original force grew 
to more than 250,000 during the war. Members of 
this branch are recruited from civilians between the 
ages of 17 and 50. Their ranks contain workers from 
scores of trades and professions. 

Seabees pride themselves on being able to build 
or repair anything in any locality. They construct 
roads, piers, airfields, gun emplacements, fortifica- 
tions, machine shops, power plants, barracks, and 
other buildings at shore bases. They install tele- 
phone systems, distilling units, and fueling depots. 
Seabees are usually divided into battalions composed 
of several construction companies. They train at 
Port Hueneme, Calif., their headquarters, and at 
Little Creek, Va. 


The sea and air activities of 
the Navy are supported by many 
offices, yards, and other shore in- 
stallations. These establishments are controlled by 
the office of the secretary of the navy, the chief of 
naval operations, and several bureaus. 

The Bureau of Naval Personnel directs the Naval 
Academy, the Naval War College, and the procure- 
ment, training, and assignment of officers and en- 
listed men. It maintains training centers for recruits 


at Newport, R. I., Norfolk, Va., Great Lakes, 111,, 
and San Diego, Calif. The Bureau of Ordnance pro- 
duces naval guns and explosives. It maintains a naval 
gun factory in Washington, D, C., a powder factory in 
Indianhead, Md., a proving ground at Dahlgren, Va., 
torpedo stations at Newport, R. L, and Keyport, 
Wash., and a mine depot at Yorktown, Va. 

The Bureau of Y ards and Docks constructs and main- 
tains naval shore establishments. It also directs the 
Seabees and other units of the Civil Engineer Corps. 

The Bureau of Ships designs all 
naval vessels and supervises their 
building and repairs. The Bureau of 
Aeronautics has a similar responsibil- 
ity for naval aircraft. It directs 
flight training at Pensacola, Miami, 
and Jacksonville, Fla., and at Cor- 
pus Christi, Tex. It also maintains 
an aircraft factory at Philadelphia, 
a lighter-than-air craft base at 
Lakehurst, N. J., and air stations at 
Quonset Point, R. I., Norfolk, Va., 
the Panama Canal Zone, San Diego 
and Alameda, Calif., Seattle, Wash., 
on Oahu in the Hawaiian Islands, 
and other places. 

The Bureau of Supplies and Ac- 
counts is the Navy’s purchasing 
agent, bookkeeper, storekeeper, and 
paymaster. The Bureau of Medicine 
and Surgery directs the naval hospitals, hospital ships, 
and medical and sanitation work throughout the 
Navy. It also trains naval doctors, hospital corps- 
men, and the Navy Nurse Corps. Since 1949 the 
Military Sea Transportation Service has provided 
overseas transportation for all the armed forces. 

For administrative purposes the continental United 
States is divided into ten naval districts. The dis- 
trict headquarters are at Boston; New York City; 
Philadelphia; Norfolk, Va.; Charleston, S. C.; New 
Orleans; Great Lakes, 111.; San Diego; San Fran- 
cisco; and Seattle. Outside the United States, dis- 
trict headquarters are at San Juan, Puerto Rico; 
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; Balboa, Canal Zone; and 
Kodiak, Alaska. 


Before the United States en- 
tered the second World War, 
the strength of the Navy was 
less than 300,000 men and 320 combat ships. During 
the war it grew to more than 4,000,000 men, includ- 
ing the Marine Corps and Coast Guard, and it oper- 
ated a two-ocean force of about 1,160 warships. By 
1945 the United States was the greatest sea power 
in the world. But in the first few years of peace it 
demobilized most of its man power and laid up many 
fighting vessels in “moth. balls.” 

When North Korean Communists invaded South 
Korea in 1950, President Truman ordered the Navy' to 
help defend South Korea and to protect Formosa froro 
invasion by Chinese Communists. At that time the 


BAKING NAVY PIES 



The Navy trains thousands of expert 
bakers and cooks to feed its hungry 
sailors economically but well. 


The Navy’s Shore 
Estab Ushments 


The Peacetime Navy 
Prepares for War 





91 


NAVY 


personnel strength of the Navy was about 375,000, 
with only 573 ships in service. The Navy quickly 
doubled its personnel strength and added about 500 
ships to the fleet by new construction and by taking 
vessels out of “moth balls.” It also increased its 


air arm by more than 1,000 planes. During the Korean 
war Navy warships fired more than 75,000 tons of am- 
munition at enemy coastal positions. At the same time 
Navy and Marine aircraft flew more than 250,000 
combat sorties. (See also Marine Corps.) 


T/ie History of Navies and Sea Fighting 


'T'HE ANCIENT Mediterranean peoples fought wars 
on water almost as soon as they learned to travel on 
it. Their warship was the galley, a small vessel pro- 
pelled by rowers who sat in one or more banks, or tiers. 
Later galleys had auxiliary sail power (see Ships). Gal- 
leys fought by ramming enemy ships with metal beaks 
on their prows or by grappling them so that troops 
could fight man to man with swords and knives. 

Naval artillery was used in the great battle of 
Actium (31 B.c.) by Antony against Octavian. His 
“guns” were crude spring-operated machines mounted 
on wooden towers on the upper decks. They threw stones 
and darts. But Antony’s artillery was not decisive. 
Octavian’s more maneuverable ships and tactics won 
him the battle and made him the first Roman emperor. 
The Byzantine Greeks 


in the Middle Ages im- 
proved their gunnery by 
hurling blazing masses of 
“Greek fire” at enemy 
ships. This was an incen- 
diary mixture of sulfur, 
naphtha, and quicklime 
held in a large tube called 
a siphon. A heavy stream 
of water from a hose ig- 
nited the quicklime and 
hurled the flaming ball 
toward the enemy. 

The old galley tactics 
figured in an important 
medieval sea victory: the 
destruction of Genoese 
sea power by the Vene- 
tians at Chioggia in 1380. 
They were used as late 
as 1571 when the fleets 
of Spain, Venice, and the 
Papacy defeated the 
Turks at Lepanto. 

New Fighting Methods 

But sail and cannon 
proved superior 17 years 
later when the English de- 
feated the Spanish Arma- 
da (see Armada, Spanish). 
The Spaniards tried to 
catch the English vessels 
for hand-to-hand fighting; 
but they could do nothing 
against the English tactics 
of standing off and duel- 
ing with cannon. 



''"■'A 


“OLD IRONSIDES” 

The 44-gun frigate, the Conslitution, is the most fa- 
mous ship in American history.Shewaslaunohed Oct. 21, 
1797. As Commodore Edward Preble’s flagship she 
helped to bombard Tripoli in 1804. Under Capt. Isaac 
Hull, early in the War of 1812, she destroyed the British 
frigate Gnerrih-e. This encounter brought her the name 
Old Ironsides, for when a shot fell harmlessly off her side 
a sailor cried out, “Huzza! Her sides are made of iron!” 

Condemned as unseaworthy in 1830, the old ship was 
rebuilt and served another 48 years. After 1897 it usu- 
ally lay in Boston Navy Yard. Threatened with decay, 
it was rebuilt by pubb'c contributions between 1925 and 
1931. In 1949 it was repaired extensively with ship tim- 
bers buried in a Florida swamp before the Civil War. 
Only about 8 per cent of the original material remained. 


Sailing ships armed with cannon reached their peak 
under Rodney, Nelson, and other great admirals of 
the English-French naval wars between 1775 and 
1815. Their capital ship was the “ship of the line,” 
carrying from 64 to 120 guns. The frigate, with 36 to 
50 guns, was the cruiser of the period. Smaller ships 
included corvettes, sloops of war, and gunboats. 

These ships fought chiefly with cannon, although 
boarding attacks were frequent. Then crews fought 
fiercely with muskets, hand grenades, and cutlasses. 
Battles between sailing fleets culminated with Nel- 
son’s famous victory over the French and Spanish 
fleets at Cape Trafalgar near the Strait of Gibraltar 
Oct, 21, 1805 (see Nelson). Thereafter no nation 
challenged the power of the British main fleet for more 

than a century, until the 
first World War. 

Beginnings of the 
American Navy 

American naval history 
began with the Revolu- 
tion, when the colonists 
sent out privateers to prey 
on British shipping. On 
Oct. 13, 1775, the Conti- 
nental Congress appointed 
Silas Deane, John Adams, 
and John Langdon to fit 
out two warships. Later, 
more than a dozen ships 
were commissioned in the 
new navy. They won many 
battles under such com- 
manders as John Paul 
Jones, John Barry, and 
Esek Hopkins. Hopkins 
was appointed commander 
in chief on Dec. 22, 1775, 
and led the first American 
fleet to sea on Feb. 17, 
1776. In all, the Americans 
captured or sank 202 
British war vessels and 
some 800 other ships. 

Perhaps the most excit- 
ing sea fight of the war was 
the victory of the Ameri- 
can Bonhomme Richard 
over the Serapis on Sept. 
23, 1779. The decisive na- 
val event, however, was 
the victory of the French 
fleet over the British fleet 



NAVY 


92 


AMERICAN SEA FIGHTERS OF THE CIVIL WAR 



The Union navy saw much action in the Civil War. Here we see sailors and marines of the Union gunboat Mendofa prepan^ to 
swab the barrel of their muzzle>loading cannon after firing. The action shown here took place on the James River in July 1864. 
The photograph was taken by the famous pioneer war photographer, Mathew B. Brady. 


off Chesapeake Bay on Sept. 5, 1781. This victory 
helped force Cornwallis to surrender at Yorktown, 
since it prevented the British from escaping or from 
being relieved by sea. (See also Barry.) 

After the war, the navy was disbanded. No United 
States naval force existed until Barbary pirates at- 
tacked American shipping. Congress was forced to 
act. It authorized on March 27, 1794, the building of 
six frigates; the United States, Constitution, President, 
Chesapeake, Constellation, and Congress. The United 
States was the first ship launched and so became the 
first vessel built by the young nation. The Navy De- 
partment was founded with the appointment of Ben- 
jamin Stoddert as its first secretary on April 30, 1798. 

Exploits of the New Navy 

The new ships performed well against France in 
1799 and 1800 (see Adams, John). In 1803 and 1804 
they compelled the Barbary States of North Africa to 
respect the United States. Among the great com- 
manders of this time were Capt. Thomas Truxtun 
(1755-1822), victor in two hard-fought combats with 
French frigates; Capts. Edward Preble (1761-1807), 
Richard Dale (1756-1826), John Rodgers (1773-1838), 
and William Bainbridge (1774-1833), leaders in the 
fight against Tripoli; and Lieut. Stephen Decatur 
(see Decatur). 

In the War of 1812, the United States had no ships 
of the line to use against the British main fleet; but 
American frigates proved vastly superior in fights be- 
tween single ships. The designer of the frigates, Joshua 
Humphreys (1751-1838), gave them thicker sides and 
heavier guns than any British frigate; yet they 
equaled the British craft in speed and maneuverability. 
Instead of blazing away without aim as the British 
often did, the American gunners aimed each shot at 


the enemy’s water line. Most frigate duels erided mtli 
the British ship a sinking wreck, while the Americans 
came off with little damage and loss of life. 

In that war. Perry’s victory on Lake Erie saved the 
Northwest Territory. Macdonough’s victory on Lake 
Champlain prevented the invasion of New York and 
greatly influenced the terms of the peace (see Periy; 
War of 1812). 

Transformation of Navies by Steam and Iron 

The use of steam brought great changes to the 
world’s navies, and new ships were being designed just 
at the start of the Civil War. One development was 
the steam-powered “ironclad” ship with one or more 
gun turrets (see Monitor and Merrimac). Naval ac- 
tivity during the war consisted largely of naval block- 
ades of Confederate coasts, punctuated by spectacular 
exploits of Confederate blockade runners and by rmval 
attacks on southern ports (see Blockade; Civil Ttar, 
American; Farragut; Porter, David D.). Armored 
river boats also saw important action along the 
Mississippi, Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers. 

After the war the United States Navy fell into de- 
cay. Foreign sea powers, after studying the iron- 
clad monitor type, began building steel ships arme 
with breech-loading rifled guns. These foreshadowe 
the modern battleship. In 1883, under President 
Arthur, the United States began to build a inodern 
navy. The new fleet struck powerful blows in^the 
Spanish-American War (see Spanish-American 
Soon after. President Theodore Roosevelt starte 
work on a strong battle fleet that laid the foundation 
for the present sea power of the United States. 

In 1905 Britain launched the battleship _ 
nought. Hitherto, battleships were armed w'itli four 
heavy guns in two turrets and a secondary battery 





93 


NAVY 


of smaller guns. The Dreadnought, 
with ten 12-inch guns in five tur- 
rets, compelled every navy in the 
world to rebuild. Germany es- 
pecially began a huge shipbuild- 
ing program, a show of strength 
that helped start the first World 
War. (For naval events in this 
war, see World War, First.) 

In 1911 the United States began 
experiments with naval aircraft 
by launching planes from the 
Pennsylvania. Britain built the 
first typical “flattop” carrier, 
the Argus, in 1918. The United 
States commissioned its first car- 
rier, the Langley, in 1922. 

Attempts to Limit 
Naval Strength 

Hoping to prevent ruinous com- 
petition in naval building, Presi- 
dent Harding called the Washing- 
ton Conference of 1921-22. The 
result was a 15-year treaty which 
set up a 5-5-3 ratio for capital 
ships between the United States, Great Britain, and 
Japan, with a 1.67 proportion for France and Italy. 
No limit was placed on other types, except that none 
should be heavier than 10,000 tons or have guns larger 
than 8-inch caliber. President Coolidge failed to obtain 

GIANT FLOATING REPAIR DOCK 


LANDING CRAFT AT IWO JIMA BEACHHEAD 








This hnge floating dry dock has raised two big ships, and now 
twvy workmen are making repairs on their hulls. Dry docks like 
these can lift nearly 100,000 tons. They gave valuable aid 
*n keeping ships of the second World war in flghticg trim. 


fMi 

These LST’s — Landing Ships, Tanks — are pouring Marine troops, tanks, and supplies 
ashore during the bitterly contested battle for Iwo Jima in the second World War. 
These shallow draft ships were able to anchor within a few feet of the water’s edge. 

further reductions by Japan and Britain at a Geneva 
conference in 1927. Later, limitations on smaller craft 
were accepted by the United States, Great Britain, 
and Japan at the 1930 London conference. 

These treaties gave the leading powers enough 
strength for defense but not for attack. Japan re- 
ceived a lower ratio on the ground that distance would 
prevent American and British fleets from attacking 
Japan. All powers also agreed not to strengthen 
navy yards or fortifications within striking distance 
of Japan. 

When Japanese action in Manchuria and China 
strained international relations, Japan announced that 
it would not renew the treaties after their expiration 
on Dec. 31, 1936. This refusal started a naval race. A 
new treaty signed by France, the United States, and 
Britain in 1936, and supplementary pacts between 
Britain, Germany, and Russia in 1937, set no quanti- 
tative limits, except for Germany. Germany re- 
nounced its agreement with Britain in 1939, shortly 
before the outbreak of war. 

Preparation for War 

When war broke out in 1939, the only navy equal in 
size to the United States Navy was the British. But 
the British navy was not so effective because Britain 
had to maintain strong fleets in the Orient, Medi- 
terranean, and West Indies to protect possessions and 
trade routes. It was also weak in naval aircraft. 

Next in strength was the Japanese navy with about 
seven-tenths the fighting strength of the United States 
fleet. It was stronger, however, than any force that 
could be sent into its home waters. Next came 
the French and Italian navies, each strong in new, 
light ships. The German navy was small, but modem 
and efficient. It specialized in submarines and “pock- 
et" battleships — fast 10,000-ton ships with heavy 



NAVY 


94 


guns. The Netherlands had good ships and planes for 
colonial defense. Little was known of the Russian 
navy, but it was thought to be strong in submarines. 

Until the United States and Japan entered the war, 
naval action consisted mainly of British efforts to 
maintain a blockade and German and Italian attacks 
to weaken the British 
navy and sink merchant 
shipping. 

In 1940, Congress an- 
ticipated America’s even- 
tual participation in the 
war and authorized the 
construction of a two- 
ocean navy, strong enough 
to defeat any combination 
of enemies. The plan called 
for about 700 ships, total- 
ing more than 3 million 
tons, to be completed by 
1946. Actual construction 
during the war years far 
exceeded this. Spurred by 
wartime demands, United 
States shipyards built 8 
new battleships, 48 cruis- 
ers, 27 aircraft carriers, 77 
escort carriers, 349 destroyers, and hundreds of 
smaller combat and service craft. 

Sea Fighting in the Second World War 

The job of the United States Navy in the second 
World War was to land and supply soldiers and marines 
on enemy-held shores — and to wipe out ail opposition 
along the way. To accomplish these gigantic tasks, 
the navy employed fighting methods unknown in pre- 
vious wars (see World War, Second), 

One of these new techniques was carrier warfare. 
The airplane carrier and its planes appeared in every 
important sea battle and landing operation of the war. 
Naval aircraft engaged enemy planes in air duels; 
bombed, strafed, and torpedoed enemy ships; and 
bombed and "hedge-hopped" troops attempting to 
repulse Allied landings. Carrier planes at the battles 
of Coral Sea and of Midway, in 1942, won the first de- 
cisive Allied victories of the war in the Pacific and 
fought strenuously thereafter to lead the offensive. 

Another new technique was amphibious warfare. In 
this method of landing troops on enemy beaches, the 
navy played many parts. First it had to clear the area 
for landing by bombarding the beaches, sweeping for 
mines, and removing beach obstacles. This last task 
was performed by daring groups of swimmers called 
"underwater demolition teams.” They dived fromsmall 
boats and swam under water to cut wire traps and 
plant e.xplosive charges which blew up heavy barriers. 

Then with special landing craft (listed on a previous 
page) the navy put the invasion forces and their 
equipment ashore. Once the troops were on land, the 
navy helped make their position secure by bombard- 
ment from the big guns of the capital ships and by 
support from carrier aircraft. Finally the navy con- 


tinued to protect the sea supply routes and prevented 
the enemy from landing reinforcements. Such huge 
operations as the Normandy and Okinawa landings 
were conducted in this fashion. 

Often fighting thousands of miles from land bases, 
the navy was able to keep its warships supplied and 

repaired in the combat 
areas. This task involved 
the use of floating diy 
docks and repair ships 
in harbors not far from 
combat areas, completely 
stocked supply ships, and 
a fleet of fast oilers. 

After the war most of 
the fleet was put in re- 
serve. The ships were 
moored in fresh-water an- 
chorages, their readiness 
preserved by plastic cov- 
ers over guns and motore 
and by dehumidifiers in 
the compartments. 
Navies of the Future 
Modern navies are now 
adopting destructive 
weapons that once existed 
only in the theories of forward-looking scientists. 
Perhaps the most important of these is the jet-pow'ered 
rocket. This is a guided missile, launched from a sur- 
face ship or submarine. It may be controlled by a pre- 
set gyroscope or it may receive electronic signals from 
a guiding mechanism aboard ship. 

Atomic energy may soon provide the pow'er to keep 
ships at sea and submarines under sea for much longer 
periods, using only a fraction of the space now de- 
voted to fuel-oil tanks. It may also provide the ex- 
plosive charge, or “warhead,” in rockets and torpe- 
does as well as in bombs. New electronic devices such 
as radar and loran are rapidly supplanting older 
methods for navigation and patrol work. 

Books about the Navy and Naval Warfare 

Ayling, Keith. Semper Fidelis (Houghton, 1943). 

Colby, C. B. Wings of Our Navy (Coward-McCann, 1952). 
Conger, E. M. Ships of the Fleet (Holt, 1946). 

Dyett, J. G. Your Navy Now (Oxford, 1944). 

Hughes, Riley. Our Coast Guard Academy (Devin-Adair, Will- 
Hunt, G. P. Story of the U.S. Marines (Random, 1951). 
Jane’s Fighting Ships (McGraw, published annually). 

Korig, Walter and others. Battle Report, 6v. (Binenar , 
1944-52). , 

King, E. J. and Whitehill, W. M. Fleet Admiral King, a Nava 
Record (Norton, 1952). 

Mohan, A. T. The Influence of Sea Power upon Historji 
1660-1783 (Little, 1897). _ _ 

Mitchell, D. W. History of the Modern American NaVJ 
(Knopf, 1946). 

Morison, S. E. History of ’ U.S. Naval Operations in 
War II, 7v. (Little, 1947-51). , 

Sprout, H. H. and M. T. Rise of American Naval Power, i7< 
1918 (Princeton Univ. Press, 1939). 

Sprout, H. H. and M. T. Toward a New Order of Sea Powc - 
1918-1922. (Princeton Univ. Press, 1943). 

United States Naval Academy. American Sea Power femr 
1776. (Lippincott. 1947). 


DESTRUCTIVE ROCKET LAUNCHERS 



Here we see sailors aboard a rocket ship loading rocket launch- 
ers. The launchers will be set off by an electric charge and 
throw a deadly barrage of rockets at the enemy. The fins at 
the tail of the rocket act like feathers on an arrow to keep the 
rocket steady in flight. 



95 


NEBRASKA 


rite FERTILE PRAIRIES of the “CORNHUSKER STATE” 






N ebraska. In eastern Ne- 
braska well-tilled acres of 
com and wheat and green pas- 
tures cover the gently rolling 
land. There cattle graze and 
hogs fatten. The tidy farm- 
houses and bams with trees 
planted near by give evidence 
of plenty and comfort gained 
through hard work, foresight, 
and thrift. This section of 
the state makes it one of the 
nation’s great producers of 
cattle, com, and other agri- 
cultural products. 

Other parts of Nebraska pre- 
sent different pictures. Its 
area of 77,227 square miles, 
larger than all New England, 
has a great variety of scener 3 ^ 

Along the state’s eastern bor- 
der on the banks of the Missouri 
River steep bluffs show their 
varied outlines against the 
sky. In the north the Niobrara 
River flows for part of its 
course through rugged and picturesque canyons with 
pines, cedars, and numerous springs. In the extreme 
northwest corner is a small section of the Bad Lands 
of South Dakota. These have fantastic hills and ter- 
races, and the fossil remains of prehistoric ages. Near 
the western border are hills that rise almost as high as 
some mountains. East of these foot-hills are table- 
lands. 

Stretching irregularly across the center of the state 
is a vast sweep of sandhills. These are grass-covered 

‘DESERT”— NOW RICH CROP 



This prosperous modern ranch in Keya Paha County is typical of those situated in north- 
central Nebraska. Note the well-kept home and farm buildings and the family garden. The 
cattle graze on the grass-covered rolling hills and find shade under the scattered clumps of 

trees on hot sunny days. 

and smooth with few trees or rocks. Once they were 
windswept shifting dunes which resulted from unwise 
farming and prairie fires. Toward the east the hills 
become rolling prairies which cover three-fourths of 
the area of the state. 

A “Desert” Became Farm Land 
Early explorers called the Nebraska region the 
“Great Desert.” In its far western part, rainfall is 
too light to support crops. Yet this section has fine 
and extensive grazing land. In the central part rain- 

_ „ . . fall is somewhat 

^ pasture LAND heavier. When the 

ipo «. I e? r' A T 1? rwf TUT f t irci 1 <• , , , 

plow broke the 
plains and ruined 
the natural grass 
cover, rain water 
drained off rapidly, 
carrying the rich 
topsoil nith it. Since 
then farmers have 
learned water and 
soil conservation 
methods and they 
tap the ground wa- 
ter which underlies 
nearly all the state. 
Scientific farming 
and irrigation are 
said to have raised 
the level of the 
underground water 
table in many places 
in the eastern part 



Before early residents knew how to farm such land they thought that most of Nebraska was a barren waste. 
Now, however, nearly every part of the state yields farm products. The vast ranges of the upper northwest 
section have fine grazing lands for cattle. Crop farming is concentrated in the eastern part. There corn is 
raised a&d much of it is used to fatten cattle and hogs for market* 



96 


NEBRASKA 

of the state. Since nearly half the annual rainfall 
comes in the growing season, hlay, June, and July, it is 
sufficient for crop needs. In western Nebraska, es- 
pecially in the North Platte and Republican valleys, 
irrigation is extensively practiced. In Keith Countj'', 
Kingsley Dam holds back the North Platte River to 
form 23-mile-long Lake McConaughy. The reservoir 
of Harlan County Dam, across the Republican River 
in south central Nebraska, began to fill up in 1951. It 


TlTiile Nebraska is called “the state without a 
mine,” it produces cement, petroleum, sand, gravel, 
stone, clays, and natural gas. Oil was discovered in 
Richardson County in 1939 and in Cheyenne County 
in 1949. By 1950 the output of oil was substantial, and 
that of natural gas, promising. 

Manufactured Goods 

Compared to agriculture, Nebraska’s manufactur- 
ing industry is relatively small. The state has more 


A NATURAL GATEWAY ON THE OLD OREGON TRAIL 



Through historic Mitchell Pass in western Nebraska rolled the 
prairie schooners which carried the pioneers out to the wiiming of 
the West. This famous highww was known as the Oregon Trail. 
The Pass is now part of the Scotts Bluff National Monument, 


named for the landmark towering about 800 
South Bluff rises at the left. These bluffs are “islands W M 
sion” — standing alone as the surroundmg plains wwe ^ao^i 
worn down by wind, rain, and waters of the North Platte Ki? • 


is a key project for flood control and irrigation in the 
Missouri River development program (see Missouri 
River). In western Nebraska, dry-farming produces 
good yields from lands which cannot be irrigated. 

Farm and Mineral Products 

The state’s rich topsoil and deep moisture-holding 
subsoil and the industry and scientific practices of its 
farmers have combined to make Nebraska one of the 
greatest agricultural states of the Union. Although 
Nebraska ranks 33d among the states in population, 
it is among the first dozen states in farming. 

Nebraska is among the leading states in the produc- 
tion of corn, which is raised in the corn-belt section of 
eastern Nebraska. About two thirds of the huge crop 
is used to fatten the millions of hogs and cattle that 
account for one half of the state’s total farm income. 
In the southwest are broad golden wheat fields which 
produce another valuable crop. Hay, oats, and barley 
are also grown extensively as feed crops. 

Potatoes and sugar beets thrive in the irrigated 
land of the river valleys. Dry edible beans are a 
specialty crop in the valley of the North Platte in 
western Nebraska. The southeastern part of the 
state along the Missouri River grows apples, peaches, 
and other fruits. Milk, eggs, chickens, and sheep are 
also valuable farm products. 


than three times as many gainfully employed people 
on farms as in factories. Its total farm income is 
many times greater than the total value added to 
goods by factories and mills. 

The state’s manufacturing industries, however, con- 
tribute much to Nebraska’s prosperity. Being a food- 
raising state, its major manufactures are based upon 
the processing of farm products. These include mM 
packing, the milling of flour and meal, and poultry 
dressing. Such food products account for almost ha 
of the state’s manufacturing. Other industries are 
printing and publishing and chemicals. 


Features and Names , i / I 

The climate of Nebraska is exceptionally healthiu ■ 
The temperature averages range from about ^ ' 1 , 
summer to about 26° in winter, but heat and co 
are not felt severely because of the dry atmosphere- 
Nebraska lacks the splendor which mountains, la 
and forests lend other states. Yet it has real beau y 
in the "scenery of the sky,” when a sunset is wewe 


across the rolling prairies. t ,i’ n 

The name Nebraska probably came from an RoW.^ 
word meaning “shallow or spreading water. I 
officially knowm as the “Cornhusker State” and o 
called the “Tree Planters State.” The first sette^ 
found prairies with no trees except along strearn^ 

Continued on paOf ^ 







Nebraska Fact Summary 



NEBRASKA (Neb.); Probably from 
Nebraihka, Otoe Indian word mean- 
ing “shallow or spreading water.” 
Nickname: “Comhusker State,” from 
name given to University of Ne- 
braska’s football team. Also, “Tree 
Planters State,” from settlers’ tree- 
planting efforts and first Arbor Day. 
Seal: Man works at anvil; settler’s cabin and sheaves of 
wheat; steamboat on Missouri River; train and Rocky 
Mountains in the background. 

Motto: Equality before the Law. 

Flag: Por description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Goldenrod. Bird: Western meadowlark. Tree: 
American elm. Song (unofficial): ‘My Nebraska’ — 
words and music by Theodore C. Diers; also 3 other songs. 


THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital; Lincoln (since 1867). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 4. Elec- 
toral votes, 6. 

State Legislature: Senate of 43 mem- 
bers; nonpartisan election; term, 2 
3 '’ears. Convenes first Tuesday in 
January in odd years. There is no 
constitutional limit to regular or special sessions. 

Constitution: Adopted 1875. Proposed amendment may 
be (a) passed by a three-fifths vote of legislature or by 
initiative action of the people and (b) ratified by a 
majority voting on amendment at a popular election. 

Governor: Term, 2 years. May succeed himself. 

Other Executive Officers; Lieutenant governor, secretary 
of state, attorney general, treasurer, and auditor, aU 
elected; terms, 2 years. Heads of administrative depts. 
chosen by governor with consent of legislature. 

Judiciary: Supreme court — chief justice, elected at large; 
6 justices elected by districts; term, 6 years. District 
courts — 18; 35 judges, elected; term, 4 years. County 
courts — 1 in each county; judge elected; term, 4 years. 

County: 93 counties, governed by boards, each composed 
either of 7 supervisors or of 3 or 5 commissioners. 
Board and officers elected; terms, 4 years. 

Municipal: Mayor-council plan most common; some 
cities have commissioners or a city manager. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 6 
months; in coimty, 40 days; in district, 10 days. 




transportation and COMMUNICATION 

Transportation: Railroads, 5,800 miles. First railroad. 
Union Pacific (from Omaha to Kearney), 1866. Rmal 
roads, 100,000 miles. Airports, 134. 

Communication: Periodicals, 57. Newspapers, 312. First 
newspaper, Nebraska Palladium and Platte Valley 
Advocate, Bellevue, 1854-55. Radio stations (AM and 
FM), 24; first station, WOU (now KOWH), Omaha, 
licensed Dec. 29, 1921. Television stations, 4; first 
station, WOW-TV, Omaha, began operation Aug. 29, 
1949. Telephones, 442,400. Post offices, 660. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 1,325,510 (rank among 48 
states — 33d); urban, 46.9%; rmal, 53.1%. Density 
17.3 persons per square mile (rank — 37th state). 

Extent: Area, 77,227 square miles, including 564 square 
miles of water surface (14th state in size). 

Elevation: Highest, southwest part of Banner County, 
5,340 feet; lowest, southeast comer of state, 840 feet. 

Temperature (°F.): Average— annual, 50°; winter, 26°; 
spring, 48°; summer, 73°; fall, 51°. Lowest recorded, 
— 47° (Camp Clarke, Cheyenne County, Feb. 12, 1899) ; 
highest recorded, 118° (Minden, Jul 3 ’- 24, 1936, and 
other locations and earlier dates). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 23; winter, 2; 
spring, 7; summer, 10; fall, 4. Varies from about 16 
in west to about 34 in southeast. 

Natural Features: Rich, black earth along eastern bor- 
der (Missouri River lowland) ; rolling hills and valleys 
westward (Loess Hills); ridges and dunes of wind- 
blown sand north central and west central (Sand 
Hills). Principal rivers; Elkhorn, Loup, Missouri, 
Niobrara, Platte, Republican. 

Land Use: Cropland, 46%; nonforested pasture, 48%; 
forest, 2%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, waste- 
land, cities, etc.), 4%. 

OTHER 

CROPS PASTURE FOREST | 


Natural Resources: Agricultural — rich soil adaptable to 
special farming methods. Industrial — ^minerals include 
cement, petroleum, sand and gravel, stone, clays, and 
natural gas. Commercial — profitable trade from indus- 
tries based on processed farm products such as meat, 
flour, and beet sugar. 

OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 
What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1 950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 

Agriculture, forestry, and fishery. . 

151,648 

29,6 

Wholesale and retail trade 

97,365 

19.0 

Manufacturing 

Transportation, communication. 

46,915 

9.2 

and other public utilities 

Professional services (medical, le- 

46,810 

9.1 

gal, educational, etc.) 

43,514 

8.5 

Construction 

Personal services (hotel, domestic. 

32,838 

6.4 

laimdering, etc.) 

23,461 

4.6 

Government 

20,276 

4.0 

Finance, insurance, and real estate . 

17,388 

3.4 

Business and repair services 

Amusement, recreation, and re- 

14,128 

2.8 

lated services 

4,494 

0.9 

Mining 

1,073 

0.2 

Workers not accounted for 

11,739 

2.3 

Total employed 

511,649 

100.0 


97 



Nebraska Fact Summary 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 38th) 
Value added by manufacture* (1952), $337,577,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Food and KtNDRED Prodocts, . . . 
Meat packing; florrr and meal; 
prepared animal feeds; poultry 
dressing: beverages 

$156,216,000 

17 

PnrNTtNG AND PuBLrSHrNG 

Newspapers;commercial printing 

21,505,000 

29 

Chemicals and Allied Products 
Drugs and medicines; vegetable 
and animal oils 

10,926,000 

35 

Electrical Machinery 

10,698,000 

20 

Machinery (except Electrical) 
Tractors and farm machinery 

10,462,000 

33 

Fabricated Metal Products 

7,498,000 

33 


*For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 7th) 
Total cash income (1952), $1,163,167,000 


Products 

Amount Produced 
(10-Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

Statesf 

■ 

Corn 

210,496,000 bu. 

1 

6 

Cattle 

1,012,429,000 lbs. 

2 

4 

Hogs 

911,575,000 lbs. 

3 

7 

Wheat 

63,652,000 bu. 

4 

6 

Milk 

1,194,000,000 qts. 

5 

14 

Hay 

4,080,000 tons 

6 

7 

Eggs 

143,000,000 doz. 

7 

13 

Oats 

58,716,000 bu. 

8 

7 

Chickens 

111,476,000 lbs. 

9 

15 

Sheep and lambs 

48,952,000 lbs. 

10 

17 

Barley 

19,514,000 bu. 

11 

5 

Potatoes 

10,542,000 bu. 

12 

13 


*Rank in dollar value tRank in units produced 



C. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 
Annual value (1951), $18,469,000 
Rank among states — 40th 


Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced 

Value 

Cement* 




2.558.000 bbls. 

4.969.000 tons 
943,000 tons 

$5,960,000 

3.477.000 

1.438.000 

Sand and gravel.. 



•Cement ranks 1st in value; exact figures not available. 

D. Trade 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 

Wholesale 

$2,365,053,000 

19 

Retail 

1,317,813,000 

29 

Service 

98,973,000 

30 


EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 4,798; sec- 
ondary, 513. Compulsory school age, 

7 through 15. State Board of Educa- 
tion consists of 6 elected members; 
appoints Commissioner of Educa- 
tion. County superintendents elects 
ed for 4-year terms. State divided 
into 6 types of school districts admin- 
istered by local boards elected by popular vote. City 
superintendents elected by city boards of education. 

Private and Parochial Schools: 250. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges, IV; 
junior colleges, 5. State-supported schools include the 
Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln; 4 teachers colleges— Peru, 
Kearney, Wayne, Chadron; State Trade School, Milford. 

Special State Institutions: Nebraska School for the Blind, 
Nebraska City; Nebraska School for the Deaf, Omaha; 
Nebraska Orthopedic Hospital, Lincoln; Home for 
Children, Lincoln. 

Libraries: City and town public libraries, 229; independ- 
ent county library systems, 6. Public Library Commis- 
sion responsible for aid in developing library service. 

Outstanding Museums: House of Yesterday, Hastings; 
Neb. State Historical Society Museum, Univ. of Neb. 
Art Galleries, and Univ. of Neb. State Museum, all 
at Lincoln; Joslyn Memorial Art Museum, Omaha. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

Boys’ Training School, ICearney; Girls’ Training School, 
Geneva; State Reformatory for Women, York; State 
Reformatory, Lincoln; State Penitentiary, Lincoln. 

STATE PARKS* 

Arbor Lodge — home of J. Sterling Morton, founder of 
Arbor Day; pioneer vehicles; at Nebraska City (23). 

Chadron — Mu.shroom Butte with interesting rock forma- 
tion; Thunder Canyon; near Chadron (2)._ 

Fort Kearney — frontier army po.st important in the west- 
ward movement; remains of rifle pits, powder maga- 
zine, and other earthworks; near Kearney (26). 

Niobrara Island — wooded island with lagoon; 

game reserve, outdoor amphitheater; nr. Niobrara (4). 

Ponca — on high bluffs overlooking Missouri River; e 
states can be seen from high lookout; near Ponca (o). 

Stolley — grove of trees first planted in the 1860 s by 
William Stolley; frame schoolhouse, first in the bobmli 
site of Fort Independence; near Grand Island (21)’ 

Victoria Springs — mineral springs which vary in chemica 
content due to composition of sandstone; 
house and post office built 1873; near Merna (14)- 

NATIONAL FOREST* 

Nebraska — 207,209 acres; hdqrs., Halsey; only man^a c 
national forest in U. S.; systematic tree planting 
in 1902 through efforts of Dr. Charles E. Bessey; 
came a national forest in 1908 (7, 13). 



PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Agate Fossil Beds — near Harrison; fossils of 

a layer of rock 60 feet below surface of ground ( )■ 
Bellevue — oldest Nebraska town, once the largest, ai 
of early fur trade and first mission (19). , , 

Chimney Rock — narrow shaft of reddish sandstone ris 
about 150 feet above the plateau (12). ii.cite 

Fort McPherson National Cemetery — near Maxwe , 
of old army post on Oregon Trail (20). 

♦Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


98 



Fossil Park — near Ainsworth; fossilized bones of mam- 
moths and prehistoric horses found here (3). 

Harlan County Dam — a key Missouri River basin 
project on Republican R. near Alma; west of (29). 

Hastings Municipal Museum (“The House of Yester- 
day”) — in Hastings; collections of natural, Indian, 
pioneer, and other historical relics; southeast of (26). 

Homestead National Monument of America — nr. Bea- 
trice; first farm claimed under 1862 Homestead Act (27). 

Ionia Volcano — smoking bluff; held sacred by early 
Indian fire worshipers (5). 

John Brown’s Cave — Nebraska City; used by John Brown 
to hide nmaway slaves (25). 

Kingsley Dam — near Ogallala; great earth-fiUed dam 
creates largest body of water in Nebraska, Lake 
McConaughy, for irrigation and power (17). 

Lincoln— State Capitol wdth 400-foot tower; University 
of Nebraska; Pioneer Park (see Lincoln) (22). 

Massacre Canyon Monument — commemorates last battle 
between Pawnees and Sioux (1873) ; near Trenton (28). 

Omaha — Joslyn Memorial includes concert hall, library, 
art exhibits (see Omaha) (15); Boys Town, Father 
Flanagan’s community for homeless boys, nearby (18). 

Omaha Indian Reservation — near Macy (10). 

Pioneer Village — at Minden; thousands of historical relics 
of Nebraska and early West; southwest of (24). 

Point of Rocks — view of countryside near Sidney can be 
seen from the heights (16). 

Scotts Bluff National Monument — great bluff, about 800 
feet high, was landmark on Oregon Trail during mass 
migration 1843-69; Oregon Trail Museum (11). 

Toadstool Park — huge stone mushrooms in a field near 
Cottonwood Creek (1). 

Willa Cather’s Childhood Home — in Red Cloud (29). 

Winnebago Indian Reservation — ^near Winnebago (9). 

Ziebarth’s Farm Museum — Indian relics in a museum 
near Ke nesaw (24). 

’^Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

Omaha (251,117): on west bank of Missouri River; rail- 
road center; large livestock market and meat-packing 
industry; lead refining; insurance center. 

Lincoln (98,884): state capital; University of Nebraska; 
railroad shops; makes watches, telephone equipment. 

Grand island (22,682): railroad shops; flour, beet srgar; 
dairy, livestock market; army ordnance installatijn. 

Hastings (20,211): hub of fertile agricultural area; farm 
implements; naval ammunition depot nearby. 

North Platte (15,433): railroad terminal; food products. 

Fremont (14,762) : processing center for farm products. 

Scottsbiuff (12,858): business center of N. Platte Valley. 

THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1 598 — ^Juan de Onate claims New Mexi- 
co for Spain; area includes west^ 
ern portion of present Nebraska. 

1 682 — ^Rene Robert Cavalier, Siem de 
La Salle, claims all Mississippi 
Valley for France; names it 
“Louisiana.” 

1720 — Pedro de Villasur leads Spanish 

expedition from Santa Fe to Platte River; Pawnee 
Indians kill him, drive his party back. 

1739 — Paul and Pierre Mallet explore route from Platte 
River to Santa Fe. 

1762 — France cedes land west of Mississippi River to 
Spain; Spain secretly returns it to France, 1800. 

1803 — United States buys “Louisiana” from France. 

1804 — Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, on trip to 
Pacific coast, enter Nebraska near Big Nemaha 
River; reach mouth of Platte River, July 21; re- 
trace their route through region, 1806. 

1 807 — Manuel Lisa establishes trading post near mouth 
of Bighorn River, possibly on site of Bellevue. 

1812 — ^Robert Stuart and party break new trail along 
Platte R.; later becomes part of Oregon TraiL 



99 







Nebraska Fact Summary 


1819 — ^First steamboat on upper Missouri River, Western 
Engineer, reaches present Omaha. “Yellowstone 
Expedition” under Maj. Stephen H. Long explores 
South Platte Valley to river’s source. 

1820 — Congress, in passing Missouri Compromise, pro- 
hibits slave owning in Nebraska. 

1 832 — Capt. B. L. E. Bonneville leads first wagon train 
along Platte Valley-South Pass route to West. 

1 833 — Moses Merrill, missionary, arrives at Bellevue. 

1838 — Father Pierre de Smet begins Roman Catholic 

missionary work among Nebraska Indians. 

1 842 — John C. Frdmont explores Platte River region. 

1846— Mormons trace Mormon Trail across Nebraska. 

1854— Kansas-Nebraska Act creates Nebraska Territory 
from 40th to 49th parallels and from Missouri R. 
to Continental Divide; Omaha founded and made 
capital; first governor, Francis Burt. 

1 855 — First territorial legislature meets at Omaha, Jan- 
uary 16; provides for free common schools. 

1860 — Telegraph links Brown ville and St. Joseph, Mo. 

1861 — Colorado and Dakota territories created, reducing 
Nebraska in size. Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians 
cede their Nebraska lands. 

1 863 — Creation of Idaho Territory reduces Nebraska to 
its present borders. First homestead in Nebraska 
under National Homestead Act of 1862 secured by 
Daniel Freeman in Gage County, January 1. 

1865 — Union Pacific Railway begins building line west 
from Omaha; completed through Nebraska, 1867; 
forges link with transcontinental fine at Promon- 
tory, Utah, May 10, 1869. 

1867 — Nebraska admitted to Union as 37th state, March 
1 ; Lancaster, renamed Lincoln, made state capital, 
July 29; first governor, David Butler. 


1 869 — Univ. of Nebraska founded at Lincoln; opens, 1871. 

1870 — Legislature restricts use of open range for cattle; 
first cattle loaded for shipping to East at Schuyler. 

1 872 — First Arbor Day, proposed by J. Sterling Morton, 
celebrated in Nebraska; becomes national custom, 

1873 — First permanent railroad bridge across Missouri 
River completed at Omaha. 

1 875 — Present state constitution adopted. Federal gov- 
ernment begins removal of Indians to Oklahoma. 

1 877 — ^Hostile Sioux surrender at Fort Robmson, May 6; 
agree to leave state; Chief Crazy Horse killed. 

1 890 — Sugar-beet refining begun at Grand Island. 

1896 — William Jennings Bryan, Nebraska congressman, 
is unsuccessful candidate of Democrats and Pop- 
ulists for president of U. S.; also defeated, 1900 
and 1908. 

1902 — George W. Norris, famous liberal, elected con- 
gressman from Nebraska; elected senator, 1912-42. 

1904 — ^Kincaid Homestead Act furthers settlement of 
open range in northern and western Nebraska. 

1912 — State-wide prohibition adopted. 

1 929 — Drought creates dust bowl in state; ends 1936. 

1 932 — Skyscraper State Capitol at Lincoln dedicated. 

1936 — Father Flanagan’s Boys Town incorporated 10 
miles west of Omaha. 

1 937 — One-house state legislature holds first session. 

1939 — Oil discovered in southeast near Falls City; also 

found in southwest in Cheyenne County in 1949. 

1951 — Reservoir of Harlan County Dam, built on the 
Republican River for flood control, begins filling. 

1 952— Constitutional amendment abolishes elective Supt. 
of Public Education; provides Board of Educa- 
tion to appoint a Commissioner of Education. 

1953— Serious drought in some areas. 



100 









NEBRASKA 





Scotts Bluff 33,939 

A3 

Belvidere 

274 

G 

4 

Cody 

296 

C 2 

Ericson 

186 

P3 

CULZ/NIICO 


Seward 

13,155 

G4 

Benedict 

206 

G 

3 

Coleridge 

621 

G 2 

Eustis 

413 

D 4 

Adams 

28,855 

F 4 

Sheridan 

9,539 

B 2 

Benkehnan 

1,512 

C 

4 

Colon 

127 

H 3 

Ewing 

705 

F 2 

Antelope 

11,624 

F 2 

Sherman 

6,421 

F 3 

Bennet 

396 

H 

4 

Columbus 

8,884 

G 3 

Exeter 

747 

G 4 

Arthur 

803 

C 3 

Sioux 

3,124 

A2 

Bennington 

315 

H 

3 

Coinstock 

302 

E 3 

Fairbury 

6,395 

G 4 

Banner 

1,325 

A 3 

Stanton 

6,387 

G 3 

Berea 

27 

A 

2 

Concord 

194 

H 2 

Fairfield 

503 

G 4 

Blaine 

1,203 

E 3 

Thayer 

10,563 

G 4 

Bertrand 

584 

E 

4 

Cook 

332 

H 4 

Fairmont 

729 

G 4 

Boone 

10,721 

F 3 

Thomas 

1,206 

D 3 

Berwyn 

138 

E 

3 

Cordova 

147 

G 4 

Falls City 

6,203 

J 4 

Box Butte 

12,279 

A 2 

Thurston 

8,590 

H 2 

Best 

12 

C 

4 

Comlea 

69 

G 3 

Pamam 

323 

D 4 

Boyd 

4,911 

P 2 

Valley 

7,252 

E 3 

Beverly 

18 

C 

4 

Cortland 

288 

H 4 

ParweU 

172 

P3 

Brown 

5,164 

E 2 

Washington 



Big Springs 

527 

B 

3 

Cotesfield 

106 

F 3 

Filley 

136 

H 4 

Buffalo 

25,134 

E 4 


11,511 

H 3 

Bingham 

100 

B 

2 

Cowles 

130 

F 4 

Firth 

245 

H 4 

Burt 

11,536 

H 3 

Wayne 

10,129 

G 2 

Bladen 

282 

F 

4 

Cozad 

2,910 

E 4 

Flats 

4 

C 3 

Butler 

11,432 

G 3 

Webster 

7,395 

F 4 

Blair 

3,815 

H 

3 

Crab Orchard 120 

H 4 

Fontanelle 

103 

H 3 

Cass 

16,361 

H 4 

Wheeler 

1,526 

F 3 

Bloomfield 

1,455 

G 

2 

Craig 

384 

H 3 

Fordyce 

165 

G 2 

Cedar 

13,843 

G 2 

York 

14,346 

G 4 

Bloomington 

293 

F 

4 

Crawford 

1,824 

A 2 

Fort Calhoun 314 

J 3 

Chase 

5,176 

C 4 




Blue Hill 

574 

F 

4 

Creighton 

1,401 

G 2 

Fort Crook 

400 

J 3 

Cherry 

8,397 

C 2 

r/T/Pc Towwc 

Blue Springs 

581 

H 

4 

Creston 

228 

G 3 

Fort Robinson 36 

A 2 

Cheyenne 

12,081 

A 3 




Boelus 

167 

F 

3 

Crete 

3,692 

G 4 

Foster 

114 

G 2 

Clay 

8,700 

F4 

Abie 

113 

H 3 

Boone 

100 

F 

3 

Crofton 

630 

G 2 

Franklin 

1,602 

E 4 

Colfax 

10,010 

G 3 

Adams 

457 

H 4 

Bostwick 

54 

F 

4 

Crooks ton 

168 

D 2 

Fremont 

14,762 

H 3 

Cuming 

12,994 

H 3 

Agate 

10 

A 2 

Boys Town 

975 

»H 

3 

Crowell 

31 

H 3 

Friend 

1,148 

G 4 

Custer 

i9,170 

E 3 

Ainsworth 

2,150 

D 2 

Bradish 

5 

G 

3 

Culbertson 

770 

C 4 

Fullerton 

1,520 

P 3 

Dakota 

10,401 

H 2 

Albion 

2,132 

F 3 

Bradshaw 

352 

G 

4 

Curtis 

964 

D 4 

Funk 

123 

E 4 

Dawes 

9,708 

A 2 

Alda 

190 

F 4 

Brady 

320 

D 

3 

Cushing 

71 

P 3 

Gandy 

88 

D 3 

Dawson 

19,393 

E 4 

Alexandria 

317 

G 4 

Bralnard 

373 

G 

3 

Dakota City 

622 

H 2 

Garland 

184 

G 4 

Deuel 

3,330 

B 3 

Allen 

374 

H 2 

Brandon 

40 

C 

4 

Dakota Jet. 

6 

A 2 

Garrison 

88 

G 3 

Dixon 

9,129 

H 2 

Alliance 

7,891 

A 2 

Bray ton 

1 

F 

3 

Dalton 

417 

B 3 

Gates 

14 

E 3 

Dodge 

26,265 

H 3 

Alma 

1,768 

E 4 

Brewster 

69 

D 

3 

Danbury 

218 

D 4 

Geneva 

2,031 

G4 

Douglas 

281,020 

H 3 

Almeria 

20 

E 3 

Bridgeport 

1,631 

A 

3 

Dannebrog 

318 

F 3 

Genoa 

1,026 

G 3 

Dundy 

4,354 

C 4 

Altona 

20 

H 2 

Bristow 

146 

F 

2 

Dan- 

39 

E 4 

Gering 

3,842 

A3 

Fillmore 

9,610 

G4 

Alvo 

190 

H 4 

Broadwater 

300 

B 

3 

Davenport 

459 

G 4 

Gibbon 

1,063 

F 4 

Franklin 

7,096 

F4 

Amelia 

67 

F 2 

Brock 

283 

H 

4 

Davey 

112 

H 4 

Gilead 

109 

G 4 

Frontier 

5,282 

D 4 

Ames 

80 

H 3 

Brocksburg 

15 

E 

2 

David City 

2,321 

G 3 

Giltner 

284 

F4 

Furnas 

. 9,385 

E 4 

Amherst 

219 

E 4 

Broken Bow 

3,396 

E 

3 

Dawson 

309 

J 4 

Gladstone 

63 

G 4 

Gage 

28,052 

H 4 

Andrews 

14 

A2 

Brownlee 

38 

D 

2 

Daykln 

157 

G 4 

Glen 

19 

A2 

Garden 

4,114 

B 3 

Angora 

36 

A3 

BrownvUle 

357 

J 

4 

De Witt 

528 

G 4 

Glenvil 

281 

P4 

Garfield 

2,912 

F 3 

Angus 

34 

F4 

Brule 

330 

C 

3 

Decatur 

808 

H 2 

Goehner 

67 

G4 

Gosper 

2,734 

E 4 

Anoka 

60 

F2 

Bruning 

246 

G 

4 

Denman 

23 

P4 

Goodwin 

3 

H 2 

Grant 

1,057 

C 3 

Anselmo 

. 316 

E 3 

Bruno 

155 

G 

3 

Denton 

101 

H 4 

Gordon 

2,058 

B 2 

Greeley 

5,575 

P 3 

Ansley 

711 

E 3 

Brunswick 

260 

G 

2 

Deshler 

1,063 

G 4 

Gothenburg 

2,977 

D 4 

HaU 

32,186 

P 4 

Antioch 

30 

B 2 

Bucktail 

23 

C 

3 

Deweese 

115 

P4 

Graf 

50 

H4 

Hamilton 

8,778 

F 4 

Arapahoe 

1,226 

E 4 

Buffalo 

12 

E 

4 

Dickens 

60 

C 4 

Grafton 

159 

G 4 

Harlan 

7,189 

E 4 

Arborviile 

65' 

G 3 

Burchard 

201 

H 

4 

Differ 

314 

H 4 

Grainton 

91 

C 4 

Hayes 

2,404 

C 4 

Arcadia 

574 

F 3 

Burr 

91 

H 

4 

Dix 

270 

A 3 

Grand Isl. 

22,682 

F 4 

Hitchcock 

5,867 

C 4 

Archer 

103 

F 3 

Burress 

6 

G 

4 

Dixon 

159 

H 2 

Grant 

1,091 

C 4 

Holt 

14,859 

P 2 

Arlington 

593 

H 3 

Burton 

45 

E 

2 

Dodge 

633 

H 3 

Greeley 

787 

F 3 

Hooker 

1,061 

C 3 

Arnold 

936 

D 3 

Burwell 

1,413 

E 

3 

Doniphan 

412 

F 4 

Greenwood 

364 

H 3 

Howard 

7,226 

F 3 

Arthur 

176 

C 3 

Bushnell 

225 

A 

3 

Dorchester 

478 

G 4 

Gresham 

267 

G 3 

Jefferson 

13,623 

G 4 

Ashby 

150 

C 2 

Butte 

614 

F 

2 

Dorsey 

2 

F 2 

Gretna 

438 

H 3 

Johnson 

7,251 

H 4 

Ashland 

1,713 

H 3 

Byron 

159 

G 

4 

Douglas 

213 

H 4 

Gross 

29 

P 2 

Kearney 

6,409 

F 4 

Ashton 

381 

F 3 

Cadams 

19 

F 

4 

Du Bois 

236 

H 4 

Guide Rock 

676 

P 4 

Keith 

7.449 

C 3 

Atkinson 

1,372 

E 2 

Cairo 

422 

F 

3 

Duff 

2 

E 2 

Gurley 

219 

B 3 

Keya Paha 2.160 

E 2 

Atlanta 

147 

E 4 

Callaway 

744 

D 

3 

Dunbar 

228 

J4 

Hadar 

129 

G 2 

Kimball 

4,283 

A 3 

Auburn 

3,422 

J 4 

Calora 

8 

C 

3 

Duncan 

228 

G 3 

Haig 

64 

A 3 

Knox 

14,820 

G 2 

Aurora 

2,455 

F 4 

Cambridge 

1,352 

D 

4 

Dunning 

254 

E 3 

Haigler 

398 

C 4 

Lancaster 

119,742 

H 4 

Avoca 

196 

H 4 

Campbell 

412 

F 

4 

Dustin 

3 

E 2 

HaUam 

172 

H 4 

Lincoln 

27,380 

D 4 

Axtell 

352 

E 4 

Carleton 

291 

G 

4 

Dwight 

218 

G 3 

Halsey 

165 

D 3 

Logan 

1,357 

D 3 

Ayr 

121 

F 4 

Cams 

5 

E 

2 

Eagle 

255 

H 4 

Hamlet 

154 

C 4 

Loup 

1,348 

E 3 

Bancroft 

596 

H 2 

Carroll 

309 

G 

2 

Edd^-viUe 

188 

E 3 

Hampton 

289 

G 4 

Madison 

24.338 

G 3 

Barada 

83 

J 4 

Cascade 

9 

D 

2 

Edgar 

724 

F 4 

Hansen 

50 

F 4 

McPherson 

C 3 

Barnes ton 

208 

H 4 

Cedar Bluffs 

505 

H 

3 

Edison 

302 

E 4 

Harbine 

85 

G 4 

Merrick 

8,812 

F 3 

Bartlett 

145 

F 3 

Cedar Rapids 541 

F 

3 

Elba 

216 

P 3 

Hardy 

348 

G 4 

Morrill 

8,263 

A 3 

Bartley 

399 

D 4 

Center 

148 

G 

2 

Eldorado 

40 

G 4 

Harrisburg 

94 

A3 

Nance 

6,512 

F 3 

Bassett 

1.066 

E 2 

Central City 2,394 

P 

3 

Elgin 

820 

F 3 

Harrison 

492 

A 2 

Nemaha 

10,973 

J 4 

■Rftttlft Creek 630 

G 3 

Ceresco 

374 

H 

3 

Eli 

40 

C 2 

Hartlngton 

1,660 

G 2 

Nuckolls 

9,609 

F 4 

■Rn.v;ird 

1.869 

A 3 

Chadron 

4,687 

B 

2 

Elk Creek 

176 

H 4 

Harvard 

774 

F 4 

Otoe 

17,056 

H 4 

■RuthIr A'lills 46 

G 2 

Chaleo 

32 

H 

3 

Elkhom 

476 

H 3 

Hastings 

20,211 

F 4 

Pawnee 

6,744 

H 4 

Beard well 

6 

E 2 

Chambers 

395 

F 

2 

Ellis 

69 

H 4 

Hay Springs 

1,091 

B 2 

Perkins 

4,809 

C 4 

"RpAtriep. 

11.813 

H 4 

Champion 

170 

C 

4 

Ellsworth 

9 

B 2 

Hayes Center 361 

C 4 

Phelps 

9,048 

E 4 

Beaver City 913 

E 4 

Chapman 

274 

F 

3 

Elm Creek 

799 

E 4 

Hayland 

11 

F 4 

Pierce 

9,405 

G 2 

BpAver CrossinK 


Chappell 

1,297 

B 

3 

Elmwood 

446 

H 4 

Hazard 

130 

F 3 

Platte 

19,910 

G 3 


425 

G 4 

Charleston 

50 

G 

4 

Elsie 

219 

C 4 

Heartwell 

125 

F 4 

Polk 

8.044 

G 3 

Bee 

160 

H 3 

Cherry 

2 

C 

2 

Elsmere 

34 

D 2 

Hebron 

2,000 

G 4 

Red "Willow 


Beemer 

613 

H 3 

Chester 

539 

G 

4 

Elwood 

562 

E 4 

Hecla 

6 

C 2 


12.977 

D 4 

Belden 

192 

G 2 

Clarks 

464 

G 

3 

Elyria 

87 

E 3 

Hemlngford 

946 

A 2 

Richardson 16.886 

J 4 

Belgrade 

284 

G 3 

Clarkson 

764 

G 

3 

Emerson 

784 

H 2 

Henderson 

536 

G 4 

Rock 

3,026 

E 2 

Bellevue 

3,858 

J 3 

Clatonia 

192 

H 

4 

Emmet 

62 

F 2 

Hendley 

130 

D 4 

Saline 

14,046 

G 4 

Bellwood 

389 

G 3 

Clay Center 

824 

F 

4 

Enders 

75 

C 4 

Henry 

171 

A 2 

Sarpy 

15,693 

H 3 

Belmar 


C 3 

Clearwater 

472 

F 

2 

Endlcott 

195 

G 4 

Herman 

380 

H 3 

Saunders 

16,923 

H 3 

Belmont 

25 

A 2 

Clinton 

36 

B 

2 

Enola 

23 

G 3 

Hershey 

573 

D 3 


*No room on map for name. [ 101 J 
















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Hickman 

Hildreth 

Hire 

Hoagland 
Holbrook 
Holdrege 
HoUinger 
HolmesviUe 
Holstein 
Homer 
Hooper 
Horace 
HordvUle 
Hoskins 
Howard City 
(Boelus) 
Howe 
Howells 
Hubbard 
Hubbell 
Humboldt 
Humphrey 
Huntley 
Hyannis 
Imperial 
Inavale 
Indianola 
Ingham 
Inland 
Inman 
Irwin 
Ithaca 
Jackson 
Jamison 
Jansen 
Johnson 
Johnstown 
Julian 
Juniata 
Kearney 
Keene 
Kenesaw 
Kennard 
Kennedy 
Keystone 
Kilgore 
liimbali 
Koshopah 
Kramer 
Lakeside 
Lamar 
Lanham 
Laurel 
Larvrence 
Lebanon 
Leigh 
Lemoyne 
Lena 
Leshara 
Lewellen 
Lemston 
Lexington 
Liberty 
LINCOLN 
Lindsay 
Linwood 
Llsco 
Litchfield 
, Lodgepole 
Logan 
Loma 
Long Pino 
Loomis 
Lorenzo 
Loretto 
Lorton 
Louls^-illo 
Loup City 
Lowell 
Lushton 
Lyman 


NEBRASKA — (Continued 


279 H 4 

Lvnch 

440 

F 2 

Oak 

131 

G 4 

Riverdale 

134 

B 

4 

374 E 4 

jvons 1,011 

H 3 

Oakdale 

502 

F 2 

Riverton 

348 

P 

4 

3 C 2 

Macon 

50 

E 4 

Oakland 

1,456 

H 3 

Riverview 


E 

2 

8 D 3 

Macy 

356 

H 2 

Obert 

91 

G 2 

Roca 

105 

H 

4 

398 D 4 

Madison 1,663 

G 3 

Oconto 

258 

E 3 

Rockville 

164 

P 

3 

4,381 E 4 

Madrid 

379 

C 4 

Ootavia 

103 

G 3 

Rogers 

113 

H 

3 

20 E 4 

Magnet 

115 

G 2 

OdeU 

420 

H 4 

Rohrs 

8 

J 

4 

110 H 4 

Malcolm 

93 

H 4 

Odessa 

132 

E 4 

Rosalie 

212 

H 

2 

187 E 4 

Malmo 

151 

H 3 

O' Fallons 

30 

D 3 

Roscoe 

95 

C 

3 

345 H 2 

Manley 

93 

H 4 

Ogallala 

3,456 

C 3 

Rose 

3 

E 

2 

859 H 3 

Mariaville 

3 

E 2 

Ohiowa 

253 

G4 

Roseland 

154 

F 

4 

12 F 3 

Marion 

100 

D 4 

Omaha 251,117 

J 3 

Rosemont 

42 

F 

4 

116 G 3 

Marquette 

218 

G 4 

O’Neill 

3,027 

F 2 

Royal 

157 

F 

2 

171 G 2 

Marsland 

84 

A 2 

Ong 

173 

G 4 

Rulo 

639 

J 

4 


Martinsburg 

79 

H 2 

Oraflno 

11 

D 4 

Rushville 

1,266 

B 

2 

167 F 3 

Martland 

10 

G 4 

Orchard 

458 

P 2 

Ruskin 

214 

G 

4 

75 J 4 

Mary 

5 

E 2 

Ord 

2,239 

F 3 

Sacramento 

7 

E 

4 

784 H 3 

Mascot 

48 

E 4 

Orella 

17 

A 2 

Saint Ann 

11 

D 

4 

145 H 2 

MaskeU 

84 

H 2 

Orleans 

956 

E 4 

Saint Edward 917 

G 

3 

199 G 4 

Mason City 

305 

E 3 

Osceola 

1,098 

G 3 

Saint Helena 

77 

G 

2 

1,404 J 4 

Max 

135 

C 4 

Oshkosh 

1,124 

B 3 

Saint Libory 

142 

P 

3 

761 G 3 

Maxweli 

347 

D 3 

Osmond 

732 

G 2 

Saint Mary 

56 

H 

4 

98 E 4 

Maywood 

409 

D 4 

Otoe 

230 

H 4 

Saint Michael 12 

F 

4 

432 C 3 

McCook 

7,678 

D 4 

Overton 

497 

E 4 

Saint Paul 

1,676 

F 

3 

1,563 C 4 

McCool Jet. 

297 

G 4 

Ovlna 

20 

P 4 

Salem 

341 

J 

4 

188 F 4 

McGrew 

105 

A 3 

Ovitt 

4 

E 2 

Santee 

175 

G 

2 

738 D 4 

McLean 

67 

G 2 

Oxford 

1,270 

E 4 

Sarben 

100 

C 

3 

21 D 4 

Mead 

388 

H 3 

Page 

275 

F 2 

Sargent 

818 

E 

3 

100 F 4 

Meadow Gr. 

461 

G 2 

Palisade 

694 

C 4 

SaronvUIe 

87 

G 

4 

237 F 2 

Meadville 

7 

E 2 

Palmer 

434 

F 3 

Schuyler 

2,883 

G 

3 

4 C 2 

Melbeta 

138 

A3 

Palmyra 

372 

H 4 

Scotia 

474 

F 

3 

140 H 3 

Melpha 

10 

C 2 

Panama 

168 

H 4 

Scottsbluff 12,858 

A 

3 

200 H 2 

Memphis 

92 

H 3 

Papillion 

1,034 

J 3 

Scribner 

913 

H 

3 

50 E 2 

Merna 

385 

E 3 

Parks 

150 

C 4 

Sedan 

10 

G 

4 

244 G 4 

Merriman 

260 

C 2 

Paul 

23 

J 4 

Seneca 

219 

D 

2 

262 J 4 

Middlebranch 2 

F 2 

Pauline 

70 

F 4 

Seward 

3,154 

H 

4 

109 D 2 

Milburn 

18 

E 3 

Pawnee City 

1,606 

H 4 

Shelby 

624 

G 

3 

123 J 4 

Milford 

951 

H 4 

Paxton 

606 

C 3 

Shelton 

1,032 

F 

4 

365 F 4 

Millard 

391 

H 3 

Pender 

1,167 

H 2 

Shlckley 

316 

G 

4 

12,115 B 4 

Miller 

179 

E 4 

Peru 

1,265 

J 4 

Sholes 

32 

G 

2 

6 F 4 

Milligan 

367 

G 4 

Petersburg 

508 

G 3 

Shubert 

295 

J 

4 

584 F 4 

MUls 

48 

E 2 

Phillips 

190 

F4 

Sidney 

4,912 

B 

3 

273 H3 

Mlnatare 

890 

A 3 

Pickrell 

161 

H 4 

Silver Creek 

444 

G 

3 

12 D 2 

Minden 

2,120 

P 4 

Pierce 

1,167 

G 2 

Simeon 

6 

D 

2 

55 C 3 

Mitchell 

2,101 

A 3 

Pilger 

512 

G 2 

Smithfield 

102 

E 

4 

189 D 2 

Monowi 

67 

F 2 

Plain view 

1,427 

G 2 

Snyder 

369 

H 

3 

2,048 A 3 

Monroe 

269 

G 3 

Platte Ctr. 

422 

G 3 

Somerset 


D 

4 

6 E 2 

Moorefield 

58 

D 4 

Plattsmouth 

4,874 

J 3 

South Bend 

100 

H 

4 

60 H 4 

Morrill 

849 

A 3 

Pleasant Dale 163 

G 4 

S. Sioux City 



175 B 2 

Morse Bluff 

142 

H 3 

Pleasant Hill 29 

G 4 


5,557 

H 

2 

81 C 4 

Mount Clare 

35 

F 4 

Pleasanton 

188 

E 4 

Spalding 

713 

P 

3 

75 H 4 

Mullen 

652 

C 2 

Plymouth 

348 

G 4 

Sparks 

5 

D 

2 

944 G 2 

Murdock 

225 

H 4 

Polk 

508 

G 3 

Spencer 

540 

P 

2 

376 F 4 

Murphy 

20 

P 4 

Ponca 

893 

H 2 

Sprague 

110 

H 

4 

213 D 4 

Murray 

244 

J 4 

Poole 

33 

F 4 

Springfield 

377 

H 

3 

551 G 3 

Mynard 

45 

J 4 

Posen (Farwell) 172 

P 3 

Springranch 

25 

F 

4 

29 C 3 

Nacora 


H 2 

Potter 

421 

A 3 

Springview 

298 

E 

2 

C 3 

Naper 

188 

E 2 

Powell 

70 

G 4 

Stamford 

265 

E 

4 

61 H 3 

Naponee 

391 

E 4 

Prague 

396 

H 3 

Stanton 

1,403 

G 

3 

510 B 3 

Nebr. City 

6,872 

J 4 

Preston 

81 

J 4 

Staplehurst 

224 

G 

4 

94 H 4 

Nehawka 

272 

H 4 

Primrose 

154 

P 3 

Stapleton 

363 

D 

3 

5,068 E 4 

Noligh 

1,822 

G 2 

Prosser 

81 

P 4 

Star 

5 

F 

2 

246 H 4 

Nelson 

806 

F 4 

Purdum 

21 

D 2 

Steele City 

214 

G 

4 

98,884 H 4 

Nemaha 

288 

J 4 

Rackett 

2 

B 3 

Steinauer 

141 

H 

4 

247 G 3 

Nenzel 

24 

C 2 

Raeville 

82 

P 3 

Stella 

324 

J 

4 

168 H3 

Newark 

30 

E 4 

Ragan 

102 

E 4 

Sterling 

547 

H 

4 

150 B 3 

Newcastle 

426 

H 2 

Ralston 

1,300 

J 3 

Stockham 

82 

F 

4 

337 E 3 

Newman Gr. 


Randolph 

1,029 

G 2 

Stockville 

181 

D 

4 

555 B 3 


1,004 

G 3 

Ravenna 

1,451 

P 4 

Strang 

100 

G 

4 

D 3 

Newport 

207 

E 2 

Raymond 

196 

H 4 

Stratton 

628 

C 

4 

50 G 3 

Nickerson 

140 

H 3 

Red Cloud 

1,744 

P 4 

Stromsburg 

1,231 

G 

3 

567 E 2 

Niobrara 

577 

G 2 

Red Willow 

10 

D 4 

Stuart 

785 

B 

2 

218 E 

Nonpareil 


A 2 

Redbird 

13 

P 2 

Sumner 

267 

B 

4 

40 A3 

Nora 

88 

G 4 

Redington 

18 

A 3 

Sunol 

120 

B 

3 

101 F 3 

Norden 

32 

D 2 

Republican 

City 


Superior 

3,227 

G 

4 

75 H i 

Norfolk 

11,335 

G 2 


580 

E 4 

Surprise 

120 

G 

3 

1,014 H a 

Norman 

68 

F 4 

Reynolds 

166 

G 4 

Sutherland 

856 

C 

3 

1,508 E a 

North Bend 

906 

H 3 

Richland 

141 

G 3 

Sutton 

1,353 

G 

4 

49 Pi 

North Loup 

526 

F 3 

Riford 


A 3 

Swan ton 

203 

H 

4 

60 G 4 

N. Platte 

15,433 

D 3 

Ringgold 

28 

D 3 

Swedeburg 

54 

H 

3 

660 A a 

Northport 

164 

B 3 

Rising City 

374 

G 3 

Sweetwater 

10 

E 

3 


Syracuse 
Table Rock 
Talmage 
Tamora 
Tamov 
Taylor 
Tecumseh 
Tekamah 
Terrytown 
Thayer 
Thedford 
Thune 
Thurston 
TUden 
Tobias 
Touhy 
Trenton 
Trumbull 
Tryon 
Uehling 
Ulysses 
Unadilla 
Union 
Upland 
Utica 
Valentine 
Valley 
Valparaiso 
Venango 
Venus 
Verdel 
Verdigre 
Verdon 
Verona 
Vesta 
Virginia 
"Waco 
Wahoo 
Wakefield 
Wallace 
Walnut 
WalthlU 
Walton 
Wann 
Washington 
Waterbury 
Waterloo 
Wauneta 
Wausa 
Waverly 
Wayne 
Wayside 


1,097 

513 

398 

91 

74 
311 

1,930 

1,914 

228 

90 

275 

12 

156 

1,033 

240 

39 

1,239 

150 

150 

250 
374 
216 
277 

251 
550 

2,700 

1,113 

392 

233 

10 

142. 

570 

366 

25 

75 
113 
180 

3,128 

1,027 

361 

25 

958 

81 

48 

55 

141 

382 

926 

708 

310 

3,595 

5 


leeping Water 

1,070 


Veissert 

Vellfleet 

Veils 

V. Lincoln 

Vest Point 

Vestem 

Vesterville 

Veston 

Vhiteclay 

Vhitman 

Vhitney 

Vilber 

Vilcox 

VUIow Isl. 

Vilsonville 

Vinnebago 

Vinnetoon 

Vlnside 

Vinslow 

Visner 

Volbach 

Vood Lake 

Vood River 

Vymore 

Vynot 

fork 

futan 


12 
93 
3 

426 

2,658 

434 

50 

345 

80 

180 

132 

1,356 

290 

88 

327 

084 

120 

454 

138 

1,233 

442 

238 

858 

2,258 

233 

6,178 

287 


114 

H4 

H4 

G4 

G3 

E3 

H4 

H3 

A3 

G4 

D3 

C3 

H2 

G2, 

G4 

H3 

D4 

F4 

C3 

H3 

G3 

H4 

J4 

F4 

G4 

D2 

H3 

H3 

C4 

F2 

F2 

F2 

J4 

G4 

H4 

H4 

G4 

H3 

H2 

04 

F2 

H2 

H4 

H3 

H3 

.H2 

H3 

04 

G2 

H4 

G2 

A2 

J4 
E3 
D4 
02 
H4 
H3 
G4 
E3 
H3 
B2 
02 
A2 
G4 
E4 
D4 
D4 
H2 
F2 
G2 
H3 
H3 
F3 
D2 
F 4 
H4 
G2 
G4 
H3 


1104] 



SCENES IN A PROGRESSIVE PRAIRIE STATE, 



1. Fine dairy herds graze on the prairie. 2. Agriculture is scientifically developed at the agricultural school of the University 
of Nebraska at Lincoln. 3. Corn is a leading crop of eastern Nebraska. 4. Large elevators at Fremont attest the importance 
of the wheat crop. 5. In the efficient packing houses of Omaha thousands of farm animals are processed daily. 6 . The fam- 
ous Boys Townforhomeless boys, near Omaha. 7. The capitol at Lmcoln symbolizes the state’s achievements. 


105 








NEBRASKA — 106 


There were wooded sections in some of the uplands. In 
1872 J. Sterling Morton of Nebraska City started Ar- 
bor Day (see Arbor Day). His home, Arbor Lodge, is 
now a state park. Because of his efforts and those of 
other planters the state now has many trees near 
farmhouses and city homes, and along roadways. 

Nebraska’s History 

Coronado probably reached the Nebraska region in 
his explorations in 1540—42. In 1739 the Mallet broth- 
ers and eight Frenchmen explored and named the 
Platte River, which they followed from its mouth on 
their way to Santa Fe, N. M, 

In 1803 Nebraska passed to the United States as 
part of the Louisiana Purchase (see Louisiana Pur- 
chase). Between 1810 and 1826 the American Fur 
Company established posts at Bellevue, Omaha, and 
Nebraska City. Bellevue, a little below Omaha, was 
Nebraska's first white settlement. From 1812 to 1821 
Nebraska was part of Missouri Territory; then it 
reverted to the public domain as “Indian country.” 

Breaking the federal law against entering Indian 
territory, squatters pushed in and set up farms on 
the land. More came and settled there. In 1854 Ne- 
braska and Kansas became territories, under Senator 
Douglas’ plan to let the settlers decide the slavery 
question (see Kansas-Nebraska Act). With the form- 
ing of the Dakota, Colorado, and Idaho territories, Ne- 
braska was reduced to about its present limits. In 1864 
Congress passed an enabling act to make Nebraska a 
state; but not until 1867 was a constitution framed 
and accepted by Congress (over President Johnson’s 
veto). Before the year ended, a dispute over the 
location of the capital was settled by choosing a site 
at Lancaster and renaming the place Lincoln. Teams 
hauled building material 40 miles or more to the site, 
and in 1869 the capital city was incorporated. 

Completion of the Union Pacific to the western 
state line in 1867 brought floods of immigrants, largely 
former Union soldiers. The grasshopper plague of 
1874-75 caused the constitution of 1875 (known as the 
“Grasshopper Constitution”) to be framed, with a 
view to economy. A war with the Sioux Indians 
during 1874-77 ended in the removal of the Indians 
from the state. The next great immigration period 
(1880-90) was marked by conflicts between cattle men 
and homesteaders. Droughts in 1890 and 1894 caused 
great suffering, and led to the introduction of irriga- 
tion and dry farming, -with cultivation of sugar beets, 
winter wheat, and alfalfa as staples. In 1900 the 
farmers established cooperative elevators to combat 
the charges of grain dealers and railroads. 

In 1919 the legislature made drastic changes in the 
state government, and in 1920 the voters approved 
extensive amendments to the state constitution. A 
1934 amendment provided for a legislature of one 
chamber, with 43 members. (See also chronology 
and government section in Nebraska Fact Summary.) 

Colleges and Cities of the Cornhusker State 

The University of Nebraska is at Lincoln and has 
a medical college and a nursing school at Omaha and 
a school of agriculture at Curtis. Its agronomy farm 


is at Havelock; a fruit farm at Union; and agricultural 
substations at North Platte, Scottsbluff, and Valen- 
tine. Other schools of higher learning include Creigh- 
ton University at Omaha, Nebraska Wesleyan 
University at Lincoln, and state teachers colleges at 
Chadron, Kearney, Peru, and Wayne. 

Omaha, the chief industrial center, and Lincoln, the 
capital, are in eastern Nebraska (see Omaha; Lincoln). 
Grand Island, in east-central Nebraska, is an im- 
portant division point on the Union Pacific Railroad. 
Hastings, to the south, is in the wheat belt. North 
Platte and Scottsbluff are leading cities of the western 
part of the state. Fremont, near Omaha, is in a rich 
farm area. (See also United States, sections “North 
Central Plains”, “Great Plains.”) 

Nebulae. When astronomers first explored the sky 
with telescopes they saw many patches of luminous 
mist or haze. They called such a patch a nebula, from 
the Latin word for “mist” or “small cloud.” Since 
the late 1800’s, scientists have learned much about 
the universe from these patches. 

For some centuries astronomers have recognized 
different types of nebulae. The nebula we see in the 
sword belt of Orion is diffused, appearing to be a 
chaotic, turbulent mass of glowing gas. Seine diffuse 
nebulae are more mistlike, or exist in wisps; the 
Pleiades are pervaded by such a nebula. The planetary 
type is a glowing ring, with or without a bright star 
at the center. Most remarkable of all in appearance 
are the spiral nebulae, with twisted arms reaching 
out from a glowing center. 

In 1864 William Huggins, using the newly invented 
spectroscope (see Spectrum and Spectroscope), found 
that some nebulae are Vast clouds of luminous gases. 
Later E. E. Barnard proved that the curious "dark 
spots ” or “holes ” in the Milky Way are dark nebulae, 
composed of matter which does not give off light- 
Then scientists found how to make the spectroscope 
reveal pressure and temperature conditions of heaven- 
ly bodies, as well as their chemical constitution. Dom 
this they could estimate how much light a nebula 
should give and so get a good clue to its distance 
from its brightness. _ , 

Soon hitherto undreamed of facts were discovered. 
The nebula in the Pleiades was found to be 220 
“light-years” away, and 30 “light-years” across. D 
understand what these figures mean, let us comps(® 
them with the dimensions of the solar system. Tms 
system is so immense that if the earth were the size 
of a pea, the planet Pluto would be at the edge of a 
circle 3j^ miles in diameter. The nearest star woul 
be 7,500 miles away. But the Pleiades nebula is so 
huge that it could contain not only the solar syste® 
and the nearest star, but many other stars as well- 

In the last few years we have learned that t o 
spiral nebulae are more amazing stiU. Scientists lia 
previously observed, that, while all other types ® 
nebula were to be found in the Milky Way, the spir 
type always was found outside. This fact and othei^ 
led scientists to believe that the stars are not dis- 
tributed uniformly throughout the universe, as 



NEGROES 



THE GREAT NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA into stars. So when we look at the nebula in 



This great mass of glowing gas, millions of miles across, is just visible to 
the naked eye as a fuzzy star in the girdle of Andromeda. The picture 
shows how it looks through a high-power telescope. 


Andromeda, we may be seeing an entire galaxy 
in process of creation. The other types of 
nebulae, it is thought, will in the course of 
stellar evolution condense into groups, or 
“clouds,” of stars within single galaxies. 

Nebulae are extraordinarily difficult to 
study, because only the largest telescopes can 
gather Hght enough to teU much about objects 
so far away. "^Mien we realize their colossal 
size, we can see why scientists find them so 
fascinating and why they make larger and 
better telescopes to study them. 

Needle. The modem steel needle is slim, 
highly polished, and tapered to a sharp point. 
The edges of the eye are rounded and the in- 
side ground smooth so that the thread will 
not catch or fray. By comparison, the needles 
of even a century ago were cmde. They were 
badly formed, one side flatter than the other, 
and the head considerably larger than the 
body. Yet even these were a great advance 
over the needles of primitive and ancient 
peoples. The earliest needles were made of 
fishbone, stone, iron, and bronze. Some had 
the eye in the point; some had it in the center 
of the shaft. Some had no eye at all; these 
were used to punch holes through which 
leather thongs or plant fibers were laced. 

Modem needle manufacture begins with 
cutting steel wire into pieces the length of two 
needles. The ends are ground to sharp points, 
and eyes are drilled side bj' side at the cen- 
ter of each length. Then the lengths are 
cut in half between the eyes. The heads are 


formerly supposed. Instead, they seem to be gathered filed into shape, and finally the needles are ground, 
into groups, so vast that the mind scarcely can con- polished, tempered, and packed into papers or boxes, 
ceive their size. These groups are called galaxies, or Hand sewing needles come in 12 sizes. Nos. 10 to 12, 
“island universes.” The earth and the solar system the finest, are used with thread of sizes 100 to 200 (see 


and all the stars the eye sees make up one galaxy, Thread). No. 9 needle takes sizes 80 to 100 thread; 
but there are thousands of others. No. 8 takes 70 to 90; No. t takes 60 to 80; No. 6 


After the first World War, astronomers began to 
find amazing facts about the place of the spiral 
nebulae among the galaxies. The size of the Pleiades 
nebula seems huge, yet it is only 30 light-years across. 
Our own galaxy is thousands of times greater. Its 
diameter is figured in scores of thousands of light- 
years. The spiral nebula in Andromeda is probably 
900,000 light-years away. The light by which we see 
it tonight started on its way so long ago that the 
span of time back to the Stone Age seems slight in 
comparison. Other spirals lie at similar distances. 

The pioneer in such studies was the astronomer La- 
place (see Laplace). In 1796 he advanced the nebu- 
lar hypothesis, which held that our solar system was 
a condensed nebula (see Planets). Nebulae of such 
size as to be msible 900,000 fight-years away_ are 
no mere solar sj^stems in the making. Each one is as 
large as an entire galaxy like our own. Moreover, 
each spiral nebula seems to be rotating and throwing 
off matter at its “rim.” This matter may condense 


takes 40 to 60; No. 5 takes 36 to 40; No. 4 takes 24 
to 36; and Nos. 1 to 3 are used with 8 to 24 thread. 
Other varieties of needles are for use on sendng 
machines and for hand sewing heavy materials. 
Negroes, American. From time to time in all 
parts of the world various racial, national, and re- 
ligious minorities have been limited in the rights, 
primleges, and opportunities accorded to others. 
Sometimes the limits were created for political or 
economic reasons; or they arose from the misunder- 
standings that can occur when physical differences in 
people or their different customs are easily seen. 
Sometimes the limitations resulted from firm and 
fervid religious beliefs; at other times they seemingly 
can be ascribed only to bigotry and prejudice. YTiat- 
ever the reasons, minority groups frequently have 
not been permitted to participate fully in the total 
fife of the countrj'. 

As a verj^ large and easily recognized minorit 3 ' 
group, Negroes in the United States have long been 



NEGROES 


108 


faced with limitations of their rights and opportuni- 
ties. Negro leaders and many white leaders have 
urged that these restrictions be lifted. Clearly evident 
progress has been made. Civil rights once denied the 
Negro are being granted; employment opportunities 
are constantly being extended; educational opportu- 
nities have been made increasingly available, with 
marked improvement in facilities for Negro education. 

American gains from these changes are equally 
clear. Many Negroes in the United States have made 
important contributions to national welfare. Many 
have achieved eminence. Negroes in the United States 
and the other Americas now fill important positions 
in the arts, sciences, education, entertainment, the 
professions, business, sports, and public service. Dr. 
Ralph J. Bunche, a high-ranking United Nations 
official, won the 1950 Nobel peace prize for his work 
as mediator in the 1948-49 Arab-Jewish disputes in 
Palestine (see Bunche). William H. Hastie, an attor- 
ney, became governor of the Virgin Islands and later 
a judge in the United States Court of Appeals. 
Marian Anderson and Dorothy Maynor received ex- 
ceptional acclaim as concert artists and Henry T. Bur- 
leigh as a composer and arranger. In literature W. E. 
B. Du Bois, Richard Wright, Gwendolyn Brooks, and 
Ralph Ellison won wide recognition. In painting 
and sculpture, Henry 0. Tanner, Archibald Motley, 
and Richmond Barthe were outstanding. Negro scien- 
tists such as Percy L. Julian and George Washington 
Carver made important contributions in chemistry, 
as did E. F. Frazier, Abram Harris, C. S. Johnson, 
and R. W. Logan in the social sciences (see Carver). 

The Negro Population of the Americas 

Negroes in the Americas are descendants of the 
Negro peoples of Africa (see Races of Mankind). The 
first Negroes in the American Colonies were 20 slaves 
brought to Virginia in 1619. Negroes were brought 
to this country in large numbers, mainly from the 
west coast of Africa, until the slave trade was for- 
bidden by constitutional provision in 1808. Some 
Negroes came in long after 1808. In the first federal 
census (1790) 757,000 Negroes were recorded. In 1808 
there were about 1,400,000 Negroes in the United 
States, and by the close of the Civil War, about 
4§ million. In 1790 more than 90 per cent of the 
Negro population lived in the South; this distribu- 
tion remained about the same until 1910. There- 
after Negroes became more widely dispersed. In 
1950 the Bureau of the Census estimated that less 
than 69 per cent of the Negro group lived in the South. 

At the time of the Emancipation Proclamation in 
1863, only about 10 per cent of the Negroes in the 
United States were free. Thus the great majority 
of American Negro slaves acquired freedom suddenly 
and at the same time. Most of the former slaves were 
unprepared for independence, and many white people 
were unable to accept the changed relationship. In 
addition, the disillusionment, confusion, and cor- 
ruption which follow any major war were part of 
American life during the Reconstruction period (see 
Civil War, American; Reconstruction Period), 


Many people of the Americas are of mixed racial 
ancestry, resulting from intermarriage of Negroes 
with white people, and in some countries with 
American Indians. In the United States, persons 
with any Negro ancestry are considered to belong 
to the Negro race. In some American countries, such 
as Brazil and Cuba, persons whose ancestry is main- 
ly Caucasoid are regarded as white. In the British 
West Indies a distinction is frequently made be- 
tween “black” and "colored" persons. 

The Brazilian government makes no official census 
count by race; hence estimates vary as to the pro- 
portion of the population which has some Negro an- 
cestry. About one third of the Brazilian people 
are Negro or Negro-white. The percentage of hk- 
groids is much higher in the West Indies countries; 
in some, the Negro group is overwhelmingly prepon- 
derant. The United States has about 15 million Ne- 
groes. They represent about one tenth of the total 
continental population. An estimated 60 to 75 per 
cent of these people have some degree of white an- 
cestry and a sizable number have some American 
Indian ancestry. 

Opportunities in Employment and Education 

Although employment policies of some companies 
and admission rules to some labor unions exclude Ne- 
groes, in the last few decades hundreds of thousands 
of Negroes have shifted from farm work or from per- 
sonal and domestic service to industrial work. Most 
industrial unions, as distinguished from trade unions, 
do not discriminate against Negroes. In the second 
World War a presidential executive order established 
a Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEFC). 
This was to eliminate employment discrimination by 
employers or labor organizations in defense indus- 
tries or government because of race, religion, or 
national origin. Federal FEPC was discontinued in 
1946, but, starting in 1945, 11 states passed similar 
fair employment legislation. The marked change 
since 1910 in the number of Negroes who live in cities, 
in both the North and the South, has resulted in new 
job opportunities. This increased urbanization has 
also given rise to many problems in schooling, hous- 
ing, and recreation. The gap between the average 
earning of whites and Negroes is slowly narrowing- 

Until after the Civil War no serious large-scale 
effort was made to educate Negroes. In fact, slavK 
were often forbidden by law to learn to read and 
write. Public and private schools for Negroes were 
started after the Civil War. The Freedmen’s Bureau 
provided government aid from 1865 to 1870. Hamp- 
ton Institute, opened 1868, was one of the first private 
schools for Negroes. From 1868 to 1954 a total ot 
20 states, mainly Southern, and the District of Cm 
lumbia operated separate public schools for Negroes. 
In 1954 the United States Supreme Court handed dou n 
a decision abolishing segregated schools. Attorneys 
for the states were permitted to appear before the 
court to argue the form of the non segregation orders. 

The number of Negro college students has in- 
creased considerably since 1930. In a 1950 case m- 




volving the admission of a Negro applicant to a state Gandhi’s idealization of the simple life and preferred 
university law school, the United States Supreme modern cotton mills to hand spinning. As prime min- 
Court refused to affirm the 54-year-old precedent ister he aimed to make India a democratic socialist 
that “separate but equal" facilities do not violate the nation, tolerant of all religions. He was returned to 
equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. In office in the national election of 1952. 
another case involving a graduate student at a state NELSON, Admiral Horatio (1758-1805). The most 
university, the Supreme Court held that restrictions famous of all British sea fighters was Viscount 
and special provisions handicapped him in effectively Nelson. His brilliant victories during the Napoleonic 
pursuing his instruction. wars put down the alarming threat of French naval 

Since 1948 three states — New York, New Jersey, power and saved England from invasion, 
and Massachusetts — have enacted fair educational Horatio Nelson was 
practices laws. Supreme Court decisions since 1946 bom in Norfolk in the 
have ruled against segregation on interstate buses, parish of Burnham- 
railroad passenger cars and dining cars, and in 1952 Thorpe, where his fa- 
against separate railroad cars and buses in intrastate ther was rector. He 
travel. entered the navy as a 

Negro people in the South, largely disfranchised midshipman at the age 
from about 1877 until the Supreme Court “white pri- of 12 . VTien war broke 
mary" decision of 1944, have voted in increasingly out with revolutionary 
larger numbers. An estimated I 5 million southern France (1793) he was 
Negroes voted in the 1952 elections and about 2 § given command of the 
million Negroes now vote in the North and West. 64-gun ship Agamem- 
The number of Negroes in appointive political posi- non, then in the Medi- 
tions, especially in the larger Northern cities, has terranean. He lost the 
increased considerably since 1930. sight in his right eye in 

Nehru (na'ru), Jawaharlal (bora 1889). For 20 the siege of Calvi, on 
years Nehru worked with Gandhi to free India from the island of Corsica, 

British rule. The two great leaders achieved their goal in 1794. A year later he lost his right arm during 
in 1947, when India became an independent nation an assault on Santa Cruz in the Canary Islands 
wathin the British Commonwealth. Nehru became The Battle of the Nile 

the first prime minister of the new India. As soon as Nelson had recovered, he was sent to 

Nehru was bom in Allahabad in 1889. His ancestors hunt out and destroy the fleet which escorted Napo- 

were Kashmiri who took the family name Nehru from leon’s invasion of Egypt. On Aug. 1 , 1798, he discov- 
their Delhi residence near a canal, or nahar. His father ered the French ships in one of the mouths of the Nile, 
was a wealthy lawyer. Vdien the boy was 15 he Aboukir Bay. “Vfiiere there is room for a French ship 
went to England. There pandit nehru swing at anchor,” he said, “there is room for an 

he studied at Harrow U ' .- ®Wp to sail.” So he boldly sent half his fleet 

and Cambridge. He re- r f narrow space between the French ships and 

turned to India in 1912 f the shore and then raked the enemy from both sides, 

and became a lawjmr This smashing victory of the Nile made Nelson the 

in Allahabad. hero of England. High honors were heaped upon him. 

Meeting Gandhi in - including his elevation to the peerage as a baron. 

1916, he soon became In 1801 Nelson won a notable victory over the Dan- 

absorbed in Gandhi’s ish fleet at Copenhagen. In the midst of the battle 

campaign for Indian ,, Nelson’s superior hoisted the recall signal to withdraw 

independence (see Gan- from action. Nelson put the telescope to his blind eye 

dhi). He joined the ^ really do not see the signal.” He thus 

Congress party and in ^ - ;/ 1, turned probable disaster into triumph. 

1929 became its leader. > Nelson’s Victory and Death at Trafalgar 

Between 1923 and 1945 V ( it t/L -..Li 1- .Hi A few months later Nelson was given command of 
he spent eight terms as He worked to free India ^d be- the Mediterranean fleet. He blockaded the French 

a political prisoner in minister. Toulon for 14 months. Then it slipped out. 

British jails. There he wrote his autobiography. Nelson chased it to the West Indies and back; laid 
‘Tow'ard Freedom’ (1935). Between prison terms siege to it and the allied Spanish fleet in the harbor of 
he traveled all over India winning popular support Cadiz; and finally brought them both to bay off Cape 

for Gandhi’s program of nonviolent resistance to Trafalgar (Oct. 21 , 1805). From his ship, the Ffctory, 

British rule. The masses revered him and called him he flew the signal that has ever since been Britain’s 
“Pandit” (the wise man). watchword: “England expects that every man will do 

The Pandit was equally at home in the cultures of his duty.” Nelson’s inspired tactics shattered the 

India and the West. From Western progress be drew enemy fleet. Of 33 warships, only 11 escaped. French 

what he believed wms best for India. He disliked naval powder was suddenly blotted out. 




NELSON 


110 


TSTiile the battle still raged, Nelson fell mortally 
wounded. His flag captain, Thomas Hardy, carried 
him below deck. Just before he died Nelson turned 
to his comrade and said, “ICiss me. Hardy.’' His last 
words were, 'T have done my duty, thank God.” 
Nepal (nS-pdl'). The small independent kingdom 
of Nepal is wedged between India and Tibet. It meas- 
ures 500 miles from east to west and from 90 to 140 
miles from north to south. 

The loftiest of the Himalayan ranges is on or near 
the border between Nepal and Tibet. Mount Everest, 
at this border’s eastern end, is the world’s highest 
mountain (see Everest). From this range the land 
drops to warm valleys in the south. The lowlands are 
mainly covered with swamp, jungle, and forest. On the 
land that can be farmed the people raise rice and other 
grains, vegetables, fruits, and flowers. The Nepalese 
are of Mongol and Hindu origin and their religion is 
a mixture of Buddhism and Hinduism. Thousands 
of shrines dot the country — white Buddhist mounds 
with painted eyes and richly carved Hindu temples. 

A Hindu ruling class has for centuries held po- 
litical power with the aid of the Gurkhas, a caste of 
famous fighting men. The king, whose capital is Kat- 
mandu, was for more than 100 years virtually a cap- 
tive of a line of hereditary prime ministers. A revo- 
lution in 1960 broke the ministers’ power and the 
king promised popular elections for 1954. 

Nepal long remained isolated. Great Britain estab- 
lished relations with the country in 1815 and re- 
cruited Gurkhas for its army. After the second 
World War, Nepal accepted Point Four aid from the 
United States and joined UNESCO in 1953. Area, 
54,000 square miles; population (1949 est.), 6,910,000. 
Neptune. In Roman mythology the name ISlep- 
tune is given to the Greek sea-god Poseidon. He is 
usually shown as a bearded man standing in a shell 


being drawn over the sea and holding a three-pronged 
spear, or trident (see Poseidon). 

An outer planet in our solar system is named Nep- 
tune. Its diameter is 3)^ times that of the earth. 
It is 30 times farther from the sun and is invisible 
except through a powerful telescope (see Planets). 
Nero, Emperor of Rome (a.d. 37-68). Lucius 
Domitius Ahenobarbus, known as Nero, was one of the 
worst rulers in history. Through the scheming of his 
mother, Agrippina, he became emperor when Claudius 
died in a.d. 54. A temperate and popular ruler at 
first, he soon turned to tryanny. He had his step- 
brother Britaimicus poisoned in a.d. 55 and four years 
later had his mother killed. He divorced and later 
put to death his wife Octavia and murdered Hs sec- 
ond wife, Poppaea, in a fit of rage. A third woman 
who refused to marry him was slain, as was the hus- 
band of a fourth woman he wanted to marry. Worst of 
all, he had his old tutor, the aged Seneca, put to 
death, suspecting him of plotting his overthrow. 

During his reign a fire destroyed two thirds of the 
city of Rome. Ik was rumored that Nero himself had 
started it and that, as he wmtched the fire, he recited 
verses on the burning of Troy while playing the 
Ijme (the “fiddle” of tradition). To divert suspicion, 
he blamed the Christians and ordered them pun- 
ished. This was the first major persecution under 
the Roman Empire. 

After the fire, Nero set about rebuilding the city 
and erected for himself a magnificent palace called 
the Golden House. Heavy taxation and misgovern- 
ment caused revolt. Rebellious troops under Galba, 
the Roman governor of Spain, marched on Rome and 
when Nero’s bodj’'guard joined them he fled to the 
country. Learning that a death sentence had been 
passed on him, he had an attendant stab him to 
death before he could be dragged to execution. 


How the NERVES Function in the HUMAN BODY 


lyrERVES. A human body operates as a smoothly 
4 ’ functioning unit because hundreds of “communi- 
cation lines” keep its various parts working together. 
These lines are the nerves, which run throughout the 
body. They vary in diameter from the thickness of 
thread to that of a lead pencil. Their length may be 
several feet or only a fraction of an inch. The brain, 
spinal cord, and nerves together make up the nervous 
system of the bodJ^ The brain and spinal cord com- 
prise the central nervous system, and the nerves make 
up the peripheral (“outer”) nervous system. 

Every nerve pathway, no matter how long, is con- 
nected at one end with the central nervous system. A 
nerve carries its messages {nerve impulses) in only one 
direction. Sensory ner\ms transmit impulses from body 
parts to the brain and spinal cord; they signal the 
central nervous system w^hen something is happening 
in or around the body. Motor nerves carry impulses 
from the central nervous sj'stem to parts of the 
body and bring about movements and adjustments of 
the muscles and glands. Nerves whose job is to control 


the internal organs, such as the heart, are known as 
autonomic (“self-governing”) nerves {see Brain). 

Structure and Arrangement of Nerves 
Nerves are much like cables; they are bundles o 
varying numbers of separate microscopic fibers. It 
these fibers that carry the nerve impulses. Man) 
different messages can travel through a nerve at one 
time because the nerve fibers are separate from one 
another. Some nerves {mixed nerves) have both moto 
and sensory fibers. In these, messages travel in bo i 
directions at the same time but on different fibn(®- . 

The entire nervous system is built of individua 
cells called neurons. The nerve fibers are long, threa 
like portions of neurons. Many fibers appear wm ® 
because they are covered -with a sheath of a fa 7 
material called myelin. Such fibers make up ® 
“white matter” of the nervous system. The g(n> 
matter” is composed of bare fibers and cell ^od' • 
Every neuron, as showm in a drawing on the oppos* 
page, has three main parts. The cell body carries o 
the functions for the neuron. It nourishes the neuro 



Ill 


NERVES 



COMMUNICATION 
SYSTEM OF THE 
BODY 


The nervous system co- 
ordinates all parts of the 
body. It consists of the 
brain and spinal cord 
(which form the central 
nervous system) and the 
peripheral nerves through- 
out the body. This figure 
shows the distribution of 
these nerves. 


and in peripheral nen^es maj^ even grow new fibers 
when the old ones are cut or torn. On one side of 
the cell body is the dendrite (in motor nerves there 
are several); this part of the neuron picks up im- 
pulses and transmits them as far as the cell body. 
From there, impulses are carried to their destina- 
tion by the part of the neuron called the axon. 

These three parts differ as to location and struc- 
ture in motor and sensory nerves. The cell bodies of 


motor neurons lie in the brain or spinal cord. Their 
dendrites are short, branching tendrils that pick up 
impulses from neurons of the central nervous system. 
Their axons are long, some of them (such as those to 
the hands and feet) tremendously so. 

The cell bodies of most sensory neurons are located 
close to the central nervous system but outside it. 
In many instances cell bodies of neurons sharing a 
similar function are gathered together in clusters 
known as ganglia (singular, ganglion). Examples are 
the spinal ganglia, which lie in two rows alongside 
the spinal cord. These gangha are focal points for 
incoming impulses and send them on to the spinal 
cord. Sensory impulses may originate in distant parts 
of the body, and so the dendrites of such neurons are 
very long and the axons relatively short. 

The autonomic nerves, like other nerves, are either 
motor or sensory. These nerves are further divided 
into parasympathetic and sympathetic types, depend- 
ing on what they do in controlling the internal organs. 
In most cases the two types have opposite effects on 
the various organs. For example, the sympathetic 
nerves make the heart beat faster and the parasympa- 
thetic slow it down. In general, the function of the 
sympathetic nerves is to adjust the internal organs 
when a person is ready for some heightened action, 
such as running or fighting. The parasjnmpathetic 
nerves, on the other hand, function when he is rest- 
ing or eating. The parasympathetic nerves join the 
spinal cord in the neck, or cervical, region and in the 
low back, or sacral, region. The sympathetic nerves 
join the cord between these two extremes — in the 
chest {thoracic) and middle back {lumbar) regions. 
The sympathetic nerves connect nuth the spinal cord 
after passing through their own ganglia {sympathetic 
chain) in the thoracic and lumbar regions. 

The Nerve Impulse and the Synapse 

Nerve fibers serve only to transmit nerve impulses. 
A nerve impulse travels along a neuron until it 
reaches the next neuron and the ne.xt and the nexi; un- 
til it finally arrives at its destination. 


THE STRUCTURE OF NERVE CELLS 



Nerve cells are called neurons. In peripheral nerves, every 
pathway connects at one end with a body cell and at the other 
with the spinal cord or brain. Sensory neurons like the one 
shown here (top) carry impulses from the outer parts of the 


body to the spinal cord. There other neurons relay the impulses 
to the brain, which interprets them as pain, heat, cold, and 
so on. Motor neurons then carry impulses from the central nerv- 
ous system to the muscles and glands, which in turn respond. 



NERVES 


112 


A nerve fiber at rest has a negative electric charge 
inside and a positive charge on its surface. When 
a nerve impulse starts, the wall of the neuron at 
that point loses its ability to keep the opposite charges 
separated, and the negative charge on the surface 
is temporarily lost at that spot. The affected part 
of the fiber wall, or membrane, is then said to be 
depolarized. Depolarization of this part of the mem- 
brane brings about depolarization in the next section, 
which in turn depolarizes the next portion, and so on 
along the neuron. This progression of the change 
in electrical charge along the. neuron is the nerve 
impulse. 

As soon as a nerve impulse has passed on its way, 
the fiber membrane regains its original polarity and 
is ready to pass along another nerve impulse. The 
time between passage of one impulse and the moment 
at which the fiber is ready for a second impulse is 
called the refractory period. During this time no 
impulse can be sent along that particular fiber. The 
length of the refractory period varies among fibers. 
Its duration determines how rapidly nerve impulses 
can follow one another. This repetition rate varies 
from ten to several hundred impulses a second. The 
transmission speed of the impulse also varies from 
fiber to fiber, ranging from only one foot a second 
up to as much as 300 feet a second. 

The place at which a nerve fiber transmits its im- 
pulse to a muscle, gland, or another neuron is called 
a synapse. It is not certain how the nerve impulse 
passes across a synapse, but both electrical and chem- 
ical processes seem to be involved. Nerve impulses 
can cross a synapse in only one direction, and thus 
nerve fibers are limited to “one-way traffic.” 

How Nerve Impulses Convey Information 
If the sensory impulses coming into the brain re- 
quire a bodily movement of a part — the forearm, for 
example— motor impulses are originated in the brain. 
These impulses are carried over motor nerves to mus- 
cles of the arm and cause them to contract (see Mus- 
cles). Muscles are composed of many individual mus- 
cle cells, each with its own nerve fiber. When a 
particularly strong movement is required, impulses 
are sent along a great many of these fibers, and hence 
more muscle cells are made to contract at once. If 
a faster movement is called for, impulses are sent 
in more rapid succession. 

The functioning of sensory nerve fibers is more 
complex than this. With our eyes we can see different 
shapes, different colors, different brightnesses; we 
can tell, just by looking at something, how far away 
it is. With our sense of hearing we can distinguish 
sounds of different pitch and loudness, and even 
with eyes shut we know from which direction a sound 
has come. Our senses of taste, smell, and touch can 
detect equally complex things. All this information 
has to be carried to the brain by our nerves. 

We will consider here only two types of sensory 
information: the intensity and the quality of sensa- 
tion. By intensity is meant the amount or quantity of 
what we sense. For vision, intensity refers to the 



SPINAL GANGLION 
SPINAL NERVE 


GRAY MATTER OF CORD 
, WHITE MATTER OF CORD 
POSTERIOR ROOT (SENSORY) 
SPINAL GANGLION 



* - 

TO MUSCLE I' I 

Sn ll lfeMl Interior ROOT (MOTOR) 

RIGHT SIDE OF CORD 

The so-called voluntary nervous system is 
upper brain, or cerebrum. This diagram shows pathways 
by sensory and motor impulses. These pathways cross at som 
level in the brain or spinal cord. Thus the left side or 
body is controlled by the right side of the brain. 

brightness or dimness of things we see; for hearmg, 
the loudness or softness of sounds we hear. T e 
quality of sensation, on the other hand, varies from 
sense to sense. For vision, quality refers to the colOT 
of things we see; for hearing, it means the pitch 
the highness or lowness — of a sound. The sense o 
touch also detects different qualities; by touching 
something we can tell whether it is cold, hot, pnm 
fully sharp, smooth, or rough. In the same 
can distinguish the different flavors or odors t a 
are the “quality” aspects of taste and smell. 

Intensity of sensation is handled by the nerves o 
all sense organs in much the same way. As a partic ^ 
lar sensation becomes more intense (because o 
light growing brighter, a sound louder, or a war 
object hotter) the nerve fibers involved send an 
creasing number of nerve impulses to the brain, 
nerve increases its number of impulses ^ 

sending them faster or by using more fibers. It 
not increase the size of the impulse, for a ner 
fiber at any particular time can send only one si 
of impulse or none at all. This rule concerni g 
nerve impulses is called the all-or-none law. 


I 



113 


NERVES 


Spinal Nerves 
and 

Vertebrae 


CERVICAL 


THORACIC 


LUMBAR 


SACRAL 



INVOLUNTARY NERVES OF THE INTERNAL ORGANS 


VAGUS GANGLION 
AND NERVE 
(PARASYMPATHETIC) 


SYMPATHETIC 
GANGLION CHAIN 


Chest cavity 


Diaphragm 


ABDOMINAL 

SYMPATHETIC 

GANGLION 


Abdominal cavity 


Pelvic cavity 

PELVIC NERVE 
(PARASYMPATHETIC) 


The autonomic nerves (shown at left in black) are controlled by 
the spinal cord and the lower centers of the brain. The syinpa- 
thetic nerves branch from the spinal nerves (shown in white). 
They form a chain of ganglia which gives off branches to the in- 
ternal organs. The parasympathetic vagus and pelvic nerves 
serve the same organs. 


The Spinal Cord and Its Branches 

SPINAL CORD- 


SPINAL CANAL 
SPINAL NERVE 



BODIES OF 
VERTEBRAE 
((rant 
of spine) 


NERVES ARE 
BUNDLES 
OF FIBERS 


SYMPATHETIC GANGLIOtT 
AND NERVE BRANCH 


Spinal nerves branch from the spinal cord between interlocking 
vertebrae, and sympathetic nerves in turn branch from them. A 
chain of sympathetic ganglia runs down each side of the spine. 


The quality of our sensations, on the other hand, 
is determined by which nerve fibers are carrjdng the 
nerve impulses. In the optic nerve, for example, 
certain fibers respond only to red light, others to blue, 
and still others to green light. According to the most 
widely held theory, yellow is signaled to the brain 
when the red and green fibers carry nerve impulses 
to the brain in equal number. All the colors that 
we see are signaled to the brain by varying propor- 
tions of these three types of nerve fibers. Sounds 
of various pitch are likewise carried by different sets 
of nerve fibers, and the other sensory nerve fibers 
are specialized in similar ways. Our brain is able to 
handle these differences in quality of sensation be- 
cause each type of fiber delivers its impulses to a 
different part of the brain (see Brain). 

Diseased and Damaged Nerves 

There are many causes of the improper functioning 
of nerves. For example, nerves may become inflamed 
and sore because of infection or inadequate diet. 
This condition is called neuritis. Malnutrition from 
any cause, ranging from poverty to alcoholism, can 
produce neuritis. When a person has neuritis, some 
or all of the nerves are sore, and it hurts to move 
or touch the skin over a nerve. 

Nerves may also be physically damaged bj’’ acci- 
dents of various sorts. When a nerve is cut, the nerve 


fibers cannot send their messages across the disrupted 
portion. The result of such injury depends on what 
fibers are damaged. If the)'" are motor fibers to a 
muscle, the muscle can no longer be moved; it is 
paralyzed. If they are sensory fibers (from an arm, 
for example) no sensations can be felt in the arm 
because sensory messages can no longer reach the 
brain. The arm is then said to be anesthetic. If the 
sensory fibers from the eye or ear are disrupted, 
blindness or deafness results. As long as such damage 
is restricted to the peripheral nerves, new fibers 
can grow in the old pathways. There may be no 
sensory or motor loss when regrowth is complete. 
Such nerve regeneration, however, does not take place 
in the spinal cord or brain; damage to these centers 
results in permanent loss of function. 

In the past the nerves have mistakenly been held 
responsible for various ailments and complaints. A 
“nervous” person, for example, was thought to have 
something vTong with his nerves. We know now that 
nervousness results from situations in daily life rather 
than from disease of the nerves themselves, though 
disease may be a part of the life situation that pro- 
duces nervousness. The more serious mental dis- 
turbance called neurosis was also blamed on the 
nerves, as the name indicates (see Brain). This is 
now known not to be the case. 




114 


NETHERLANDS 


The NATION that DROVE BACK the SEA 








*x ,) .-■- ;,:■: , •>^ ■• 

^>^s--• • -'~*v'V *Jj <» •' • 


Seen* from the airj the flat Dutch landscape shows an intricate pattern of innumerable fields marked off by drainage canals. 
This is a view across the drained area or polderland northwest of Amsterdam. 


N etherlands. For 
hundreds of years the 
sturdy, hard-working 
Dutch people have literally 
been building their little 
country, acre by acre and 
mile by mile, fighting back 
the tides and storms of the 
North Sea. This task of 
“keeping thedikes” has re- 
quired unflagging courage 


forced to retreat. Thou- 
sands of acres of land and 
.many towns were ruined. 

This country, which has 
made such a valiant strug- 
gle for its existence, covers 
about the same area as the 


and determination. It has 
also taken teamwork, for the Dutch soon found that 
only by working together could they succeed, not 
alone in reclaiming the land, but in building it into a 
fruitful and prosperous nation. This unity of purpose, 
aided by the fact that they are of one race with one 
language, has developed in them a strong national 
pride and independence. 

The Struggle to Create New Land 
Much of their land so patiently taken from the sea 
was flooded again during the second World War, when 
the Netherlands, or Holland, as the country is usually 
called, was conquered and occupied by the Germans. 
In the subsequent fighting, dikes and dams were 
destroyed, ■ in part by Allied bombs and artillery but 
more extensively by the Germans when they were 


Extent , — North to south, 210 miles; east to west, 120 miles. Land 
area, about 13,000 sq, mi. Population (1947 census), 9,625,499. 

Member of Netherlands-Indonesian Union, with Republic of In- 
donesia (once Dutch East Lidies). Overseas territories; Surinam 
(Dutch Guiana); Netherlands West Indies, Area of overseas ter- 
ritories, about 55,000 sq, mi.; population (1949 est.), 368,914. 

Natural Features . — Level surface, with almost all the coastal portion 
below sea level and protected by dikes and extensive drainage 
systems; mouths of Rhine, Maas (Meuse), and Scheldt rivers. 

Products.— Butter, cheese, and milk; flower bulbs, rye, oats, pota- v.- - 

toes, sugar beets, and wheat; herring and oysters; coal; cut dia- oiicotti 

monds, ships, textiles, flour, shoes, margarine, brick and tile, twO states of CODBeCwCUi' 

machinery, printed matter, cocoa, chocolate. , -. ^ i Tf, is 

Cities. (1947 census). — Amsterdam (capital, 803,847), Rotterdam MaSSacuU • 

(646,248), The Hague (seat of government, 532.998), Utrecht tucked into a small COrHw 

(185, 246), andHaarIem,Groningen,EindhoveD, Tilburg, Nijmegen, « :ii^ 4 .i,« cpn OH 

Enschede (over 100,000); Arnhem, Leyden, Breda (over 80,000). Of Europe, Wltll tilSSOU 

(For map of Netherlands, see Belgium.) HOrth and WCSt, Gcr- 

many on the east, and Belgium on the south. The 
two ends of its coast line are very ragged and deep y 
indented. The Frisian Islands form a low chain along 
the north coast, and in the southeast lies a group o 
delta islands, deposited by the principal rivers— -the 
Rhine, Maas (or Meuse), and Scheldt — and their 


many tributaries. , 

In the north, a large arm of the sea reaches aunos 
halfway across the country. This body of water 
was once known as the Zuider Zee, but by a remar 
able engineering feat the Dutch dammed the 
and transformed it into a great inland lake, fed by 
one of the branches of the Rhine. -Part of its bed was 
turned into dry land, and the surrounding waters 
were renamed Ijssel Lake. At the start of the 







NETHERLANDS 




tel 






.sf; V/rf-'J-iik.'i* — - 








B 4 ^:-^ 

“r»-?. « ■ — rr 

'~' -',— iC-VI •■' 


second Woild War, much A TYPI C AL DUTCH FARM 

of the land had been ; ., . 
drained. After the war, 

European Recovery Pro- ' ;> 

gram funds aided the ■ 

project, which is part of ■ , t- - 

a plan to add land to J . ■ ' -' ■ , 

this most densely popu- ± ■ 

There are about 825 per- >^i 

sons to the square mile. ■ ;//" ' '" ^ 

Except for the dunes 

^mnn^.oa ara Tvir.c+1ir V.a_ The house IB built of stoue and tile on the edge of a canal. The land is so low that the fields are 
piuviuces are moauiy utJ- moors, but the sturdy sheep manage to thrive on the coarse grasses. 

low sea level, and here 

are the richest farm lauds and most fertile gardens. The tinually made the shallow rivers overflow their banks, 
flatness is relieved by the silvery network of canals. Along the open coast, the sea itself had provided 
The rescuing of land from the sea began with the protection by piling up huge sand dunes, but the tidal 

efforts of the Dutch to control the tides that con- overflow from the rivers came in behind these 


CANALS THREAD THE LEVEL DUTCH COUNTRYSIDE 




in 




-.v: : 






The house is built of stone and tile on the edge of a canal. The land is so low that the fields are 
moors, but the sturdy sheep manage to thrive on the coarse grasses. 







^ 

The heart of Rotterdam looked like this before German planes bombed about two square miles of it into ruins in 1940. Among 
the few buildings that remained was the ISth-century Groote Kerk (“great church”), which rises in the background. Standing at 
the mouth of the Rhine, Rotterdam is a great port. Canals wind among and under its streets. 

dunes and turned the land into salt marshes. So the polders into the drainage canals. Many of the wind- 
people first built dikes along the river banks to hold mills are still used, although much of the pumping is 

back the water. When the water could not be held now done by electricity, steam, and gasoline, 

back, it was channeled into canals, and these too were A Damp but Moderate Climate 

flanked by dikes. In earlier days the sea would break The climate of the Netherlands is generally damp, 
through the coastal dunes and flood towns and farms, with about 200 days of the year that are more or less 
and drown thousands of people. Most of the sea walls rainy or foggy. Yet the total rainfall is not excessive-y 

are now concrete, some of them wide enough to carry about 28 inches annually. While the weather is 

railroads and highways. They wooden shoes and sturdy garb changeable, it does not run to 

withstand the angry storms much extremes of heat and cold. Winter 

more efficiently, but still require temperatures are moderated by 

constant care and vigilance. The southwest winds that prevail 

river dikes are usually built of ' ^^°m September to March, and 

clay, and have wiry grasses and summer heat in turn is moder- 

scrubby trees planted along the ated by sea breezes from the north- 

tops. Their roots hold the clay to- west. The canals and rivers in the 

gether and strengthen it. The rise ^ western half of the country are 

and fall of the tides in the rivers likely to remain open most of the 

are now controlled by dams, winter, those in the eastern half 

sluices, and locks. usually freeze over. 

After the dikes were built, the Mk: More Waterways than Highway® 
rich soil deposited by the water J The canals and rivers are used 

had to be drained to form the \ by the Dutch as we use our 

polders, as the reclaimed areas p Wlf l\ ' \ streets and highways. In fact, 

are called. So the ingenious I- ’ - \ they have about 4,500 miles of 

Dutch started a series of con- | navigable waterways, and only 

necting ditches that have grown flAk V ^1'.' about 3,000 miles of roads. The 

into a network of smaller canals W roads, except in some of the larger 

that cross and recross the entire cities, are built of bricks, and are 

countiy. Thousands of windmills ^ xigid narrow and crowded. 

were put up and the strong wind have^.ionai hoii- a’'® S 

irom the sea lurnishea the power day caps for womes and girls. These young- privately owned automobuGS, eui 
for pumping the water out of the ‘''®nMr“Amste?dam. voiendam, thousands of bicycles, which are 


mt: V.’|£ 




VarioUB Dutch districts have traditional holi- 
day caps for -women and girls. These young- 
sters -wear the “ear bonnets” of Voiendam, 
near Amsterdam. 


polders into the drainage canals. Many of the wind- 
mills are still used, although much of the pumping is 
now done by electricity, steam, and gasoline. 

A Damp but Moderate Climate 
The climate of the Netherlands is generally damp, 
with about 200 days of the year that are more or less 
rainy or foggy. Yet the total rainfall is not excessive-y 
about 28 inches annually. While the weather is 

D STURDY GARB changeable, it does not ™ 
jjk extremes of heat and cold. Winter 

^ temperatures are moderated by 

S' southwest winds that prevail 

from September to March, and 
summer heat in turn is moder- 
c-ted by sea breezes from the north- 
west. The canals and rivers in the 
western half of the country are 
likely to remain open most of the 
winter, those in the eastern half 
usually freeze over. 

\ ^ \ More Waterways than Highways 

r^' \ The canals and rivers are used 

Mg .vi ” \ by the Dutch as we use our 
A streets and highways. In fact, 
•; ’ - \ they have about 4,500 miles of 
\ navigable waterways, and only 
id iMwiiOifl'' ^bout 3,000 miles of roads. The 
roads, except in some of the larger 
a cities, are built of bricks, and are 

narrow and crowded. 

7^,. , . There are comparatively fev 

ave fradilional holi- . , , ^ u'inc lint 

girls. These young- privately OWned autOmODlies, UU 

,ne.8”_of Voiendam, thousands of bicycles, which are 


.3 ; 




117 


NETHERLANDS 


popular because they do 
not require gasoline to 
run them, and gasoline 
is scarce and expensive 
in the Netherlands. 
There are many busses, 
and even a few vegetable 
carts drawn by dogs, al- 
though these -quaint ve- 
hicles are not so com- 
mon a sight as they were 
a few years ago. Holland 
has many miles of tram- 
ways, somewhat more 
than its 2,300 miles of 
railway lines. But most 
of its freight is carried 
on the canals which 
crisscross many of the 
big cities as well as the 
countryside. 

These waterways not 
only connect all Hol- 
land, but give it access 


TWO DUTCH PR 9 P U C T S B OUGHT B T H E W O'^'D^ 





MO 














f \ ■ 




» 






r ^ i ■■ 





A*.r^\ ../{.I* ♦! 


V ^ ' w: 

\~~. W '-r"^' ~- '' '.-'^r''.-' --*S .Xr '‘ - - ‘v.' , 

Here at Alkmaar, the “cheese city” in North Holland, these men 
are loading halls of Edam cheese for export from Amsterdam. 
They roU the cheeses from the rocker handbarrows down the 
trough into the boat. In the lower picture, a flower grower picks 
tulips for market. Many blooms go by airplane to cities through- 
out Europe. Tons of bulbs are shipped to America. 




herring the chief source of revenue. This industry 
has been greatly reduced in the last two centuries 
by wars and competition from more favorably situated 
countries. But there are still many fishing tdllages 
on the islands and along the coast, and it is there 
that the customs and quaint dress of old-time Holland 
have persisted the longest. 

For years the Dutch had to import all fuel for their 
factories and cut peat to heat their homes. Then 
discovery of coal in Dmburg proidnce made them 


to the neighboring countries of Belgium and Ger- 
many. Great, flat barges loaded down with merchan- 
dise poke up and do-wn, helping to carry on the coim- 
try’s trade. Passenger boats of all types scurry about, 
taking people on their errands of business or pleasure. 

Commerce and Industries^ 

Its favorable location on the sea and its easy access 
to neighboring countries, together -with the industry 
and good management of the people, combined to 
make the Netherlands one of the most important 
trading nations of the world. To carry the rich procN 
ucts from its huge colonies in the East Indies and 
from Surinam (Dutch Guiana) in South America, the 
nation built one of the largest merchant fleets afloat. 
This made it an influential factor in international ^ 
lations before the second World War. Among the 
most important colonial exports were sugar, rubber, 
oil, tobacco, and spices. 

For several centuries fisheries were among the most 
important Dutch industries, -with fresh and salted 


partly self-sufficient. The government operates most 
of the coal mines. After the second World War petro- 
leum was discovered at Schoonebeek near the German 
border. The wells pump an increasing supply of oil. 

The countr}’^ is highly industrialized. Textiles, 
ships, electrical equipment, machinei-y, tools, shoes, 
rubber goods, and foods are among the important prod- 
ucts. Tile, brick, and pottery are made from the 
abundant clay, but many raw materials are imported. 

How the People Live 

Thri-vdng industry and commerce have attracted 
most of the Dutch to the cities. But about one-sixth 
of the working people make a li-vdng farming the 
crowded, hard-won land. Using scientific methods, 
they raise larger crops to the acre than most farmers. 

They take excellent care of the dairy cows, keep- 
ing them scrubbed and spotless. The brick bams are 
usually lined with tile and are equipped vdth the 
latest improvements that the dairy industry and gov- 
ernment experiments can offer. On some of the older 



NETHERLANDS 


118 


A MODERN STEEL PLANT LOOMS ABOVE THE CANAL 



f iorted raw materials. At the steel plant above, barges have brought iron ore and coking coal to be un- 
oaded by the giant treilis-Uke cranes in the background. The Dutch export considerable quantities of 
finished metal. Other major industries Include shipbuilding and the manufacture of radios and brick. 
Developed largely since the first World War, industry employs over a third of the Dutch. 


farms, the barn is actually part of the house, and is 
as well cared for as the living quarters. The herds 
graze on the higher land that is not sufficiently 
fertile for farming or on some of the polders that 
cannot be drained dry enough for raising crops, Hol- 
land's cheeses have a world-wide reputation, espe- 


cially the two that are 
named for cities— the 
bright red, round 
Edam and the Gouda. 

Where the land is 
fertile, virtually eveiy 
inch is utilized in rais- 
ing grains, vegetables, 
or flowers. The amount 
produced on these 
small farms, which av- 
erage about two acres, 
is amazing, but it is 
not nearly enough to 
feed the whole popu- 
lation, and much of 
their food has to be 
imported. Rye is the 
largest of the grain 
crops, but the Dutch 
farmer also grows oats, 
barley, flax, sugar beets, 
and potatoes. 

For over three hun- 
dred years the Dutch 
have been experiment- 
ing with fine varieties 
of tulip, hyacinth, 
daffodil, iris, and 
gladiolus bulbs, which 
flourish in the mild, 
moist climate. They 
ship bulbs all over 
the world and send flowers to European cities. Sales 
may amount to 30 million dollars or more in a year. 
Houses and Family Life 

Since land is scarce and valuable, the farmers 
houses are usually small and city people live in apart- 
ments. Steep tile roofs drain off the rain, and walls 

are of brick, as wood is 
very scarce. They are 
often gaily painted, 
and the roofs tiled in 
lively colors or pic- 
turesquely thatched. 
There is always a trim, 
carefully tended little 
garden, with rows of 
plants so neat and 
straight they scarcely 
look real. Those that 
stand on a canal may 
face a pretty rustic 
bridge, with a boat, 
instead of an auto- 
mobile, parked near 

At the door when the 
family is at home liK 
a row of large ana 
small wooden shoes, for 


PUMPING BACK THE ZUIDER ZEE TO MAKE LAND 



Behind the grass-grown dike stands this white modern pumping station at Lely, near Enkhuizen. Day 
and night Us turbines drive back the seeping waters of the Zuider Zee (Ijssel Lake), at right. 



119 NETHERLANDS 


HOLLAND CONTINUES ITS STRUGGLE AGAINST THE SEA 



For centuries Holland has been patiently pushing back the waters that cover valuable land. One of the greatest tasks has been to 
drain the Zuider Zee, an immense flood which swept inland more than five hundred years ago. Now with the aid of modern ma- 
chinery, the end of this long battle is in sight. Here is a view of a part of the great project begun in 1920 to reclaim SSO.OOO acres of 
rich farming land. The plan was conceived by C. Lely, a young engineer who became minister of public works. 


the thrifty Dutch know that leather shoes would have 
a very short life in their damp fields. Indoors the 
shining copper pots reflect a warm glow from their 
polished sides, the tiled floors gleam, and the linens 
and cottons are snowy white. The Dutch housewife is 
as capable in her home as her husband is in outside 
affairs. Every member of the 
family who is old enough has 
his responsibilities and takes 
them seriously. This is the 
national tradition. 

^^Tien the canals freeze over, 
and the ice is thick enough to 
be safe, it is not unusual to 
see all the members of the fam- 
ily putting on their skates, 
and gliding away over the ca- 
nals to call on friends or make 
a hoUday in a near-by city. 

Stores and schools close, for 
skating is the most beloved 
sport of the Netherlands. 

Children are taught when they 
are four years old, and grand- 
father and grandmother too 
join in the fun. 

Except for their first skat- 
ing daj^ and the Christmas 


REMINDERS OF OLD DAYS 



Seated on the turfed dike, a sturdy grandfather 
tells how windmills help to keep back the sea. 


and the Saint Nicholas celebrations,’ the Dutch chil- 
dren have very few holidays to keep them away from 
school (see also Christinas). 

The Character of the Cities 
The Dutch cities are an interesting combination of 
old and new, but the older buildings are usually well- 
kept and repaired. Modem 
architecture of the most practi- 
cal type is in general use for 
factories and office buildings. 
Some are built of glass, but 
the majority are of vari- 
colored brick. 

City dwellings are modem 
for the most part, but every 
now and then an old house that 
has weathered storms and wars 
for hundreds of years lends a 
pleasing contrast to the scene. 
Some of the houses in the Low 
Country are built on piles, as 
the ground is not solid enough 
for ordinary foundations. 

The government of the Neth- 
erlands is much interested in 
large-scale housing projects 
and has erected many of them 
in and near the bigger cities. 






120 


NETHERLANDS 

Slum districts and abject poverty were ^^rtually un- 
known in the years before the second World War. 

Among the most picturesque examples of historic 
architecture are the old town halls, the market 
buildings, and the weighing stations for cheese, where 
the farmers bring their wares on market days. Almost 
every product of the country’s soil and labor comes 
to these busy centers. Some of the Lowlanders still 
wear their native costumes on market days, the wo- 


men in their wide, billowing skirts, and tight fitting 
little caps with flaring “ears,” and the men in their 
full-topped trousers and little round hats. But in 
most parts of the country the colorful peasant cos- 
tumes are disappearing. 

While the transportation system has made it pos- 
sible for the cities of the Netherlands to be scattered 
throughout the country, the five largest ones are 
clustered in the area between the delta islands and 
Ijssel Lake. Here are Amsterdam, the capital and 
financial center; Rotterdam, the largest seaport; 
The Hague, which is the seat of the government and 
the former meeting place of the World Court; Utrecht, 
with its many spires and bridges, famous as a center 
of art and education; and Haarlem, the colorful heart 
of the flower and bulb industry. Within a distance of 
40 miles from Rotterdam by canal are Delft, once 
famous for the lovely pottery and tiles made there, 
and Leyden, which William the Silent rewarded for 
its bravery under the Spanish siege of 1574. 

Education and Art 

The standards of education in the Netherlands are 
among the highest in the world, and illiteracy is 
almost unknown. In the higher grades and high school 


years, the children study English, French, and Ger- 
man, in addition to the usual subjects. The univer- 
sities in Groningen, Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Leyden 
have flourished since the 17th century, and have al- 
ways been noted for their progressive scholarship 
The Royal Polytechnic School is at Delft. 

There are many fine art galleries in both the large 
and small cities of the Netherlands. They reflect the 
proud history of Dutch art. Rembrandt was a prod- 
uct of the . “Golden 
Age” of the Netherlands 
and many of his finest 
paintings remain. 
Frans Hals was of the 
same period, and most of 
his canvases are in the 
museum at Haarlem, 
where he lived and died. 
The tranquil charms of 
the Dutch landscape in- 
spired Van Goyen, the 
Ruysdaels, and Hobbe- 
ma. Jan Steen and Jan 
Vermeer painted in- 
terior scenes, depicting 
the Dutch homes and life 
of their time. Pastoral 
scenes and farm life were 
immortalized by Israels 
and Paul Potter, The 
outstanding modern 
Dutch painter was the 
imhappy Van Gogh. {See 
aho Painting.) 

Dutch writers are not 
so well known, ow'ing in 
part to the difficulties of 
the language, but out of the past the names of some 
great scholars survive, such as Erasmus the hiunanist, 
Grotius the famous jurist, and Spinoza the philosopher. 

Early History of the Netherlands 
During the Middle Ages the Low Countries, com- 
prising the two countries now' known as Belgium and 
Holland, w'ere divided into small states, duchies, and 
counties, each separately ruled and each constantly 
at w'ar with its neighbors. 

The powerful Burgundian duke, Philip the Bold, 
finall 3 ' got control of them in 1384, and he and his 
successors consolidated the states into a strong unit- 
When Charles the Bold of Burgundy was killed, in 
1477, his only child, a daughter, inherited the duke- 
dom. She married Maximilian of Austria, a member of 
the great Hapsburg family, and for many years there- 
after the Hapsburgs controlled the Low Countries.^ 
In 1555, when the Hapsburg emperor, Charles 1 , 
abdicated, Philip II of Spain became ruler of the 
Netherlands. He was born in Spain, and scorned the 
Low' Countries, never even troubling to learn their lan- 
guage. The Protestant Reformation had gained many 
adherents there by that time, and he determined to 
stamp them out. He sent the Duke of Alva with an 


RUSH TRAFFIC ON A DUTCH BOULEVARD 



Dutch use few automobiles. Men and women pedal to work on inspected, re^stered cycles. 



NETHERLANDS 


army to crash the Reformists. 

His persecutions reached their 
climax in the terrible Council of 
Blood. Thousands fled to Ger- 
many and England to escape 
torture and death. 

Armed revolts were quickly 
quelled until in 1568 the rebels 
won help from William the Si- 
lent, Prince of Orange, who was 
German born but had posses- 
sions in the Netherlands (see 
William the Silent). His fleet 
of privateers (Beggars of the 
Sea) sank many Spanish ships, 
captured the cities at the mouth 
of the Maas and the Scheldt 
rivers, and drove the Spaniards 
out of that part of the country. 

In 1579 the Protestant states 
formed the Union of Utrecht 
(thenceforth called the United 
Provinces, or Dutch Netherlands), and declared them- 
selves independent in 1581. For helping to achieve 
this unity, William was called the “father of his coun- 
try.” The Low Coimtries to the south remained 
Catholic and still belonged to Spain (see Belgium). 
After a struggle led by William’s successor, Jan van 
Olden Bameveldt, and by William’s son. Prince 
Maurice, the United Provinces forced Spain in 1609 
to sign a trace that virtually recognized their inde- 
pendence. Formal recognition was delayed until the 
Treaty of Munster in 1648. 

In the first half of the 17th century, the United 
Provinces grew in wealth and power. They possessed 
the largest merchant fleet in the world, and they 
started to acquire the rich colonies which ultimately 
made the Dutch one of the world’s colonial powers 
(see East Indies). England had yet to build up its 
manufacturing trade, 

Germany was at war, 
and Spain was fast de- 
clining; so the Dutch 
rapidly became 
a leading power. 

This was indeed the 
“Golden Age” for the 
Netherlands in 
wealth, art, and com- 
merce. 

War with Its 
Neighbors 

Meanwhile the 
anti-Orangists had 
ousted the House of 
Orange, and in 1653 
had made Jan de Witt, 
one of the greatest 
statesmen of the time. 

Pensionary of Hol- 
land. His first task 


was to fight the English who had 
begun to realize that they had a 
serious rival on the sea and who 
had started a naval war in 1652. 
The fighting was in two periods 
(1652-54 and 1665-67). In the 
first period, memorable engage- 
ments were fought betw'een the 
Dutch admiral, Martin H. 
Tromp, and the English admiral, 
Robert Blake (see Blake). In 
the second period, the Dutch 
admiral Michael A. de Ruyter 
sailed up the Thames and bom- 
barded London in 1667. But 
while De Witt was building up a 
navy he neglected the land force, 
and King Louis XFF of France 
promptly invaded the Nether- 
lands. In this desperate situa- 
tion, the Dutch recalled young 
Prince William III of Orange. 
He took command of the army and drove out the 
French, This prince w'as a bom strategist and a de- 
voted patriot. He brought about peace with England 
in 1674 and with France in 1678. In 1677 he had 
married Mary, daughter of King James II of England, 
and later became king of England as WiUiam III when 
James was dethroned (see William, Kings of England). 

Under the Temporary Rule of France 

After the death of William in 1702, the United 
Provinces declined. In 1747 the ofiice of stadholder, 
or governor, w'as made hereditary to the House of 
Orange. The people were dissatisfied with their ruler, 
William V, and helped the French . Revolutionary 
armies that invaded the provinces in 1797. Tire French 
overthrew the House of Orange, and made the coimtry 
a republic. When Napoleon became emperor, however, 
he made the Low^ Countries part of his empire. 

After Napoleon’s 
defeat, the Con- 
gress of Vienna 
reinstated the House 
of Orange and tried 
to make one nation of 
the northern and 
southern Low Coun- 
tries. The Prince of 
Orange was crowmed 
King William I in 
1815. Fifteen years 
later the southern 
provinces rebelled 
and set up the new 
kingdom of Belgium 
(see Belgium). From 
kings William II and 
III of Orange, the 
people of the Nether- 
lands now demanded 
many rights of self- 


121 

AFTER NAZIS LET IN THE SEA 



A German sentry scans Dutch farmland flooded 
and ruined when the Nazi army opened the dikes 
to slow the advance of the Allied invaders. 



WUhelmina, Queen of the Netherlands for SO years, reads one of her last 
addresses from the throne. In 1948 she abdicated in favor of Juliana. 




government. As a result, the Netherlands became a 
true constitutional monarchy, with an elected parlia- 
ment to make its laws. 

William III ruled from 1849 to 1890 and was suc- 
ceeded by his daughter, Wilhelmina. Her only child, 
Crown Princess Juliana, married the German Prince 
Bernhard zu Lippe-Biesterfeld in 1937. 

The Netherlands and the World Wars 
During the first World War, the Dutch succeeded in 
remaining neutral, although they lost their foreign 
trade and suffered from food shortages. But on May 10, 
1940, the Germans attacked them without warn- 
ing, landing paratroopers and bombing the cities. The 
Nazi fifth column movement paralyzed resistance, and 
the Netherlands surrendered in five days. Queen Wil- 
helmina, with the rest of the royal family and the 
cabinet, escaped and set up a government in London. 

The Nazis all but starved the people and carried 
many away to slave labor camps in Germany. The 
Dutch Underground resisted stubbornly by sabotage 
and reprisals. Some vessels of the Dutch navy es- 
caped and helped to patrol the Allied supply lines. 
In 1942 Japan seized the Netherlands rich tropical 
island empire of the East Indies. 

The liberation of the Netherlands began in Septem- 
ber l944 when the Allies drove the Nazis from the 
southern borders. Nazi forces held the lower Rhine 
until M4y 4, 1945, cutting dikes to slow the Allied 
advance The sea water ruined vast tracts of Dutch 
farmlan( 1. (See also World War, Second.) 

Wilhelmina returned to the throne. The Dutch 
quickly rfetored their battered cities and flooded 
lands; but 'they lost control of much of their East 
Indies empire in Indonesian revolts in 1945-48. In 
1948 Queen Wilhelmina abdicated in favor of Juliana. 

In 1949 the Netherlands recognized the East Indies 
as an independent nation, which became the Republic 
of Indonesia in 1950 (see East Indies; Indonesia). 
The Indonesians and Dutch formed a Netherlands- 
Indonesian Union. At home, the Dutch government 
began an industrialization program to help employ the 
fast-growing population. The Dutch also contributed 
to NATO for the defense of Europe and sent combat 
troops to the United Nations forces in Korea. In 
1952 Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard visited the 
United States, where Juliana addressed Congress. 
y' On the night of January 31-February 1, 1953, dis- 
aster struck the Netherlands. Its old enemy the sea, 
driven at high tide by a hurricane, smashed through 
the dikes at some 150 places in the southwest and even 
poured up the Maas estuary. The North Sea flooded 
about 1,000 square miles and took over 1,500 lives. 
The Dutch determinedly drained their flooded lands 
and removed the salt from the fields. They had 
given up American economic aid, but the flood dam- 
age forced them to get a renewal for 1953. The govern- 
ment, in 1954, planned giant new dams and sea walls. 

In 1954 the Netherlands became the first nation to 
ratify the European Defense Community. Turning 
aside Russian protests, the Netherlands also assigned 
Dutch fields to American Air Force units of NATO. 


NORTH SEA FURY STRIKES HOLLAND 



The wind-lashed North Sea burst dikes on a winter night in 
1953, flooding lands the Dutch had worked 700 years to maRe. 









le the flood presses near, civilians and Dutch L, 
;gle to brace the dikes with timber, bricks, eM . • 

, stacked in layers. American planes brought m mai 



123 


NETHERLANDS 


REFERENCE-OUTLINE FOR THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM 


Location and size N-114, B-110: location in world, map 

W-204-5; in Europe, maps E-416, 424-5, B-111 

THE NETHERLANDS 

I. Land structure and climate N-114, 115, 116, map 
B-111: Rhine River R-133; Meuse (Maas) River 
M-185; Scheldt River S-56 

II. Overseas territories: Surinam (Dutch Guiana) 
G-223; Netherlands West Indies (Curagao) (Fact- 
Index) 

III. Netherlands-Indonesian Union E-209. See also in 
Fact^Index Indonesia, Republic of; Borneo; Cele- 
bes; Java; Sumatra 

IV. People N-114, pictures P-142c, N-116: farm life 
N-117-19, pictures N-115, E-418; city life N-119-20; 
holidays (Christmas) C-2946 

V. Resources and industries N-117, list N-114 

A. Land reclamation and agriculture N-117-18, 
pictures N-114, 115, E-418, 1-253 

B. Manufacturing N-117, A-237, R-235, U-420, 
picture N-118: diamond cutting D-78, A-237 

VI. Transportation and trade N-116-17, R-235, picture 
N-115. See also Trade, table in FacGIndex 

VII. Principal cities N-120, list N-114: Amsterdam 
A-237; Haarlem 11-239; The Hague H-241; Rotter- 
dam R-235, picture N-116; Utrecht U-420. See also 
names of cities in Fac1>Index 

VIII. Education and the arts N-120: pottery (delft) 
P-3966; painting P-256-c, 21 d, 29-296, color pictures 
P-25d, 29-296 (Hals H-250, Rembrandt R-101). 
See also the Reference-Outline for Painting 

IX. Science: Huygens and Leeuwenhoek (Fact-Index) 

X. Government N-122, picture N-121 

XI. History N-120-2, B-115, L-354 

A. The Middle Ages N-120: Charles the Bold C-195 

B. Renaissance and Reformation R-103-8, R-91-3: 
Erasmus, picture R-106; Spanish rule E-432 
(Charles V C-189-90, Philip II P-19i) 

C. Struggle for independence N-120-1: William of 
Orange W-139; siege of Haarlem H-239 

D. United Provinces (Protestant Netherlands) sep- 
arate from Catholic Belgium N-121, B-115 

E. Spice trade and colonial expansion S-339, 
N-121: conquest of Malaya and East Indies 
M-60, E-208; Formosa settled F-242a; Dutch in 
South Africa S-244-5 

F. Wars with England and France N-121, L-320: 
naval power broken B-205; English seize Dutch 
possessions in North America N-213 

G. William 111 rules Holland and England W-138-9 

H. French Revolution and Bonaparte rule N-121: 
Dutch aid in American Revolution R-127 

I. South African colonies lost S-244 

J. Congress of Vienna and union with Belgium 
N-121, B-115 

K. Union dissolved — Netherlands becomes a con- 
stitutional monarchy N-121-2 

L. World War II N-114, 122, W-250, 270, R-235 
M. Events after the war N-122: Indonesia wins in- 
dependence E-209; North Atlantic Treaty 
Organization, list U-394a, map U-3946 

BELGIUM 

I. Structure of the land B-110, map B-111: Meuse 
(Maas) and Scheldt rivers M-1S5, S-56 

II. Colony: Belgian Congo B-109, C-434-434d 


III. People B-110, pictures B-113, F-57: Flemings and 
Walloons B-112-14; holidaj^s (Christmas) C-2946 

IV. Resources and industries, list B-110: agriculture 
B-1 10-11; manufacturing B-1 11-12, A-270, B-334, 
G-106-7, L-222 (diamond cutting D-78) 

V. Trade and transportation B-112: Meuse River 
M-185; Antwerp A-270, picture B-110; Ghent 
G-106. See also Trade, table in Fact-Index 

VI. Principal cities B-111, 112, list B-110: Brussels 
B-334, picture B-115; Antwerp A-270; Bruges 
B-332, picture B-116; Ghent G-106-7; Liege L-222; 
Louvain Li-337; Ypres Y-343 

VII. Education, art, and science B-114-15:paintingP-27d 
(Rubens R-246; Van Dyck V-438). See also the 
Reference-Outline for Painting 

VIII. Government B-115: Baudoin I (FacLIndex) 

IX. History B-115, 117, N-120-1 

A. Roman conquest and Middle Ages B-115: 
Charles the Bold and sacking of Liege C-195, 
L-222 

B. Revolt against Spain B-115, N-120-1, W-139 

C. French rule: claims of Louis XIV L-319; occupa- 
tion during French Revolution F-294; Napoleon 
obtains by treaty N-8; battle of Waterloo 
(1815) W-66 

D. Catholic Belgium gains independence from 
Protestant Netherlands (l830) B-115, N-121 

E. Belgium acquires vast African Congo B-109 

F. World War I W-217-18, 220, B-117. See also 
World War I chronology in Fact-Index 

1. German occupation B-117: Antwerp W-220; 
Bruges B-334; Brussels B-334; Lidge L-222; 
Louvain L-337; Ypres Y-344 

2. King Albert A-140 

3. Peace settlement W-239, B-117 

G. World War II W-250, 270, 277, B-117 

H. Events after the war: Benelux customs union 
formed; North Atlantic Treaty signed; Baudoin I 
succeeds abdicating Leopold III B-117 

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE NETHERLANDS 
AND BELGIUM 

Books for Younger Readers 

Baker, N. B. William the Silent (Vanguard, 1947). 

Barnouw, A. J. Land of William of Orange (Lippincott, 1944), 
Bemelmans, Ludwig. Golden Basket (Viking, 1936). 

Bowen, B. M. Jan’s Victory (Longmans, 1949). 

Coblentz, C. C. Beggars’ Penny (Longmans, 1943). 

De Jong, Dola. Level Land (Scribner, 1943). 

De Jong, Dola. Picture Story of Holland (McKay, 1946). 

De la Ramee, Louise. Dog of Flanders (Grosset, 1935). 

Dodge, M. M. Hans Brinker (World, 1946). 

Hart, Johan. Picture Tales from Holland (Lippincott, 1935). 
Troelstra, M. S. Afke’s Ten (Lippincott, 1936). 

Van der Haas, Henrietta. Victorious Island (Harcourt, 1947). 
Van Stockum, Hilda. Gerrit and the Organ (Viking, 1943). 
Yaukey, G. S. Low Countries (Holiday, 1949). 

Books for Advanced Students and Teachers 

Barnouw, A. J. Making of Modern Holland (Norton, 1944). 
Barnouw, A. J. Pageant of Netherlands History (Longmans, 
1952). 

Clark, G. H. Birth of the Dutch Republic (Oxford, 1947), 
Goris, J. A., ed. Belgium (Univ. of Calif. Press, 1945). 

Ogrizek, Dore. Netherlands (McGraw, 1951). 

Ogrizek, Dore. Belgium and Luxemburg (McGraw, 1950). 

Van Paasen, Pierre. Earth Could Be Fair (Dial, 1946). 



NEVADA 


- 124 


Rugged NEVADA, RICH in TREASURE 




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* ’’■‘^^'j t ’4 

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Beautiful Lake Tahoe on the Nevada-Califoraia line offers year-round rec- 
reation, Beyond its rocky shore rise evergreen forests and the Sierras. 

ATEVADA. The sixth largest state In the Union has 
-*■ 'the fewest people of any state. Nevada’s entire 
population of 160,083 is smaller than that of about 
60 cities in the United States. Nevada is beautiful, 
with majestic mountains, the play of light over salt 
deserts, and the brilliant colors of bare rock and sand 
dunes. Mountains have such distinctive names as 
Opal, Rainbow, Ruby, and Blue for their marked 
coloring. But the dry soil supports only sagebrush and 
other desert plants. Hence Nevada is called the 
“Sagebrush State.” 

Nevada is dry because the lofty Sierra Nevada rises 
along the western border and cuts off the rain-bearing 
winds from the Pacific Ocean. The average precipita- 
tion in a year is only about nine inches. Much of it falls 
as snow in the winter months. Snowy caps on the 
mountains give the state its name — ^in Spanish, 

Nevada means “snow-covered.” 

Basins and Landlocked Lakes 

Most of Nevada lies in the Great Basin of the west- 
ern United States. This is a great mountain-rimmed 
depression. Many of the rivers flow from the moun- 
tains into the basin. There the water may form a lake 


or may sink into the ground or evaporate. 
Only the northeastern and southeastern 
comers have rivers that drain outward to 
the Pacific Ocean. 

The surface of the state is broken by many 
mountain ranges. Some valleys between the 
ranges contain salt lakes. Others are great 
salt>^ncrusted depressions called sinks. The 
salt was brought by the rivers, and it was 
left when the water evaporated. 

Along the rivers are meadows which pro- 
vide pasturage for livestock. The longest riv- 
er is the -Humboldt, which flows from east to 
west across the northern part of the state. It 
provided water for the covered wagon trains 
that brought settlers to California in the 
days before the railroads. In spring, melting 
snow makes water abundant, and many 
regions blaze with the blossoms of creosote, 
cactus, sagebrush, wild iris, and wild peach. 

Nevada’s most important natural lakes 
are Winnemucca, Carson, Pyramid, and 
Walker. They are remnants of Lake Lahon- 
tan, which covered more than 8,000 square 
miles in Ice Age times. On the Colorado 
River, Hoover Dam creates Lake Mead and 
Davis Dam forms Lake Mohave. 

Agriculture and Irrigation 
The United States government holds more 
than 85 per cent of all Nevada in national 
forests, grazing lands, and game preserves. 
Less than 10 million acres are privately 
owned. Cattle and sheep raising are the 
main agricultural industries. _ . 

Such crops as are raised depend upon irn- 
gation. Nevada shares in the waters of the 
Colorado River impounded by Hoover Dam, but the 
region has little fertile land. The largest projects 
the west, which gets water from melting snow^s. The 
Newlands Reclamation Project, around Fallon, uses 
the waters of the Truckee and Carson rivers, im- 
pounded in the Lahontan Reservoir. The Rye Patch 
Dam, near Lovelock, retains the flood waters of the 
Humboldt River. The Walker River valley is also 
irrigated. Alfalfa, wheat, barley, oats, fruits, and vege- 
tables are produced in these regions. 

Many bird and game refuges have been set aside. 
Typical desert shrubs grow in the valleys — largely 
sagebrush in the north and creosote bush in the south. 
The forests are mainly on mountain slopes and fook 
hills. They are primarily pinou and juniper, with 
pine, fir, and hemlock on the higher levels. 

Industries and Cities 

An important part of Nevada’s wealth comes from 
minerals. Although it is the 48th state in population, 
it ranks about 30th in the value of its minerals. 
The most valuable is copper, mined chiefly in the 
Ely district. The state also produces important quan- 
tities of zinc, gold, sand and gravel, lead, and tung- 



SCENES FROM NEVADA’S BROAD EXPANSE 










mimm 


1. The dome of Nevada’s capitol gleams above the elms planted by early settlers. The building, begun in 1870, stands 
in Carson City. 2. Neo-colonid buildings of the University of Nevada are mirrored in Manzanita Lake at Reno. 3. The 
sheltered “bowl” on Mount Rose near Lake Tahoe provides popular ski runs. 4. Cyanidation plants like this one make 
the mining of low-grade gold ore profitable. 5. Like most of Nevada’s flocks, these sheep graze on public land* 








NEVADA 


126 


sten. Other important 
minerals are silver, 
stone, barite, talc and 
pinite, manganiferous 
ore, gypsum, iron ore, 
mercury, and sulfur ore. 

In World War II depos- 
its of magnesium and 
manganese helped to 
make the United States 
independent of foreign 
supplies of these strate- 
gic minerals. 

Metal refining is one 
of Nevada’s important 
industries. Much of the 
mined copper is refined 
within the state, and the 
metals are shipped else- 
where for manufactur- 
ing. Other industries are 
meat packing and the 
manufacture of chemi- 
cals, and concrete and 
plaster products. 

Reno, in the western 
part of the state, is the 
largest city and the chief 
banking, shopping, and 
distributing center. It is 
the seat of the state uni- 
versity. Las Vegas, in 
the southeastern corner, 
is a popular tourist re- 
sort, because it is near 
Lake Mead and Hoover Dam. The state capital is at 
Carson City. It is near Lake Tahoe, a noted resort 
area which is shared with California (see Carson City). 


Nevada has about 
5,000 Indians. They be- 
long to the Piute and Sho- 
shone and other tribes 
of the old Shoshonean 
stock. Most of them live 
on Indian reservations. 
The largest are Pyramid 
Lake, Walker River, and 
Duck Valley, which is 
partly in Idaho. 
History of Nevada 
The first white man to 
cross what is now Neva- 
da was probably Francis- 
co Garces, a Franciscan 
friar, in 1775. Between 
1825 and 1843 several 
trappers, fur traders, 
and explorers crossed the 
area. The first perma- 
nent settlement was 
made in 1849, when the 
Mormons established a 
trading post near Genoa. 

The discovery of gold 
and silver in the Com- 
stock Lode in 1869 
brought a rush of for- 
tune-seekers into the 
Carson River valley, and 
Virginia City became a 
busy mining town. Many 
newcomers were miners 
from exhausted gold 
placer mines in California. The Comstock Lode proved 
to have ore deposits which were among the richest m 
the world. Over the years it yielded gold worth 400 
million dollars and silver worth 
even more. After 1877 the 
Comstock Lode began to give 
out. Mining decliiied untd 
the discovery, in the 20th cen- 
tury, of new fields at Tonopah, 
Goldfield, and other places. 

Nevada was in the territory 
ceded by Mexico after the Mex- 
ican War in 1848. The Teiji- 
tory of Utah, created in 1850, 
included most of Nevada. In 
1864 Nevada became a state. It 
had few people, but President 
Lincoln sought its adinittance 
for its pro-Union sentiment. 

Since 1951 atomic tests have 
been made at Yucca Flat and 
Frenchman’s Flats. (See also 
chronology in Nevada Fac 
Summary; United States, sec- 
tion “Western Basins and 
Plateaus.’’) 


THE TOWN THAT MAGNESIUM BUILT 



During the second World War, magnesium was in great demand for the manufacture of light- 
weight airplane parts and fire bombs. To' provide workers for the refining plant at Henderson, 
the government built more than 1,000 homes, as shown above. 


NEVADA MEANS “S N O W - C O V E R E D ” 



Chain after chain of long, high mountain ranges run the length of 
the state north and south. Between them are flat valleys. The 
higher Sierra Nevada extend from California into western Nevada. 




Nevada Fact Summary 


NEVADA (Nev.) : True origin of name 
is uncertain. In Spanish, nevada 
means “snow-covered,” suggesting 
the Sierra Nevada (mountains). 
Nickname: “Sagebrush State,” for its 
abundant growth of wild sage. Also, 
“Silver State,” in tribute to one of 
its major industries, silver mining. 

Seal: State scene includes plow, mill, tunnel into mine, 
railroad cars cro.ssing mountain gorge, and rising sun; 
motto and 36 stars surround the scene. 

Motto: AU for Our Countrj’. 

Flag: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Sagebrush. Bird: Mountain bluebird. Tree Single- 
leaf pinon. Song: ‘Home Means Nevada’, words and 
music by Mrs. Bertha Haffetto. 

THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital: Carson City (since 1861, when 
it became territorial capital). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 1. Elec- 
toral votes, 3. 

State Legislature: Senators, 17; term, 4 
years. Assemblymen, 47; term, 2 
years. Convenes the third Monday 
in January in the odd-numbered years. Session limit, 
60 days. 

Constitution: Adopted 1864. Proposed amendment 
may be (a) passed by a majority of elected members at 
two successive legislative sessions, or by initiative 
action of the people, and (b) ratified by a majority 
voting on amendment at a popular election. 

Governor: Term, 4 years. May succeed himself. 

Other Executive Officers: Lieutenant governor, secretary 
of state, attorney general, treasurer, controller, survey- 
or-general, all elected; terms, 4 years. 

Judiciary: Supreme court — 3 justices, elected at large; 
term, 6 years. District courts — 8, with 10 judges; 
judges elected; term, 4 years. 

County: 17 counties, each governed by a board of com- 
missioners of 3 members. Officers elected; terms, 
4 and 2 years. 

Municipal: Mayor and council most common; 3 cities 
have city managers and mayors. Boulder City (under 
Federal government) has commission plan. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 6 
months; in county, 30 da 3 '’s; in district, 10 days. 



transportation and communication 

Transportation: Railroads, 1,700 miles. First railroad, 
Sacramento, California, to Reno, 1868. Rural roads, 
25,400 miles. Airports, 71. 

Communication: Periodicals, 4. Newspapers, 30. First 
newspaper, Territorial Enterprise, Genoa, 1858. Radio 
stations (AM and FM), 9; first station, KOH, Reno, 
licensed Oct. 25, 1928. Television stations, 2. Tele- 
phones, 66,200. Post offices, 121. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND" 

Population (1950 census): 160,083 (rank among 48 states 
— 48th); urban, 57.2%; rural, 42.8%. Density: 1.5 
persons per square mile (rank— 48th state). 

Extent: Area, 110,540 square miles, including 751 square 
miles of water surface (6th state in size). 

Elevation: Highest, Boundary Peak, 13,145 feet, near 
Mount Montgomery; lowest, Colorado River at south- 
east comer of state, 470 feet. 

Temperature (‘’F.): Average — ^annual, 51°; winter, 33°; 
spring, 49°; summer, 70°; fall, 52°. Lowest recorded, 
— 50° (San Jacinto, Jan. 8, 1937); highest recorded, 
122° (Leeland, Nye County, Aug. 18, 1914, and other 
locations and earlier dates). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 9; winter, 3; 
spring, 3; summer, 1 ; fall, 2. Varies from about 4 in the 
south and west to about 20 in central w^est. 

Natural Features: Much of Nevada lies within Great 
Basin of western United States (a giant mountain- 
ribbed depression whose rivers have no outlet to the 
sea); lofty Sierra Nevada along w'estem border; 
areas of earliest rock formations (extreme southw'est). 
Principal rivers: Carson, Colorado, Humboldt (flows 
into Humboldt Lake), Truckee, Walker. 

Land Use: Cropland, 1%; nonforested pasture, 80%; 
forest, 7%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, W'aste- 
land, cities, etc.), 12%. 


I-CROPS PASTURE FOREST, OTHER 



Natural Resources: Agricultural — open ranges provide 
excellent grazing for cattle and sheep. Industrial — im- 
portant minerals, especially silver, gold, zinc, sand and 
gravel, lead, tungsten, and copper. Commercial — 
scenery, moimtains, and climate attract vacationists. 


OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 
What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 

Wholesale and retail trade 

Transportation, communication, and 

12,634 

20.0 

other public utilities 

7,405 

11.6 

Agriculture, forestrj% and fishery . . . 
Personal services (hotel, domestic. 

6,779 

10.7 

laundering, etc.) 

6,236 

9.8 

Construction 

Professional services (medical, legal. 

5,484 

8.6 

educational, etc.) 

4,988 

7.8 

Government 

Amusement, recreation, and related 

4,983 

7.8 

services 

3,967 

6.2 

Mining 

3,315 

5.2 

Manufacturing 

3,255 

5.1 

Business and repair serrices 

1,928 

3.0 

Finance, insurance, and real estate. . 

1,568 

2.5 

Workers not accounted for 

1,093 

1.7 

Total employed 

63,635 

100.0 




127 


Nevada Fact Summary 



What the People Produce - 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 47th) 
Value added by manufacture* (1952), S31,889,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Food and Kindred Products 

$3,309,000 

48 

Meat packing; beverages 



Chemicals and Allied Products . 

3,115,000 

41 

Stone, Clay, and Glass Products' 

2,942,000 

41 

Concrete and plaster products 


Printing and Publishing 

2,352,000 

47 


t 


Copper smelting and refining 




•For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 
fFigure withheld by Bureau of the Census. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 47th) 
Total cash income (1952), $51,668,000 


Products 

Amount Produced 
(10-Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

Stalest 


106,631,000 lbs. 

622,000 tons 
49,000,000 qts. 
20,649,000 lbs. 

1 

38 


2 

37 

Milk 

3 

48 

Sheep and lambs 

4 

25 


•Rank in dollar value tRank in units produced 




C. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 
Annual value (1951), $57,626,000 
Rank among states — 30th 


Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced 

Value 

Copper 

56,000 tons 

827,333,000 

Zinc 

17,000 tons 

6,349,000 

Tungsten 

1,000 tons 

4,780,000 

Gold 

121,000 ozs. 

4,236,000 

Sand and gravel . . . 

2,617,000 tons 

2,658,000 

Lead 

7,000 tons 

2,473,000 


D. Trade 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 


S 79,498,000 
200,916,000 
66,812,000 

48 


48 


36 



LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

Reno (32,497) : financial and commercial center of state; 

main industries based on mining, livestock, and lumber, 
Los Vegas (24,624) ; tourist center near Hoover Dam and 
Lake Mead. 

Sparks (8,203): adjoins Reno, forming one trading area. 
Elko (5,393): resort city in livestock, mining country. 
Boulder City (3,903): tourist center near Hoover Dam. 
North Las Vegas (3,875): residential city. 

Henderson (3,643): chemical and titanium plants. 

Ely (3,558): mining center in livestock-dairying area. 
Carson City (3,082) t-smallest state capital in the U. S. 


EDUCATION 

Public Schools; Elementary, 139; sec- 
ondary, 32. Compulsory school age, 

7 through 18. State Board of Edu- 
cation consists of the governor, state 
supt. of public instruction, and 5 lay 
members, one from each educational 
supervision district; all elected for 
4-year terms. Members of county 
boards of education elected for 2- or 4-jt. terms. 
Trustees of district school boards appoint city supts. for 
2-yr. probationary terms; 4-yr. terms thereafter. 
Private and Parochial Schools: 7. 

Colleges and University (accredited): The state-sup- 
ported University of Nevada, Reno, has four colleges; 
arts and sciences, education, engineering, agriculture. 
Special State Institution: Children’s Home, Carson City. 
Libraries: City and town public libraries, 13; independ- 
ent county library systems, 8. State library responsi- 
ble for aid in developing library service. 

Outstanding Museums: Nevada State Museum, Carson 
City; Historical Society Museum, Reno. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

Nevada School of Industry (boys and girls), Elko; 
Nevada State Penitentiary, Carson City. 

PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Anaho Island — Pyramid L. large rookery of pelicans (10). 
Bottle House — near Beatty; ghost town; walls built of 
bottles; desert relics (27). 

Bowers Mansion — near Reno; former home of Lemuel 
“Sandy” Bowers, early Comstock millionaire (13). 
Carson City — state capital named for Kit Carson; State 
Museum in Old Mint (operating 1870-93) ; Warren En- 
gine Co. Firehouse, active since 1863 (14). 

Charles Sheldon Antelope Wild Life Refuge — 548,373- 
acre area extends north from Summit Lake (4). 
Court of Antiquity — in Virginia Mts. near Reno; an- 
cient Indian council meeting place; rock carvings (10). 
Davis Dam — for power and control of water from Lake 
Mead for dams below on Colorado R.; south of (31). 
Death Valley National Monument — vast desert in 
vada and California; salt beds; many scenic points (27). 
’49 Canyon — names, dates chiseled on walls by travel- 
ers over Applegate Cut-off, pioneer road (3). 

Hoover Dam — its crest is about mile long and more 
than 700ft. high; creates man-made Lake Mead (31)- 
Lake Mead National Recreation Area — extends into 
Arizona; wildlife sanctuary; Indian ruins (32). 

Lake Tahoe — picturesque mountain setting along Cali- 
fornia border; unusual depth, color, and clearness (If)- 
Lehman Caves National Monument — Snake 

have interesting limestone chambers and galleries (|9)- 
Liberty Pit — at Ruth; vast open-pit copper mine (lo)- 
Mt. Rose — winter sports center near Reno (13). 
Overton Museum — relics found in ruins of Lost CitV) 
ancient Indian village now covered by Lake Mead (28). 
Pyramid Lake — remnant of ancient Lake Lahontan (8). 
Reno — ideal climate; fine parks; University of _Nev. (13)- 
Ruby Lake (0) and Franklin Lake (7) — beautifully situ 
ated high in the Ruby Mts. ; now federal game refuge. 
Sod House — near Orovada; primitive building (5). 
Stokes Castle — on hilltop west of Austin ; built in 187U 
when Austin was a booming mining camp (12). _ 

Virginia City — buildings from mining days of 
St. Mar y’s in the Mountains, church built 1877 (Hh 
•Numbers in parentheses are keyea to map. 



128 


Nevada Fact Summary 


STATE PARKS* 

Beaver Dam — a hunting base near Utah 
state line; provides excellent fishing (26). 

Boulder Dam — ^Valley of Uire — ^red sandstone 
rock formations, some bearing ancient 
writings of prehistoric people (29). 

Cathedral Gorge — near Panaca; rock for- 
mations look like cathedral spires (24). 

Fort Churchill — near Carson River; ruins of 
abandoned army post built in 1860 to pro- 
tect traveling pioneers (15). 

Kershaw Canyon-Ryan — south of Caliente; 
rain- and wind-eroded cliffs (25). 

NATIONAL FORESTS* 

Eldorado— 400 acres in state; total, 886,247 
acres in Nevada and California; head- 
quarters, Placerville, Calif. (21). 

Humboldt— 1,182,522 acres; headquarters, 

Elko (2, 6). 

Inyo — 62,348 acres in state; total, 1,844,017 
acres in Nevada and California; head- 
quarters, Bishop. Calif. (23). 

Nevada — 1,259,528 acres; headquarters, Ely 
(18, 30). 

Toiyabe — 2,871,780 acres in state; total, 

3,567,563 acres in Nevada and Califor- 
nia; headquarters, Reno (1, 11, 20, 22). 

THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1598— Juan de Onate takes possession 
of New Mexico for Spain; claim 
includes Nevada region. 

1821 — Mexico, now independent, claims 
Southwest area; includes Nevada. 
1825 — Peter S. Ogden and Hudson’s 
Bay Company trappers journey 
down from Fort Vancouver into 
northeastern Nevada; explore 
area around Humboldt Basin; discover and name 
Ogden River (renamed Humboldt River by John 
C. Fr4mont). 

1826 — Jedediah Smith leads party of trappers across 
Nevada en route to California; returns, 1827. 

1830 — Party of traders led by William Wolfskill crosses 
southern Nevada region en route to California; 
route becomes the “Old Spanish Trail.” 

1833 — Joseph Walker’s expedition follows Humboldt 
River in search of new fur-trading country. 

1841 — ^Trickle of American settlers to California begins 
to follow Humboldt Trail through Nevada. 

1843 — John C. Frdmont explores Nevada, passing along 
Pyramid Lake, Humboldt Basin, and Truckee and 
Carson rivers; crosses southern Nevada, 1844; re- 
explores area, 1845; writes detailed reports, arous- 
ing much interest in region. 

1848 — Nevada included in territory ceded by Mexico to 
U. S. by Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Februaiy 2. 

1 849 — Mormons at Salt Lake City organize State of Des- 
eret, which includes Nevada. H. S. Beatie builds 
Mormon Station at Carson Valley. “Forty-niners” 
cross Nevada on way to California gold fields. 

1850 — Congress creates Utah Territory, September 9; it 
includes most of present Nevada; southern part 
included in New Mexico Territory. 

1851 — John Reese builds trading post in Carson Valley. 
Mail service between Sacramento and Salt Lake 

City established by way of Carson Valley. 

'Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


© 



Kl 


I D A H b 


oWinnemucca 


oElko 

D© 

® 


Ely 





o Tonopah 


— V 

^ \ 
-7 


EO @1 


Caliente 



'^^s Vegas 




NEVADA 

State Park 

H National Forest 

Place of Interest 




1 854 — ^Utah territorial government creates Carson County; 
it includes most of Nevada; Genoa (old Mormon 
Station) becomes county seat; government headed 
by Orson Hyde, one of Mormon Twelve Apostles. 
Opening of wagon route across Sierra Nevada links 
Nevada with Sacramento. 

1 855 — Mormon trading post opened near Las Vegas. 

1 857 — Brigham Young recalls Mormons from Nevada to 
defend Salt Lake area from threatened U. S. army 
attack; other settlers buy Mormon farms and 
property. Group led by Isaac Roop convenes at 
Genoa, draws up constitution for Nevada Terri- 
tory, and petitions Congress for territorial status; 
Congress ignores the petition. 

1 859 — ^Provisional government organized by settlers, Sep- 
tember 2; Isaac Roop elected governor. Comstock 
Lode (silver and gold) discovered in Washoe Valley; 
prospectors rush to site. Virginia City springs up. 

1860 — Settlers battle with Indians near Pyramid Lake; 
Fort Churchill built for protection from Indians. 


129 





Nevada Fact Summary 


Pony Express begins running between Missouri 
and California via Nevada; ends 1861, with com- 
pletion of transcontinental telegraph line. 

1861 — Nevada Territory created, March 2; capital. Car- 
son City; governor, James W. Nye; territory ten- 
tatively includes part of eastern California but 
California refuses to accede; in repayment Nevada 
receives part of western Utah, 1862; receives more 
of Utah and northern Arizona, 1866, to achieve 
present state boundaries. 

1862 — Indians attack whites in eastern Nevada; Fort 
Ruby established, and Indians flee into desert. 

1863 — Statehood enabling act passed by Congress; con- 
vention drafts constitution, rejected by voters. 

1864 — Second statehood enabling act passed; acceptable 
constitution drafted. Nevada admitted to Union 
as 36th state, October 31; capital, Carson City; 
governor, Henry G. Blasdel. 

1 865 — State-wide school system established. Sutro Tun- 
nel at Comstock Lode started; completed, 1878. 

1868 — Central Pacific Railroad reaches Reno, May 2; 
connects with Union Pacific Railroad in Utah to 
complete transcontinental route. May 10, 1869. 

1 870 — U. S. Mint at Carson City begins operation; mint- 
ing ceases, 1893; building now state museum. 

1873 — U. S. stops free coinage of silver; “free coinage” 
becomes national political issue. “Big Bonanza” 
vein of silver ore discovered along Comstock Lode. 

1874 — University of Nevada founded at Elko; moves to 
Reno, 1886. 

1878 — Bland-Allison Act provides for U. S. government 
purchases of limited amount of silver; act fails to 
solve Nevada miners’ problems; many leave. 


1 893 — Repeal of silver purchase act causes more Nevada 
mines to shut down; economic crisis makes Silver 
party dominant political force in state; it merges 
with Democrats under William J. Bryan, 1896. 

1 900 — ^Tonopah silver mines discovered ; Ely copper mines 
developed. Population rises after these strikes and 
opening of Goldfield mines, 1903. 

1 903 — Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad through Las 
^ Vegas begun; now in Union Pacific system. 

1904 — Referendum adopted; initiative adopted, 1912. 

1907 — Newlands irrigation project in Storey County 

completed. 

1 91 4 — World War I booms state’s mining industry. Con- 
stitutional amendment grants women’s suffrage. 

1924 — First execution by lethal gas in the world con- 
ducted at Nevada State Prison. 

1 930 — Work on Hoover Dam begins; Boulder City built 
for workers, begun 1931; dam dedicated, 1935. 

1931 — Passage of six weeks’ divorce law and legalizing 
of gambling bring many divorce seekers and tour- 
ists to state; Reno and Las Vegas boom. 

1 938 — Rye Patch Dam on Humboldt River completed. 

1941 — Magnesium mines opened near Las Vegas. 

1949 — Locusts devastate ranches. Davis Dam on Colo- 
rado River completed; generates power, 1951. 

1951 — Atomic Energy Commission tests atomic weapons 
near Las Vegas. First atomic warfare maneuver 
staged on Nevada desert. Nevada is 36th and last 
state to ratify 22d amendment to U. S. Constitu- 
tion, limiting president to two terms. 

1952 — Atomic tests and maneuvers continue in Nevada. 

1953 — First atomic shell and more atomic bombs deto- 
nated in state. Serious drought hits some areas. 


THE HOME OF THE COMSTOCK LODE 



Viigmia City, situated between Eeno Md Carson City, stands on tended under the city. As the nation’s chief mining city in the 
the silver mines of the Comstock Lode, which gave it fabulous 1870’s, it had about 35,000 residents. Today less than l.ow 
wealth. The underground workings of the mines in the hiiis ex- people live here. Gold and silver are still mined in the area. 

130 




Davis Dam is a major structure in the power and navigation de- the boundary between Nevada and Arizona. At left is the power- 
velopment of the lower Colorado River. Here the river forms house; at right, the spillway. The dam holds back Lake Mohave. 


NEVADA 


COUNTIES 


Churchill 

6,161 

C 3 

Clark 

48,289 

F 6 

Douglas 

2,029 

B 4 

Elko 

11,654 

F 1 

Esmeralda 

614 

D 5 

Eureka 

896 

E 3 

Humboldt 

4,838 

C 1 

Lander 

1,850 

D 3 

Lincoln 

3,837 

F 5 

Lyon 

3,679 

B 3 

Mineral 

5,560 

C4 

Nye 

3,101 

E 5 

Ormsby 

4,172 

B 3 

Pershing 

3,103 

C2 

Storey 

671 

B 3 

Washoe 

50,205 

B 2 

White Pine 

9,424 

F 3 


CITIES AND TOWNS 


Adaven 

25 

F 4 

Alamo 

384 

F 5 

Arden 

43 

F 6 

Arthur 

3 

F 2 

Austin 

300 

E 3 

Babbitt 2.464 

C4 

Baker 

50 

G 3 

Battle Mt. 

850 

E 2 

Beatty 

485 

E 6 

Beowawe 

175 

E 2 

Black Springs 100 

B 3 

Blue Diamond 



210 

F 6 

Boone Springs 

12 

G 2 

Boulder City 



3,903 

G7 


Bristol SUvei 

• 25 

G4 

Bunkerville 

180 

G 6 

Caliente 

970 

G 5 

Carlin 

1,203 

E2 

Carp 

120 

G 5 

CARSON CITY 



3,082 

B 3 

Charleston 

51 

F 1 

Cherry Creek 75 

G 3 

Coaldale 

16 

D 4 

Cobre 

51 

G 1 

Contact 

20 

G 1 

Cortez 

7 

E 2 

Crystal Bay 

150 

A 3 

Currant 

50 

F 4 

Currie 

52 

G 2 

Dayton 

300 

B 3 

Deeth 

75 

F 1 

Denio 


C 1 

Dry Lake 

48 

G 6 

Duckwater 

5 

F 4 

Dunphy 

6 

E 2 

Dyer 

87 

C 5 

East Ely 

1,000 

G 3 

East Gate 

10 

D 3 

Elgin 

50 

G 5 

Elko 

5,393 

F 2 

Ely 

3,558 

G 3 

Eureka 

500 

E 3 

Fallon 

2,400 

C 3 

Fernley 

650 

B 3 

Flanigan 

44 

B 2 

Gabbs 

278 

D 4 

GardnervoUe 

600 

B 4 

Genoa 

75 

B 4 

Gerlach 

200 

B 2 

Glenbrook 

30 

B 3 

Glendale 

20 

G 6 


Golconda 

350 

D 2 

Gold Hill 

68 

B 3 

Gold Point 

100 

D 5 

Goldfield 

275 

D 5 

Goodsprings 

175 

F 7 

HaUeck 

52 

F 2 

Hawthorne 

l;861 

C 4 

Hazen 

70 

C 3 

Henderson 

3,643 

G 6 

Hiko 

23 

F 5 

Hudson 

2 

B 4 

Humboldt 

30 

C2 

Imlay 

250 

C 2 

Indian Springs 50 

F 6 

lone 

38 

D 4 

Jarbidge 

46 

F 1 

Jean 

52 

F 7 

Jiggs 

100 

F 2 

Jimgo 

30 

C 2 

Kimberly 

300 

F 3 

Lamoille 

200 

F 2 

Las Vegas 24,624 

F 6 

Lee 

135 

F 2 

Logandale 

300 

G 6 

Lovelock 

1,604 

C 2 

Lower Rochester 5 

C 2 

Lund 

365 

F4 

Lunin g 

52 

C4 

Manhattan 

125 

E4 

Mason 

89 

B 4 

McDermitt 

100 

D 1 

McGill 

2,297 

G 3 

Mercury' 


F 6 

Mesquite 

540 

G 6 

Metropolis 

15 

G 1 

Midas 

100 

E 1 

Mill City 

35 

D 2 

Alina 

274 

C 4 


Minden 

250 

B 4 

Moapa 

18 

G 6 

Montello 

Mount 

350 

G 1 

Montgomery 19 

C 5 

Mountain City 180 

F 1 

Nelson 

67 

G 7 

Nivloc 

4 

D 5 

Nixon 

450 

B 3 

North Fork 
North 

31 

F 1 

Las Vegas 3,875 

F 6 

Oasis 

25 

G 1 

Oreana 

24 

C 2 

Orovada 

150 

D 1 

Overton 

750 

G 6 

Owj'hee 

40 

F 1 

Pahrump 

120 

E 6 

Palisade 

53 

E 2 

Panaca 

499 

G 5 

Paradise Valley 95 

D 1 

Pioche 

1,392 

G 5 

Pittman 

150 

F 6 

Potts 

35 

E 3 

Preston 

45 

G4 

Pyramid 

27 

B 2 

Rawhide 

10 

C 4 

Rebel Creek 

10 

D 1 

Red House 

13 

D 2 

Reese River 

184 

D 4 

Reno 32,497 

B 3 

Rhyolite 


E 6 

Rio Tinto 

1 

E 1 

Riverside 

Round 

25 

G 6 

Mountain 

305 

E4 

Rowland 

11 

F 1 

Rox 

20 

G 0 


Ruby Valley 

■ 200 

F 2 

Ruth 

1,244 

F 3 

San Jacinto 

6 

G 1 

Schurz 

150 

C4 

Searchlight 

229 

F 7 

Shatter 

91 

G 2 

Shoshone 

25 

G4 

Silver City 

200 

B 3 

Silverpeak 

63 

D 5 

Sloan 

200 

F 7 

Smith 

28 

B 4 

Sparks 

8,203 

B 3 

Steamboat 

94 

B 3 

Stillwater 

9 

C 3 

Sulphur 

33 

C2 

Tippett 

50 

G 3 

Tobar 

10 

G 2 

Tonopah 

1,375 

D 4 

Tungsten 

300 

C 2 

Tuscarora 

30 

E 1 

Unionville 

15 

C 2 

Ursine 

60 

G 5 

Valmy 

75 

D 2 

Verdi 

350 

B 3 

Virginia City 

800 

B 3 

Vya 

30 

B 1 

Wabuska 

50 

B 3 

Wadsworth 

275 

B 3 

Weeks 

200 

B 3 

WeUington 

60 

B 4 

Wells 

947 

G 1 

White Rock 

26 

E 1 

Whitney 

200 

F 6 

Wilkins 

Winnemucca 

60 

G 1 

2,847 

D 2 

Yerington 

1,157 

B 4 

Zephyr Cove 

50 

A 3 


I131I 


















X, 


NEVADA’S WEALTH-CATTLE, MINERAL^, SCENERY 


'•yi'-.- 







V'"' 



ViC-X'S' 



134 



- 135 — NEWARK 


MARKET STREET FROM THE COURTHOUSE STEPS 



Newark’s Market Street, as seen from the steps of the Essex County 
Courthouse, presents a bustling and businesslike scene. In the foreground 
is the famous bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln seated, by Gutzon Borglum. 


Newark, N. J. Of all the cities in New 
Jersey, Newark is the largest, because of its 
transportation advantages. The city grew up 
on the flatlands surrounding Newark Bay at 
the mouth of the Passaic River. It is the place 
where railroad, truck, and bus lines from the 
south and west meet on their way to New 
York City, eight miles to the east. It has the 
Port Newark terminal, which was built during 
the first World War to serve ocean shippmg 
and shipbuilding. It also has a large and 
modem airport. Both the harbor and the 
airport facilities are part of the Port of New 
York Authority. Newark is the county seat 
of Essex County. 

Good transportation accounts for Newark’s 
industrial grovdh. Early in its history the 
town was a center of small specialized indus- 
tries employing skilled workmen. At the pres- 
ent time, the city is outstanding in the manu- 
facture of electrical equipment of all kinds and 
is well-knovTi as a jewelry-making center. 

Other important products are paints, var- 
nishes, metal products, clothing, and natural and arti- 
ficial leather. Many large insurance companies have 
their headquarters in Newark. 

The heart of the business district is the intersection 
of Market and Broad streets, known as the “Four 
Comers.” A few blocks to the north, on Broad Street, 
is Military Park, so called because the site was a 
colonial military training ground. Near by is Wash- 
ington Park, which was laid out in 1667 as the village 
market place. There are seven coimty parks either 
wholly or partly in Newark. Branch Brook Park, the 
largest, is noted for its 2,500 cherry trees. 

Institutions of higher education include a state 
teachers college, the Newark Colleges of Rutgers Uni- 
versity, the Newark College of Engineering, and the 


Urban Division of Seton Hall College. The Newark 
Museum is noted for its work with children and its 
cooperation with the public schools. The Newark 
Public Library has contributed much to the cultural 
and business life of the city and has long been rec- 
ognized as one of the nation’s finest. 

Newark was founded in 1666 by a group of Puritans 
from Connecticut under the leadership of Robert 
Treat. Most historians believe that its name was 
taken from Newark-on-Trent in England, as an honor 
to Newark’s first pastor who had been ordained there. 
Others believe that Newark may originally have been 
New Ark, or New Work, referring to the fresh start of 
the community. The city was granted a charter in 
1836. Population (1950 census), 438,776. 


NEWARK’S AIRPORT AND HARBOR FROM THE AIR 






This Fairchild Aerial Surveys photo shows how Port Newark slices deep into the land. Along its square-cut edges are facilities for 
handling ocean vessels and their cargoes. Beyond the harbor is Newark Airport, and in the distance, the city’s skyscrapers. 





136 


NEW BEDFORD 


HONORING NEW BEDFORD’S 


WHALEMEN 



In front of Kew Bedford’s public library stands the Whaleman Statue, 
by Bela Pratt, inscribed with the whalemen’s heroic motto, “A dead 
whale or a stove boat.” These hunters of the sea brought imperishable 
fame to the town as weii as an era of great prosperity. 


New BEDFORD, Mass. The Massachusetts state 
capitol once had a codfish for a weather vane. 
The City Hall of New Bedford in the old days should 
have displayed a whale, for all the traditions of this 
city are connected with the whaling industry. That 
is why the lawn of the public library features the well- 
known Whaleman Statue. The library has the largest 
and finest collection of whaling books and prints in 
existence, and the Bourne Museum exhibite a full- 
rigged whaling vessel. 

For many years New Bedford was the principal 
whaling port of the world. Beginning in the middle 
1700’s whales were hunted off the Virginia and Caro- 
lina coasts, and later in West Indian and South Ameri- 
can waters. After 1791 the whalers regularly rounded 
Cape Horn into the Pacific, and after 1848 Arctic whal- 
ing brought even better times to the trade. In 1857 
the city had 329 registered whaling ships. Soon after 
the discovery of oil in Pennsylvania in 1859, kerosene 
replaced whale oil as the main fuel for lighting, and the 
whaling industry fell off sharply. 

After the decline of whaling, the city’s prosperity 
was based on its manufactures, chiefly of fine cotton 
goods. Although much of this industry moved to the 
South, cotton mills still employ thousands of workers. 
Many of the cotton, rayon, and silk mill workers are 
trained in the New Bedford Textile Institute. Today 
the city has many different industries which 


make cotton, silk, and rayon yams and cloth; 
tools, mill supplies, and screws; electrical appli- 
ances and devices, glassware, ropes, paper and 
rubber goods, sheet copper and brass, shoes, 
clothing, and toys. Fishing and boatbuilding are 
also important industries. 

New Bedford is on the Acushnet River at the 
head of Buzzards Bay, 56 miles south of Boston. 
It was settled in 1652 and incorporated as a city 
in 1847. During the American Revolution it sent 
out many privateer vessels and in 1778 it was 
captured by a British fleet and almost destroj'ed. 
Population (1950 census), 109,189. 

Newbery, John (1713-1767). The first book- 
seller and publisher to make a specialty of chil- 
dren’s books was John Newbery. Over his shop 
in St. Paul’s Churchyard, London, was the sign 
Juvenile Library. An advertisement in the Lon- 
don Chronicle for December 1765 states: “On 
the first of January, being New Year’s Day, Mr. 
Newbery intends to publish the following impor- 
tant volumes, bound and gilt, and hereby invites 
all his little friends who are good to call for them 
at the Bible and Sun in St. Paul’s Churchyard, 
but those who are naughty to have none.” ^ 
Thousands of Mr. Newbery’s “little friends” 
owned his books. Today many American children 
know his name because of the Newbery Medal, 
awarded each year to the book selected by a com- 
mittee of children’s librarians as the best book for 
children published during the year. 

John Newbery was bom on July 19, 1713, in the 
village of Waltham St. Lawrence, Berkshire. His 
father was a farmer and would have liked his son to 
carry on the farm, but John preferred boofe. An an- 
cestor, Ralph Newbery, had been a publisher; and 
when John went to work it was in a newspaper and 
printing business. After his master’s death, John 
married his widow. She had three children and three 
more were born to her and Newbery. 

In 1744 Newbery opened his own shop in London, at 
the sign of the Bible and Croum. Before long he moved 
to St. Paul’s Churchyard, at the sign of the Bible and 
Sun. Here he published many books for children an 
adults, writing some of the children’s books himselt. 
Among his authors were Oliver Goldsmith and Rr- 
Samuel Johnson. Newbery also had a flourishing 
business in patent medicines, the most famous o 
which was “Dr. James’s Fever Powder.” 

Of Newbery as a person, not a great deal is knoivn 
and there is no portrait of him. His biographer, 
Charles Welsh, says Newbery was “a red-faced, goo 
natured man, always in a hurry.” His authors ako 
give some description of him. Goldsmith mentions 
him in ‘The Vicar of Wakefield’ as “the phUanthropic 
bookseller of St. Paul’s Churchyard who has written 
so many little books for children.” He tells us tha 
Newbery “called himself the friend of children but va 
the friend of all mankind.” Dr. Johnson portrays nini 
amusingly as Jack the Whirler “ever on business o 
the utmost importance.” “When he enters a houa® 



NEW BRUNSWICK 


137 


his first declaration 
is that he cannot sit 
down.” He “dined at 
full speed,” com- 
plained of “lack of 
time,” and suffered 
“perpetual fatigue.” 

No doubt a kind- 
ly man, Mr. Newbery 
was also a shrewd 
publisher and clever 
at advertising his 
goods. The patent 
medicine sometimes 
appeared in the stor- 
ies, and the characters 
were always taking 
“one of Mr. New- 
berj^’s little books” 
out of their pockets. 

In ‘Goody Two 
Shoes’, Margery’s 
father died because 
he fell ill in a place 
where Dr. James’s 
Fever Powder could 
not be obtained. 

The little books 
were “well bound” as 
the advertisements often stated. The binding was 
important, because up to this time most books had 
been paper pamphlets. Some of the books, so John 
Newberj' insisted, were “free.” One paid only a penny 
or two-pence “for the binding” ! They were attractive 
little books in their “flowery and gilt” paper.bindings. 
Leigh Hunt called them “little penny books radiant 
with gold and rich with bad pictures.” The pictures 
now seem quaint and attractive to us. 

The first book published by Newbery, in 1744, was 
‘A Little Pretty Pocket Book’ intended for the instruc- 
tion and amusement of Little Master Tommy and Pretty 
Miss Polly. With Two Letters from Jack the Giant 
Killer; As also A Ball and a Pincushion; The use of 


which will infallibly 
make Tommy a good 
Boy and Polly a good 
Girl. The pincushion 
was made vdth one 
red side and one 
black, into which 
“Polly” was supposed 
to stick pins for good 
and bad actions. 

Other Newbery 
books were published 
between 1760 and 
1765. ‘Mother Goose’s 
Melody or Soimets for 
the Cradle’ contained 
on each page a moral 
remark. On the page 
with “Great A, little 
a. Bouncing B. The 
Cat’s in the Cup- 
board, And she can’t 
see,” the moral is 
Yes, she can see that 
you are naughty and 
don’t mind your book. 
One of the most en- 
tertaining books was 
about Giles Ginger- 
bread, who learned to read by eating letters of the 
alphabet made in gingerbread. 

An interesting Newbeiy book was ‘An Important 
Pocket Book or The Valentine’s Ledger’, a small 
volume bound in brovm leather, in which a child was 
supposed to record “good” and “bad” behavior. We 
know that some children of the 18th century actually 
kept this “moral account,” because one of the books, 
with entries made by a little girl, is still in existence. 

John Newbery died on Dec. 22, 1767, at the age of 
64. The epitaph on his grave describes “the humble 
ndsdom that . . . teaches moral lessons to the rising 
generation.” His son, Francis, followed him in the 
business and published many books for children. 


AN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY BOOKSHOP 



This is what Mr. Newbery’s bookshop in St. Paul’s Churchyard, London, 
must have looked like. There he sold all sorts of fascinating little books for 
children. The picture is by Katherine Milhous, from Alice Dalgliesh’s 
‘A Book for Jennifer’ (Scribner). 


NEW BRUNSWICK— o/ FORESTS a7td RIVERS 


TaEW BRUNSWICK, 

Canajda. An aviator 
fijdng over this Maritime 
Province of Canada sees 
a vast forest, threaded 
with silver rivers and 
washed on three sides by 
the ocean. About four 
fifths of the area is for- 
est-covered. Down the 
rivers float rafts of logs to the saw, pulp, and paper 
mills along the shores. In the lower river valleys and 
on the marshlands bordering the Bay of Fundy are 
hay and potato fields, dairj’^ farms, apple orchards, 
cranberry and blueberry bogs. In the summer this 


province is a favorite of 
sportsmen. They fish for 
Atlantic silver salmon 
and trout and hunt the 
abundant wild game far 
up the headwaters of the 
streams. 

The province is square 
in shape, covering an area 
of 27,985 square miles. 
It is bounded on the west by Maine; on the north by 
the proAunce of Quebec and Chaleur Bay; on the east 
by the Gulf of St. Lamence and Northumberland 
Strait, which separates it from Prince Edward Island; 
and on the south by a portion of Nova Scotia, Ohig- 


Kxfenf.— North to south, 230 miles; east to west, 190 miles. Area, 
27,985 square miles {512 square miles of fresh water). Population 
(1951 census), 515,697. 

Natural Features.— Cast line 600 miles long, bordered by Chaleur 
Bay Gulf of St. Lawrence, Northumberland Strait, Bay of Fundv; 
Tantramar Marshes at head of Bay of Fundy; Appalachia high- 
lands in northwest; highest point, 2690 feet near Grand Falls on 
St. John River; lowest point, sea level. Principal rivers; St. John 
Miramichi, Restigouche, Petitcodiac; Grand Lake. Islands: 
Grand Manan, Campobello, Deer. 

Producfs.— Potatoes, hay, butter, cheese, condens^ milk; coal, 
sand and gravel, stone; lumber, pulp, paper; fish; ranch furs. 

Cities —Saint John (50,779), Moncton (27,334), Fredericton (capi- 
tal, 16,018). 



NEW BRUNSWICK 138 


necto Bay, and the Bay of Fundy. A narrow peninsula 
only 11^2 miles wide joins it to Nova Scotia on the 
southeast. The Missaquash River is the boundary line 
across the peninsula. 

Much of eastern and central New Brunswick is a 
lowland plain. In the northwest, outlying spurs of 
the Appalachian Mountains thrust across New Bruns- 
wick from Maine to Quebec. This section is wild and 
rugged. There are few gaps through these mountains 
to the St. Lawrence River valley. Hence all the trade 
routes from earliest settlement have pointed south- 
ward to New England and eastward to the other Mari- 
time Provinces. From the commercial and industrial 
heart of Canada New Brunswick is isolated by moun- 
tains, forests, and sea. Two railroads follow the long 
all-Canadian route north to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
then southwest along the south shore of the St. Law- 
rence River to Quebec City and Montreal. A shorter 
and more direct railroad cuts west across the “foreign” 
state of Maine. 

The Bay of Fundy and Its Tides 

The Bay of Fundy plays a leading part in the life 
of the province. It is an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, 
between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, about 180 
miles long and 48 miles wide at its mouth. At the 
upper end it divides into Chignecto Bay and Minas 
Channel (Nova Scotia). Passamaquoddy Bay on the 
southwest forms part of the boundary with Maine. 

The bay is remarkable for its tides, the highest 
in the world. In Passamaquoddy Bay they average 25 
feet, but at the upper end they often rise 60 feet. 
As the tide rolls in from the open sea it is confined 
by the funnel-like shape of the bay. The force of the 
water as it roars in and out of the many inlets and river 
mouths twice daily is a most impressive sight. 

Most spectacular are the Reversing Falls of St. 
John and the Moncton Bore. Near its mouth, at the 
city of St. John, the St. John River drops 26 feet 
through a gorge 450 feet wide and about 100 feet 


deep. At low tide the river rushes in whirlpools on 
its way into the bay. As the tide rises, the ocean forces 
its way upstream in a wild confusion of churning 
waters which fall in the opposite direction. Tlie 
Moncton Bore is a wall of water 3 to 6 feet high, de- 
pending oir the season. It advances up the narrow- 
estuary of the Petitcodiac River toward the city of 
Moncton, appearing to leap over the top of the river 
itself. (For picture, see Tide.) 

One effect of the silt-laden tides has been the crea- 
tion of fertile lowlands along the shores of the bay. 
The rich allu-vial soils of the Marshes of Tantramar, 
near Sack-ville, cover 50,000 acres. The tides also 
keep the harbors free of ice, and St. John is one of 
Canada’s chief winter seaports (see St. John). 

On the Maine border are the Fundy Isles, some 365 
islands. Many of them are only rocks reaching out of 
the sea. Grand Manan is the largest (55 square miles). 
Campobello and Deer islands are next in size, hlany 
Canadians and residents of the United States have 
summer homes on these islands. The permanent resi- 
dents are fishermen. 

The Fundy National Park (80 square miles) com- 
mands beautiful views of Chignecto Bay in Albert 
County, in the southeastern part of the pro-vince. 

Many Long and Beautiful Rivers 

The St. John River is the chief highway into the 
interior. It rises in the forests of Maine and Que- 
bec and crosses the pro-vince from northwest to south- 
east for 418 miles to empty into the Bay of Fundy. 
With its many tributaries it drains an area of about 
30,000 square miles. On its shores are the city of 
St. John and, 80 miles upstream, the capital city of 
Fredericton. At Grand Falls, 225 miles upstream, the 
river drops 75 feet in a magnificent waterfall. It 
then falls another 50 feet through a winding gorge 
about a mile long and 80 to 100 feet deep. A great 
hydroelectric power plant has been erected at the 
falls to provide power for distant paper and pulp mills- 


FISHING AND LUMBERING ARE LEADING OCCUPATIONS 











if V), 







Woodstock, on the St. John River, is the center of farming area which produces potatoes, hay, and beef and dairy cattle. The first 
settlements of the province were on the banks of this river. For years it was the only highway and means of communication. 


Other important streams are the Miramichi River, 
135 miles long, which empties into the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence; the Restigouche River, 100 miles long, 
which empties into Chaleur Bay; the Petitcodiac River 
at the north end of the Bay of Fundy; and the St. 
Croix River along the Maine boundary. The head- 
waters of all these streams are popular with sports- 
men for their salmon and trout and abundant game. 

The cl ima te, of New Brunswick in general is con- 
tinental in character. Prevailing winds are from the 
west, bringing extreme temperatures. Conditions vary 
with altitude and nearness to the coast. In the north- 
west highlands, summers are short and frosts may oc- 
cur in any month. In southern and eastern New 
Brunswick the climate is milder. Fredericton has a 
mean temperature of 13.5°F. in January and 66.1° in 
July. An average year may range from 20 degrees be- 
low zero to 100 above. The average precipitation is 40 
to 45 inches annually, being heaviest on the Fundy 
shore. The snowfall totals 105 inches in the interior and 
in the north and 96 inches at Fredericton. 

Fertile River Valleys and Lowlands 

About 20 per cent of the total area of New Bruns- 
wick is under cultivation. The river valleys of the 
St. John and Petitcodiac are fertile farming areas. 
Back of the ridge which parallels the Bay of Fundy, 
extending southwest from Moncton to the St. John 
River, is another productive valley. Sussex is its com- 
mercial center. At the head of the bay are the Marshes 
of Tantramar. These lowlands are protected from 
flooding by a system of dikes, drains, and gates. These 
works permit the fresh water from the surrounding 
hills to flow out at low tide and prevent the high 
salt tide from entering the land. Sackville is the 
commercial center of this area. 

Hay and potatoes are the chief field crops. Dairy- 
ing has grown rapidly in recent years, and the pro- 
duction of butter, cheese, and condensed milk is an 
important industiy. The “finishing” of beef cattle. 


shipped in for that purpose from western Canada, 
and ranch furs (fox and mink), apples, baby chicks, 
cranberries, blueberries, and maple syrup are other 
sources of income. 

Natural Resources and Manufacturing 
A forested area of about 22,000 square miles (80 
per cent of its total area) makes lumbering a leading 
occupation. Logs are hauled over snow roadways 
in the winter and floated down the rivers during the 
spring freshets to the mills along their banks. Pulp, 
paper, and other wood products account for nearly 
half the gross value of manufactures. 

New' Brunswick’s fisheries rank fourth among the 
Canadian prot'inces, following British Columbia, 
Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. Lobsters and her- 
ring are the most valuable of the many kinds taken. 

The mineral resources are still little developed. 
About half the total value of mineral production is 
coal. Natural gas and petroleum are produced in small 
quantity, and other minerals include gypsum, rock 
for the making of grindstones, sand, gravel, peat moss, 
and clays suitable for brick, tile, and pottery. 

Manufacturing depends on the natural resources of 
the province, w'ith pulp, paper, and w'ood products far 
in the lead, followed by canned fish, and dairy prod- 
ucts. A revival of artistic home handicrafts has taken 
place through the leadership of the Cottage Craft 
Industries. Hooked rugs, hand-woven w'oolens, pot- 
tery, wood, metal, and leather products rank among 
the finest in the world. 

The People, Their Schools, and Government 
More than half of New Brunsw'ick’s people are 
of English, Irish, and Scottish descent. About 38 per 
cent are descendants of original French settlers. 
The population is about three fifths rural. Some 
of New Brunswick’s famous sons include Andrew 
Bonar Law, one-time prime minister of Great Brit- 
ain; Richard B. Bennett, formerlj' prime minister 
of:' .Canada; Lord Beaverbrook, British newspaper 





MARKET SLIP AT ST. JOHN 



Market Slip in the seaport of St. John is a busy water front today. Here in 1783 the first 
shiploads of United Empire Loyalists landed to found the modern British province. 


chusetts. In 1765 the region 
became the count}^ of Sunbury 
in the province of Nova Scotia. 

The arrival of the United 
Empire Loyalists helped to de- 
velop the region. These former 
citizens of the American Col- 
ordes remained loyal to Great 
Britain during the Revolution. 
In 1783 their property was con- 
fiscated by the United States 
and many emigrated to Cana- 
da. On May 18, 1783, 20 ves- 
sels disembarked nearly 3,000 
people at St. John. The fol- 
lowing year another 6,000 ar- 
rived. In 1784 New Brunswick 
w'as made a separate colony, 
with Thomas Carleton as the 
first governor. Fredericton 
was settled by Loyahsts in 
1783 where a French village 
once stood. It was named for 
the second son of George HI. 
In 1785 it became the capital. 


publisher and capitalist; and the poets Bliss Car- The boundary with Maine was long in dispute, 
man and Sir Charles G. D. Roberts. Troops were marshaled but no fighting took^place. 

A modern school system provides education through The “Aroostook War” was settled by Daniel Webster 

high school for every child in the province. The and Lord Ashburton in 1842 {see Maine). On Jui5 

County Schools Finance Act of 1943 provided for a re- 1, 1867, New Brunswick joined with Nova Scotia, 

organization of rural schools into larger units. By Ontario, and Quebec to form the Dominion of Canada. 

Januai-y 1948 the number of administrative units had (For Reference-Outline and Bibliography, see Canada; 


been reduced from 1,350 to 37. Pupils of grades 
seven through high school are conveyed by public 
school busses to the new junior-senior regional Com- 
posite High Schools. The schools are open in the even- 
ing for adult education classes and community recrea- 
tion. At the head of the educational system is the 
University of New Brunswick at Fredericton. 

The government is headed by a lieutenant governor 
appointed by the governor-general of Canada; a prime 
minister and executive council ; and a legislative assem- 
bly of 52 members, elected for terms of five years. 

Founded by French and British 

Jacques Cartier in 1534 was the first white man to 
land on the shores of New Brunswick, probably at the 
mouth of the Miramichi River. On June 24, 1604, Sam- 
uel de Champlain and the Sieur de Monts discovered 
the St. John River. They named it in honor of John 
the Baptist, whose feast day is celebrated on June 24. 
Tbe region w'as settled by the French. Together with 
Nova Scotia it was known as Acadia. In 1755 there 
were 10,000 French residents. In that year most of the 
people were e.xiled by the British, who had obtained 
possession of Acadia by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 
(see Acadia; Nova Scotia). Many of them later re- 
turned, and their descendants now make up about 
one third of the population. 

Mter the French were axpelled the British settled 
lands in New Brunsvick. The Tantramar Marshes 
were settled by farmers from Connecticut and Massa- 


Canadian History.) ^ 

Newcastle-UPON-TYNE. England. Carrying 
coals to Newcastle” is an ironic old saying. ® 
appreciate its meaning when we sail up the 
crowded waters of the River Tyne and come to i 
bustling city at whose docks steamers and 
loading coal for shipment to other places; fw r 
castle is in the center of the coal regions of Dur a 
and Northumberland and is one of the most impor an 
coal-shipping centers of Europe. The city s s if 
building yards and locomotive and engineering an^ 
ordnance works are among the largest in ’ 

George Stephenson was born near Newcastle aii 
city was associated with many of the first steps m 
development of the railway system. Its factories 
out vast quantities of soda, vitriol, bleaching 9°^, ’ 
salt and other chemical products, and also ear 
ware, cement, grindstones, fire brick, and A , ' 
It is also one of the largest fruit and vege s 
markets in Great Britain. , , ig 

Newcastle was the site of an old Roman for 
defend the eastern end of the wall that Ha 
built across Britain. Its modern name of 
came in the 11th century when Robert, the so 
William the Conqueror, built a castle there. A c 
tuiy later Henry II erected the 'castle which is 
standing. Its walls are 18 feet thick and its „ 

feet high — a fine Norman stronghold. Popuia 
(1951 census, preliminary), 291,723. 



139 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


Where AMERICA Is NEAREST to EUROPE 



■jVJEWFOUNDLAND.Canada's 
’ newest province is New- 
foundland. It comprises the 
island of Newfoundland and 
Labrador on the mainland of 
northeastern Canada. After 
450 years as a separate mem- 
ber of the British Empire, the 
island, together with Labrador, 
became the tenth province of 
Canada, March 31, 1949. 

The rocky island at the 
mouth of the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence was the first land dis- 
covered by John Cabot in the 
New World (1497). The island 
is separated from Nova Scotia 
on the southwest by the 70- 
mile-wide Cabot Strait. The 
narrow Strait of Belle Isle, only 
10 to 15 miles wide, separates 
it from Labrador. The area of 
the island is 42,734 square 
miles, about the size of Oliio. 

Labrador covers 112,630 
square miles. {See Labrador; for map, see Canada.) 

Because Newfoundland is the nearest pointy of 
North America to the British Isles (about 1,940 miles 
to Ireland), it is important as the terminus of cable and 
airplane routes and as an outpost of Canadian and 
United States defense. The Gander Airport on the 
north coast of the island is one of the largest in the 
British Empire. Goose Bay Airport in Labrador is also 
important. The United States uses these fields in ex- 
change for Canadian rights to fly across United States 
territory. Other naval and air bases and an army post 
near the capital, St. John’s, w'ere leased by the United 
States for 99 years in 1941. 

Even before the day of the airplane, Newfoundland 
was an important communications center. The first 
Atlantic cable was laid in 1858 between Newfoundland 
and Ireland, and the first wireless message was sent 
in 1901 from England to Newfoundland. Bay Roberts 
is a relay station of the present Atlantic cables. 

The island of Newfoundland has a deeply indented 
coast line, some 6,000 miles long. Almost all New- 
foundland’s people live close to the sea, on the shores 
of deep coves and baj’^s. The interior is a plateau, 
crossed by low ridges which reach their greatest 
elevation (over 2,500 feet) 
on the west coast in the 
Anguille and Long ranges. 

A network of rivers and 
lakes drains the interior in 
a northeast or southwest 
direction. The Humber, 

Exploits, and Gander are 
the longest rivers, all of 
them flowing out of and 


through large lakes. The broad river valleys and the 
west coast are heavily forested. Fur-bearing and large 
game animals are abundant, and great numbers of 
ducks, geese, and other water birds nest on the island. 
This is the home too of the gentle Newfoundland dog. 

Labrador’s few people live in small villages on the 
barren coast. Inland are deep forests where a few 
scattered Indians live. Almost all Labrador is drained 
by the great Hamilton River, famous for its beautiful 
Grand Falls. {See also Labrador.) 

The climate of the island varies considerably. On 
the west coast it is clear and sunny both winter and 
summer. In the southeast it is damp and foggy most of 
the year. The fogs are caused by warm moist winds 
blowdng off the Gulf Stream and mixing with cold air 
over the Labrador Current from the Arctic Ocean. 
Winters may last from November to May, but the 
temperature seldom falls below zero. In St. John’s the 
temperature usually ranges from 10° F. in January to 
an extreme of 80° in July. Labrador has a far more 
severe, sub-Arctic climate. 

John Cabot and his son Sebastian found that the 
waters of Newfoimdland teemed with codfish. Their 
enthusiastic reports first drew Englishmen across the 

ocean. The abundance of 
fish is due chiefly to the 
great submarine plateau 
called the Newfoundland 
Banks, or Grand Banks. 
This plateau extends 
about 300 miles off shore 
and comes within 100 or 
200 feet of the surface. The 
cold Labrador Current and 


rtent —Total area, 1SS,364 square miles: Labrador, 112,630 
squ^e miles; island, 42,734 sq^e miles. Population (19S1 
census), 361,416: island, 353,526; Labrador, 7,890. 

Talural Featisres.— Coasts broken by fjords and island-dotted 
bavs: Anguille Range and Long Range mountains m Uie west 
of the isWd, and isolated peaks (highest, point, Lewis , Hills. 
2 673 feet in Long Range; lowest point, sea level). Highest 
point in Labrador, Cirque Mountain (5,500 feet); lorrert point, 
CM level Chief rivers: island— Humber, EiploiU, and Gander; 
L^rador- Hanulton. Grand FaUs, 245 feet, on Hanulton River. 
‘Toducts —Codfish, herring, lobster, salmon; iron, lead, zinc, cop- 
per. fluorspar, limestone; pnlp and paper; se^kms and other 
furs; dairy products; hay, potatoes, eggs, turnips; Uvestock. 
lifier.— St. John’s (capital, 52,873); Comer Brook (10,276). 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


140 


the warm Gulf Stream meet over the Banks. Laden 
with the microscopic food, plankton, on which fish 
feed, they attract and support myriads of fish. After 
four centuries, the Banks are still the world’s greatest 
codfishing grounds. Herring, salmon, lobster, and 
other species also abound. Seal hunting is carried on 
in late winter when ice floes carry the seals down from 
the Arctic. Whales are also taken. 

The manufacture of pulp and paper, chiefly news- 
print, is a new and rapidly growing industry. . Its 
products now rival those of the fisheries in value. 
Corner Brook, at the mouth of the Humber River, has 
the world’s largest single mill producing newsprint 
and sulfite pulp. Grand Falls, on the Exploits River, 
is also an important mill town. The great forests of 
spruce and fir provide the raw materials, and there 
is abundant water power to operate the mills. 

Minerals on the island include a rich iron mine 
at Bell Island; lead, zinc, and copper deposits at 
Buchans; limestone and fluorspar. In Labrador, on 
the Quebec border, one of the world’s largest iron 
ranges is being opened up for development. 

Agriculture is not important. There is little fertile 
land, and the short, cool growing season limits crop 
production. The Codroy and Humber river valleys 
are the chief farming areas, but they are handicapped 
by lack of roads. Frozen blueberries and fruits are 
exported. 

The airplane is Newfoundland’s chief means of com- 
munication with the outside world. There is steam- 
ship service between St. John’s and Halifax, Boston, 
New York, and Liverpool; and between Sydney, Nova 
Scotia, and Port aux Basques on the southwest corner 
of the island. A government coastal steamer serves the 
fishing towns along the coasts of the island and 
Labrador in the summer. A government-owned rail- 
way runs in a half circle from St. John’s on the south- 
east, past Gander Airport and the paper-mill towns of 


WESLEYVILLE 



Grand Falls and Corner Brook to Port aux Basques. 
Highways in the interior of the island are under 
construction. Labrador has no inland transportation 
except the canoe. 

The population of the island is 353,526. Labrador 
has only 7,890 people. Most of the people are of 
English, Irish, or Scottish descent. About 40 per 
cent of the total live in the Avalon Peninsula at the 
southeastern corner of the island. Here is St. Jolin’s, 
the capital (population, 52,873). 

Schools are controlled by the churches of various 
denominations, but the Department of Education pays 
an annual grant for operating costs. Because of the 
small and widely scattered towns, about 90 per cent 
are one- or two-room schools. A few have united to 
form “amalgamated schools.’’ Secondary schools are 
found only in the larger towns. The Memorial Univer- 
sity College was founded by the government in St. 
John’s as a national war memorial. It offers a four- 
year course in arts and two-year premedical and 
science courses. 

A Long History of Independence 

After its discovery by John Cabot, Newfoundland 
was used only as a fishing station. In 1583 Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert took possession of the island in the 
name of Queen Elizabeth I. The French, who held 
Canada, had long attempted to control Newfoundland. 
Though the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 recogiiized the 
sovereignty of Great Britain, France was given the 
right to catch and dry fish on the northern and western 
shores. These rights in the “French shore’’ were re- 
tained by France until 1904, when it gave them up m 
return for concessions in Africa. 

Newfoundland was long governed by the “fishing 
admirals,’’ the masters of the earliest fishing vessels 
to arrive on the Banks in the spring. In 1729 the 
first governor was appointed by the British Parlia- 
ment. The island was a colony until 1855. In that 

year it was made a self- 


jr •• — ^ , 

governing dominion, ana 
Labrador became a de- 
pendency. The Labrador- 
Quebec boundary was not 
defined until 1927. 

In 1934 the world-iyide 
business depression 
brought financial ruin- 
Newfoundland was force 
to give up its indepen 
ence and accept a comnus 
sion form of governinen 
appointed by the Britis' 
Parliament. In 1948 hcw 
foundland, rather than re- 
turn to dominion status, 
voted to join Canada a® 
the tenth fn 

fective March 31, D, ’ 

(For Reference-Outline 

and Bibliography, see Can- 
ada; Canadian History-/ 


- 141 


NEW GUINEA 


LAND of HEAD-HUNTERS and TREE-DWELLERS 





American troops march along this Kew Guinea heach during the second World 
War. In spite of the many bloody battles fought here the conflict left httle 
imprint on the land and its people; • Most of the fighttag took place along narrow 
fringes of the coast and did not penetrate the vast mterior. 


N ew guinea. The vast island of New Guinea- 
second largest on earth — still keeps many of its 
secrets hidden. Most of its 300,000 square miles is 
occupied only by natives. Some are head-hunters. 

New Guinea lies north of Australia, across the 
Torres Strait and just below the equator (for map, 
see East Indies). It stretches some 1,500 miles east 
to west and is about 450 miles across at its widest. 
The only island that has a greater area is Greenland. 

The eastern half of New Guinea is ruled by Aus- 
tralia. It governs Northeast New Guinea as a trustee- 
ship and Papua as a British dependency. Beginning 
in 1949 the Netherlands and Indonesia disputed over 
west New Guinea. Population of New Guinea and 
nearby islands, 2,476,224, including Papua, 375,966 
(1952 est.); Northeast New Guinea, 1,100,258 
0952 est.); west New Guinea, 1,000,000 (1949 est.). 
In the Interior of the Great Island 
A backbone of mountains with snow-clad peaks 
higher than any in the United States runs nearly the 
entire length of the island. Rugged spurs extend from 
this backbone, cutting up the land into deep valleys 
and isolated plateaus. Great rivers flow down from 
the mountains, crossing broad belts of forest and 
swamplands to the sea. The most important river is 
the Fly, which winds 800 miles southward to the Gulf 
of Papua; next are the Sepik and the Mamberamo, 
which empty into the Pacific Ocean on the north. 
Lakes nestle in hills and valleys or form chains in the 
lowlands along the rivers. Where mountain spurs 
reach the sea, the coast is high and rocky; elsewhere 
it consists mostly of tidal swamps. 

In the rainy seasons, terrific storms sweep the 
island. In the lowlands even the dry seasons are damp 


enough for the giant grasses V 
and the dense forests to con- f ; 
tinue their lush growth. Acacias, eucalyptus, cy- 
press, and palms of many kinds grow here. Among 
their branches cling hundreds of varieties of rare or- 
chids. Great creepers and climbing vines form a 
tangle so dense that explorers who leave the rivers to 
cut their way through the forests coimt two or three 
miles a day a fair rate of travel. Clouds of mosquitoes 
hover above water teeming with crocodiles and huge 
leeches. Brilliantly colored butterflies flutter among 
the tree tops. The wild life resembles that of Aus- 
tralia, including egg-laying mammals called “spiny 
anteaters,” and several marsupials such as the wallaby 
(a miniature kangaroo), the ring-tailed opossum, 
the bandicoot, and the wild pig. Huge fruit-eating 
bats abound. Conspicuous among the birds are the 
ostrich-like cassowary, so powerful that it can kill a 
dog with a blow of its foot, the egret, the bowerbird, 
and the many species of birds of paradise. Lizards, 
some of great size, and snakes both harmless and 
poisonous exist nearly ever3Tvhere on the island. In 
the coastal waters live the strange sea mammals 
called dugongs and numerous great turtles. 

The People of New Guinea 
From district to district and from tribe to tribe the 
natives of New Guinea show an amazing contrast in 
appearance, customs, and language. Some are as black 
as Negroes; others are no darker than a weU-tanned 
white man. Some are six-foot giants; other, dwarf- 
like pigmies. A tribe with broad noses and thick 
lips may have long-nosed and thin-lipped neighbors. 
There are small groups that live like hunted animals 
without settled homes and with no more possessions 



NEW GUINEA 


142 


LIKE THE NESTS OF GIANT BIRDS 



New Gutola coast’'®Thev“eer°* covered with long grass, are common on the 

New „They serve as refuges from unfriendly neighbors and as dwellings for the un- 

marnea girls of the tribe. The ladders may be pulled “upstairs” as added protection. 


than they can carry on their backs. There are also 
great tribes with an elaborate social organization and a 
remarkable skill in architecture, boat-building, sculp- 
ture, painting, wea\nng, and pottery-making. ’ Meas- 
ured on the scale of the history of white civilization, 
the culture of the New Guinea natives ranges from 
that of the “davm men” of Europe to that of the lake 
dwellers of Neolithic times (see Man). 

The bost-i^wn of the natives belong to the so- 
called “PapuanV types. They are sooty brown to deep 
black, vdth long^rizzly hair. Many of the Papuans 


haveoval faces with prom- 
inent noses, high cheek- 
bones, and high foreheads, 
The men are nearly naked ; 
their bodies are decorated 
with knife scars in intri- 
cate pattern, made when 
they graduate from boy- 
hood. They wear neck- 
laces of teeth and shells, 
earrings, feathered head- 
pieces, and cassowary 
bones thrust crosswise 
through the middle carti- 
lage of the nose. The 
women generally wear 
grass skirts and much 
simpler ornaments than 
the men. 

The typical Papuan vil- 
lage lies near a river bank, 
hidden behind a screen of 
trees. The buildings are 
well made of log frames 
with thatched walls and 
roofs. Near the river are 
concealed the great war 
canoes skilfully hollowed 
out of huge tree trunks 
with axes and adzes made 
of stone or shell. Gardens 
fringe the village where 
the women raise yams, 
taro, bananas, and sugar 
cane. Other food comes 
from the sago palms and 
breadfruit trees in tbe 
near-by forest. 

The family houses sur- 
round a long clubhouse 
and armory, called a 
dubu, strictly reserved 
for men. In front of 
the dubu is an open 
space where the wild 
tribal song-dances are 
held to the intricate 
rhythms of drums. la* 
side the dubu hang mar- 


velously carved and painted canoe paddles, bows an 
arrows, spears, and daggers made from cassowa^ 
bones and human shinbones. Most prized of all are tne 
exhibits of human skulls and smoked heads, each one 
representing a victim killed and perhaps eaten. Can- 
nibalism and head-hunting have stopped near the 
coast, but they persist in remote areas. 

The White Man in New Guinea . 

Portuguese and Spanish adventurers of the early lot i 
century were probably the first white men to sight the 
coast of New Guinea. In 1606, a Spaniard, Luis do 



143 


NEW HAMPSHIRE 


Torres, sailed the strait between New Guinea and 
Australia which bears his name. The Dutch annexed 
the western half of the island in 1793, and Germany 
and Great Britain set up protectorates in the east- 
ern half in 1884. British New Guinea passed into Aus- 
tralian control as the Territory of Papua in 1906, 
and German New Guinea (Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land) 
went to Australia, first as a League of Nations mandate 
and later as a trusteeship under the United Nations. 

The chief resources of New Guinea are copra, rub- 
ber, and sisal hemp raised on plantations under Euro- 
pean direction. Most of the plantations, however, 
were ruined by neglect during World War II. The 
forests are rich in valuable timber, largely unex- 
ploited. Petroleum has been found in several regions. 
The mountains, young and rugged like the Rockies, 
promise vast deposits of minerals and are already 
yielding some gold, copper, silver, and osmiridium. 
But tangled jungles and jagged cliffs bar the way to 
mineral wealth. Airplanes are often used to trans- 
port machinery and supplies to mines in the interior. 


This wilderness halted the Japanese after they had 
landed at Lae, Salamaua, and Buna in 1942 in World 
War II. The delay enabled American and Australian 
forces to hack their way over the Owen Stanley Moun- 
tains and repel the invaders (see World War, Second). 

Netherlands, or Dutch, New Guinea consists of the 
western half of New Guinea and offshore islands, 
chiefly the Japan and Schouten groups, Frederik 
Hendrik, and Salawati. The territory’s area is 150,000 
square miles, and its capital is Hollandia. The Terri- 
tory of New Guinea, under Australian trusteeship, 
embraces 93,000 square miles. It is made up of north- 
eastern New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago (in- 
cluding New Britain, New Ireland, and the Admiralty 
Islands), and the northern Solomon Islands (includ- 
ing Buka and Bougain\dlle). The Territory of Papua, 
also governed by Australia, is 90,540 square miles 
in area. It comprises southeastern New Guinea, Louis- 
iade Archipelago, D’Entrecasteaux Islands, Woodlark 
Island, and Trobriand Islands. Port Moresby is the 
capital of both Australian territories. 


The 

“GRANITE 

STATE” 


The “Old Man of the Mountains,” 
about which Hawthorae wrote his 
famoi^ story, puts out against the 
sky- From its high place on the cliffs 
bordering Franconia Notch in the 
White Mountains, it overlooks a 
picturesque valley and lake region. 



I TVJEW HAMPSHIRE. Many people think of New 
' Hampshire, “the granite state,’’ chiefly as a play- 

’ ground. Indeed much of the state resembles a vast and 

' beautiful park, made up of mountains, lakes, and 

i valleys. Here are cool summer breezes, fine hotels, 

'> good highways, and mountains of varying heights for 

. climbers. Here the bare summits of the tallest peaks 

;! overtop the pines, spruces, and hemlocks, which 

^ cloak mountainsides and valleys. In winter, snow- 

clad slopes draw devotees of skiing and tobogganing. 

About half of New Hampshire is mountainous, with 
1 ranges and wilderness covering much of the western 
i ^Rd northern parts of the state. In the southwest are a 
j; number of low mountain ranges. Their highest peak 
(3,166 feet above sea level) is Mount Monadnock, to 
which Emerson referred in some of his poems. The 
•J: northern section has the lovely’’ I^Tiite Mountams. 

j’ They extend across the state from the Connecticut 
p River valley into Maine. 


One of the most picturesque spots in New Hamp- 
shire is Franconia Notch. This w’ooded gap, about five 
miles long, cuts through the southwestern group of the 
■\\Tiite Mountains. The notch is dominated by Profile 
Mountain. Its upper cliffs form the “Old Man of the 
Mountains,” made famous by Nathaniel Hawthorne’s 
story, ‘The Great Stone Face’. 

About 20 miles eastw’ard by air and 50 miles by 
highway from Profile Mountain is Moimt Washing- 
ton, also in the White Moimtains. This peak (6,288 
feet above sea level) towers higher than any other in 
New England and is among the highest of all the 
mountains east of the Mississippi River. A foot trail, a 
cog railway, and a highway all lead to the summit of 
Mount Washington. From there on a clear day a visi- 
tor can see parts of Vermont and New York, Maine, 
Canada, and the Atlantic Ocean. On the summit is an 
important United States Weather Bureau station 
wMch is open the-jiear around. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 


— 144 


VERMONT AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 



OF 

M I7.ES 

0 

20 

40 

L— 



The map shows two of New Hampshire’s natural advantages. The swift rivers 
furnish abundant power for manufacturing; the mountains attract vacationists. 


About 10 per cent of New Hampshire’s area is in- 
cluded in the 'White Mountain National Forest. Most 
of this extensive region is owned by the federal 
government. The United States Forest Service pro- 
tects the trees against wasteful logging and forest fires. 

A Summer and Winter Playground 
The most popular recreational area of New Hamp- 
shire is the VTiite Mountain region. The summer 
tourist season is short but very busy. Families drive 
along winding and scenic highways, stop to enjoy out- 
standing views, and stay overnight at hotels, lodges, 
and tourist camps. Hardier visitors hike over well- 
marked mountain trails and spend the nights in cabins 
or shelters. These were erected by the government or 
by such groups as the Appalachian Moimtain Club. 

In the W hite Mountains the long udnter season is of 
importance as a tourist attraction. ^Vhen the snow is 
right for skiing, special trains bring thousands of week- 
end visitors to the area. During the winter season also 
many hunters come to shoot deer and small game. 

In the eastern part of the state are many lakes. 
The largest of these. Lake Winnepesaukee, is about 
22 miles long. Lining its shores and those of smaller 
lakes are a few towns and many cottages and hotels. 


Visitors throng here for vacation-time 
fishing, boating, and swimming. 

The state has a number of scenic roads 
through mountain and river country. The 
New Hampshire Turnpike, paralleling the 
ocean inland, speeds traffic between the 
Massachusetts and Maine borders. Under 
construction are a branch of this toll 
road betw'een Portsmouth and Rochester 
and Everett Turnpike between Nashua 
and Concord. 

Farming, Forestry, and Fishing 
The bottom lands of the Connecticut 
and Merrimack rivers and southeastern 
New Hampshire have fertile soil. Here 
are grown the state’s chief farm products 
— milk, eggs, hay, and chickens. 

Once a lumber center, about four fifths 
of New Hampshire is still forested. Its 
forests even today provide its sawmills 
and paper and pulp mills with logs. 

New Hampshire has the shortest coast 
line of all the Atlantic states about 
18 miles long. It has only one port, 
Portsmouth, on the Piscataqua River a 
few miles from the ocean. The citys 
fisheries catch lobster, cod, clams, white 
hake, haddock, and smelt. In Portsmouth 
is a United States Navy Yard. In th^ 
city the peace treaty between Japan and 
Russia was signed in 1905. 

Manufacturing Is Important 
New Hampshire’s farms, forests, and 
fisheries provide employment^ for only a 
small part of the state’s working popula- 
tion. Manufacturing is the leading occu- 
pation, both in number of workers and in 
income. Although the state is 44th in population, i 
ranks much higher in the value added to goods 
by its mills and factories. Its largest industr}' is 
the manufacture of textiles. In this it is one of tie 
most productive states in the nation. Woolen, co 
ton, and rayon fabrics account for most of this ou 
put. New Hampshire ranks among the leading sta es 
in the production of leather and leather goods. 1 
principal manufacture in this group is shoes. Otier 
industries are paper products and machinery’. 

Hydroelectric power is. supplied by the Connecticu 
River, which forms the state’s w’estern boundary, an 
by the Merrimack River, which flows through 
center of the state. The Merrimack provides po"® 
to turn more textile spindles than any other 
The manufacturing industries of New Hampsm^ 
are concentrated in about ten relatively small 
The largest of these is Manchester, in the sout cr 
part of the state. Many of the workers in its 
shoe and textile factories are French ,qth 

whose forefathers came here from Quebec in the 
century to find work in these industries. Nas i>^> 
15 miles south, is also an industrial city. 
the junction of the Merrimack and Nashua 

Continued on pose ^ * 




New Hampshire Fact Summary 



NEW HAMPSHIRE (N. H.): Named by 
Capt. John Mason who came from 
Portsmouth in Hampshire, England. 
Nickname: “Granite State,” from nu- 
merous granite quarries. "Mother of 
Rivers,” because sources of 5 impor- 
tant New England rivers are found 
in mountains of the state. 

Seal: The frigate Raleigh in foreground; rising sun in 
background; laurel wreath encircles this scene. 

Motto: Live Free or Die. 

Flag: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Purple lilac. Bird (unofficial): Chickadee. 
Tree: White birch. Song (unofficial): ‘Old New Hamp- 
shire’— words, J. F. Holmes; music, Maurice Hoffmann. 


THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital: Concord (since 1808). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 2. Elec- 
toral votes, 4. 

General Court: Senators, 24; term, 

2 years. Representatives, at least 
350 and not more than 400 (399 
in 1951); term, 2 years. Convenes 
the first Wednesday in January in the odd-numbered 
years. No limit to length of sessions. 

Constitution: Adopted 1784. Every 7 years, if majority of 
voters at popular election wish a revision. General 
Court calls a constitutional convention for that pur- 
pose. Ratification requires two-thirds majority voting 
on subject at a popular election. 

Governor: Term, 2 years. May succeed himself. Has 
council of 5 members, elected every 2 years. 

Other Executive Officers: Secretary of state, treasurer, 
commissary-general, all elected by the legislature; 
terms, 2 years. Attorney general appointed by governor 
and council; term, 5 years. 

Judiciary: Supreme coimt — 5 justices. Superior courts — 
6 justices. Probate courts — 1 in each county. All judges 
appointed by governor and council; term, until 70 
years of age. 

County: 10 counties, each governed by a board of 3 com- 
missioners. Boards and officers elected; term, 2 years. 

Municipal: Cities — officials elected as charters provide; 
towns — board of 3 selectmen, 1 elected each year; 
terms, 3 yrs.; some towns have town manager. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 6 
months; in district, 6 months. Literacy test required. 




transportation and communication 

Transportation: Railroads, 900 miles. First railroad, 
Nashua and Lowell (from Lowell to Nashua), 1838. 
Rural roads, 12,600 miles. Airports, 34. 
Communication: Periodicals, 22. Newspapers, 54. First 
newspaper, New Hampshire Gazette, Portsmouth, 1756. 
Radio stations (AM and FM), 17; first station, WKAV 
(the pr^ent WLNH), Laconia, licensed Aug. 22, 1922. 
Television stations, none. Telephones, 161,500. Post 
offices, 333. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 533,242 (rank among 48 states 
— 14th); urban, 57.5%; rural, 42.5%. Density: 59.1 
persons per square mile (rank — ^23d state). 

Extent: Area, 9,304 square miles, including 287 square 
miles of water surface (43d state in size). 

Elevation: Highest, Mount Washington, 6,288 feet, near 
Crawford House; lowest, sea level. 

Temperature (°F.): Average — annual, 44°; winter, 21°; 
spring, 42°; summer, 66°; fall, 47°. Lowest recorded, 
—46° (Pitteburg, Jan. 28, 1925 — lower temperatures 
have been observed on Mount Washington); highest 
recorded, 106° (Nashua, July 4, 1911). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 40; winter, 9; 
spring, 10; summer, 11; fall, 10. Varies from about 35 
inches in north central to about 59 inches in south. 

Natural Features: White Mountains in northern section; 
Mount Monadnock in the southwest; lake district in 
central portion contains Lake Winnipesaukee and 
many smaller lakes; the Connecticut River with its fer- 
tile valley forms western boundary; the Merrimack 
River flows down through the central southern portion; 
low country in southeast near the seacoast. 

Land Use: Cropland, 6%; nonforested pasture, 4%; for- 
est, 84%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, wasteland, 
cities, etc.), 6%. 


CROPS 
L fPA STURE 


FOREST 


OTHER 


Natural Resources: Agricultural — fertile river valleys; 
land suitable for raising cattle. Industrial — forests on 
mountain slopes supply wood-using industries; mica, 
feldspar, sand and gravel, clays, stone, and beryllium. 
Commercial— ■water power from rivers; vacation land. 


OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 
What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 

Manufacturing 

81,884 

40.4 

Wholesale and retail trade 

31,971 

15.8 

Professional services (medical, legal, 
educational, etc.) 

18,343 

9.1 

Agriculture, forestry, and fishery. . . 

13,625 

6.7 

Construction 

12,260 

6.0 

Personal services (hotel, domestic, 
laundering, etc.) 

11,792 

5.8 

Transportation, communication, and 
other public utilities 

11,636 

5.7 

Government 

7,029 

3.5 

Business and repair serwces 

5,071 

2.5 

Finance, insurance, and real estate. . 

5,054 

2.5 

Amusement, recreation, and related 
services. 

1;584 

0.8 

Mining 

188 

0.1 

Workers not accounted for 

2,244 

1.1 

Total employed 

202,681 

100.0 


145 



New Hampshire Fact Summary 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 33d) 
Value added by manufacture* (1952), $413,181,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Textile Mill Products 

$85,318,000 

14 

Cotton and rayon fabrics ; woolen 
and worsted fabrics 

Leather and Leather Products . 

70,107,000 

7 

Footwear, except rubber 

Paper and Allied Products 

33,520,000 

26 

Pulp, paper, and paperboard mills 
Machinery (except Electrical).. 

32,209,000 

20 

Special-industry machinery 
Lumber and Products 

22,447,0d0 

30 

Sawmills; wooden boxes 

Printing and Publishing. . . . 

10,960,000 

34 


*For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Censua. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states— 46th) 
Total cash income (1952), $70,646,000 


Products 


Milk 

Eggs 

Hay 

Chickens , 


Amount Produced 
(10-Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

Stalest 

160,000,000 qts. 

1 

42 

29,000,000 doz. 

2 

36 

430,000 tons 

3 

43 

28,921,000 lbs. 

4 

37 


Rank in dollar value tRank in units produced 



. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 
Annual value (1951), $1,296,000 
Rank among states — 46th 


Minerals (1951) 
Sand and gravel. . 

Feldspar* 

Stone 


Amount Produced 


2,260,000 tons 


Value 


$518,000 


62,000 tons , 

*Feld5par ranks 2d in value; exact figures not available. 

D. Trade 


350,000 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 

Wholesale 

Ketail 

$188,998,000 

45 

Service 

50,757,000 

44 

40 


(-iiitb 11950 census) 

Manchester (82,732); important industrial center- manu- 

NaSTsfofOl ®’®°trical equipment, cigars. 

Nashua (34,669). water power; shoes, cloth, paper and 
vood pro_ducts machinery, electronics equipment 
oncord (2<,9S8) : state capital on Merrimack River- rail 

pousltrisVim Si, 

Be in nr. mot: ^ fisheries. 

olvlr r’”"'’ products. 

Dover Uo.St 4) : shoes, printing machinery, fiber products 

Keene (lo,638): industrial and resort city; machinery 
Laconia (14,i4o): resort and industrial city; hosiery miils' 



EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 453; sec- 
ondary, 93. Compulsory school age, 6 
through 16. State Board of Education 
consists of governor and 7 nonsal- 
aried members, appointed by gover- 
nor, 5-year terms. Commissioner of 
education appointed, indefinite term. 

District and union school board 
members elected, 3-year terms. Local superintendents 
nominated by supervisory union board, appointed by 
State Board of Education, 1- to 7-year terms. 
Private and Parochial Schools: 137. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges, 10; jun- 
ior college, 1. State-supported schools include the 
University of New Hampshire, Durham; 2 teacheis 
colleges — Keene and Plymouth; 2 state technical insti- 
tutes — Manchester and Portsmouth. 

Special State Institution: Laconia State School, Laconia. 
Libraries: City and town public libraries, 238. State 
library responsible for aid in developing library service, 
operating bookmobile service in all ten counties. 
Outstanding Museums: Currier Gallery of Art, Manches- 
ter; Dartmouth College Museum, Hanover. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

Industrial School, Manchester; State Prison, Concord. 

PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Belknap Mountains Recreation Area — Gilford; summer 
and winter sports; lake and mountain scenery (32). 
Benson’s Wild Animal Farm — near Hudson; jungle ani- 
mals’ training camp for circus or zoo life (60). 
Cathedral of the Pines — Rindge; outdoor altar in grove 
of pines, a memorial to World War II dead (69). 
Chinook Kennels — Wonalancet; village of Huskies (20). 
Collins Clock Museum — near Georges Mills; over 300 
rare clocks; historic carvings on 13-foot clock (34). 
Concord — Statehouse built in 1819 (see Concord) (43). 
Daniel Webster Birthplace — near Franklin (35). 
Dixville Notch — unusual rock formations (2). 

Dover — early settlement founded in 1623 (44). 
Durham — home of Maj. Gen. John Sullivan of the Revo- 
lutionary War; church was storage place for powder 
and arms used at battle of Bunker Hill (49). 

Exeter — capital of New Hampshire during Revolution; 

Phillips Exeter Academy (51). 

Franklin Pierce Homestead — Hillsboro; home of the four- 
teenth president of the United States (45). 

Glen Ellis Falls — at Pinkham Notch on Ellis R- (1®)- 
Goyette Museum of Americana — Peterborough; recon- 
structed old shops on a typical, early village street (56). 
Hannah Dustin Monument — Penacook; site where her- 
oine in 1697 scalped her Indian captors; west of (43)' 
Horace Greeley Marker — Amherst; honors author o 
famous saying, “Go West, young man”; n.w. of (wl- 
Indian Head — rock profile on Mt. Pemigewasset (D/- 
Lake Winnipesaukee — state’s largest lake (30). , 

Libby Museum — Wolfeboro; mounted birds, fish, 
snakes in replicas of natural habitats (31). . 

Lost River — rock formations near Kinsman Notch (lol- 
MacDowell Colony — Peterborough; haven for authors, 
artists, and musicians since early 1900’s (56). _ 

Morse Museum — Warren; displays of mounted 

weapons from all over the world; shoe collection (211- 
Mt. Washington — 3-mile cograilway and 8-mile suenic to 
road to m ountaintop ; United States W eather Station ( 1- 
Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


146 



New Hampshire Fact Summary 


, /"// f 




Polar Caves— near Plymouth; cold, rocky 
caverns and passageways (26). 

Portsmouth— U. S. Navy Yard; colonial 
capital (1623); historic houses (50). 

Saint^Gaudens Memorial — Cornish; 
sculptor’s home and studio (33). 

Skimobile— N orth Conway; ride up Cran- 
more Mt. in miniature cars (18). 

White Mountain Glacial Park — Thorn- 
ton; potholes; 75-ft. RainbowFalls (23). 


STATE PARKS*t 

Bear Brook— trails, lakes, streams (47). 

Cardigan — on Mt. Cardigan; picnicking, 
hiking; scenic views; at symbol (27). 

Clough Reservation — quiet picnic area; 
southeast of (45). 

Crawford Notch — scenic splendors; wa- 
terfalls, cascades, cliffs (11). 

Echo Lake — scenery of Ca’thedral, White 
Horse ledges; swimming (17). 

Forest Lake — swimming, picnicking (7). 
FranconiaNotch— scenic White Mt. area; 

“Old Man of the Mountains” on Pro- 
file Mt.; Flume Gorge; Cannon Mt. 

Aerial Tramway; potholes (14). 

Hampton Beach — on Atlantic Ocean (53) . 

Hilton — picnic spot overlooks Great Bay 
and tidal mouth of Piscataqua River; 
east of (49). 

Kingston Lake — picnicking; beach (52). 

Milan Hill — scenic views toward White 
Mts. into Me., Vt., Canada (3). 

Miller— on Pack Monadnock Mt.; hiking 
trails; forest fire lookout (57). 

Monadnock — trails to top of Mt. Monad- 
nock; scenic panorama (55). 

Moose Brook — swimming, picnicking (6). 

Mount Prospect — views of White Mts.; 

mansion of John Wingate Weeks (5). 

Mount Sunapee — summer and winter 
sports; beach; chairlift (37). 

Pillsbury — primitive woodland; camping, 
picnicking, swimming; at (42). 

Rhododendron — abounds in flowering 
shrubs in July; picnicking (54). 

Rye Harbor — picnic area overlooks 
harbor; northeast of (53). 

Silver Lake — bathing, picnicking on lake 
front; west of (60). 

Toll Gate— south side of Mount Kear- 
sarge; lake and mountain scenery (40). 

Wadleigh — swimming and picnicking on 
Kezar Lake (38). 

Wellington — pine grove, beach on Newfound Lake (28). 
Wentworth — picnicking; L. Wentworth; near (31). 
White Lake — water sports; camping; White Mts. (25). 
Winslow Site — north slope of Mt. Kearsarge; trails (39). 

national forest* 

White Mountain— 798,291 acres in state; total 851,842 
acres in N. H. and Me.; hdqrs., Laconia, N.H.; area 
includes Cravdord, Kinsman, Pinkham notches, and 
east sid e of Franconia Notch (4, 12, 19, 22). 

i™))nibera in parentheses are keyed to map. 

also 6 waj-side picnic areas. „ ,. .t, 

Ubere are more than 140 state forests in New Hampshire; the 11 
are given here; many include state park facilities. 


VB 

^ 



STATE FORESTS*t 

Annett (Cheshire Co.) — 1,360 acres (58). 

Bear Brook (Merrimack & Rockingham Cos.) — 7,233 
acres (46). 

Cardigan Mountain (Grafton Co.) — 5,294 acres (27). 
Connecticut Lakes (Coos Co.) — 1,548 acres (1). 
Crawford Notch (Carroll Co.) — 5,950 acres (8). 
Franconia Notch (Grafton Co.) — ^,232 acres (13). 
Hemenway (Carroll Co.) — 1,958 acres (24). 

Kearsarge Mountain (Merrimack Co.) — 2,918 acres (41). 
Mt. Sunapee (Merrimack Co.) — 1,787 acres (36). 
Pawtuckaway (Rockingham Co.) — 1,384 acres (48). 
Pillsbury (Sullivan Co.) — 3,702 acres (42). 


147 




New Hampshire Fact Summary 


THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1 603 — Martin Pring, in service of Eng- 
lish merchants, explores Piscat- 
aqua River. 

1 605 — Samuel de Champlain, French ex- 
plorer, lands at Piscataqua Bay. 

1614 — Captain John Smith sails along 
New Hampshire coast; his book, 

‘Description of New England’, 
attracts attention to the New England region. 

1 620 — Plymouth Company receives grant as Council for 
New England to all land between 40th and 48th 
parallels, west from Atlantic Ocean. 

1 622 — Council for New England grants to Sir Ferdinando 
Gorges and Capt. John Mason land between Mer- 
rimack and Kennebec rivers, called Province of 
Maine; includes much of present New Hampshire. 

1623 — David Thomson and colonists settle near present 
Portsmouth; settlement moved to west bank of 
harbor and named Strawberry Bank, 1631; re- 
named Portsmouth, 1653. 

1629 — Council for New England grants to Mason alone 
the area between Merrimack and Piscataqua riv- 
ers; Mason names it New Hampshire; later grants 
enlarge area. Mason, Gorges, and others receive 
Laconia Grant west of Merrimack and Kennebec 
rivers to Lake Ontario and St. Lawrence River. 

1631 — Edward Hilton receives grant to Dover tract, 
which he had already settled. 

1 633 — First town government and first church in New 
Hampshire established at Dover. 

1635 — Death of Mason leaves land claims to settlers in 
doubt; “Masonian Controversy” not finally set- 
tled until 1787. 

1 638 — ^Town of Exeter founded. 

1 639 — ^Town of Hampton established. 

1641 — Four New Hampshire towns place themselves un- 
der government of Massachusetts; are attached to 
County of Norfolk. 



1642- 

1647- 

1675- 

1679—: 

1686- 

1689- 

1692- 

1698- 

1702- 

1719 - 

1721- 

1740 

1741- 

1744- 


Darby Field and others discover White Mountains; 
Field is first to scale Mount Washington. 

-New Hampshire towns required by Massachusetts 
legislation to furnish public education. 

-King Philip’s War starts; ends in 1678; Indians 
are made hostile by Major Waldron who tricks 
them into disarming at mock battle of Dover. 
■New Hampshire becomes royal province; governor 
and council chosen by British king; legislative 
assembly selected by people. 

■New Hampshire becomes part of Dominion of 
New England under Gov. Edmund Andros. 
-King William s War brings new Indian attacks; 
Dover and other towns raided; war ends, 1697. 
-New Hampshire becomes separate province. 

New Hampshire allies itself with Massachusetts in 
common defense against tyrannical governors. 
-Queen Anne’s War begins; brings minor attacks 
by Indians on settlers; war ends, 1713. 
-Scotch-Irish settlers liegin coming to London- 
derry; introduce spinning of linen. 

-Lovewejrs War brings renewed Indian attacks; war 
ends, 1/26, vnih defeat of Indians near Conway. 
-Royal decree settles New Hampshire-Massachu- 
setts border dispute. 

-Beiining Wentworth, born at Portsmouth, be- 
comes governor of New Hampshire. 

-King George’s War brings renewed fighting with 
French and Indians; war ends, 1748. 


1761 — Stagecoach service opens, Boston-Portsmouth. 

1763 — End of French and Indian War brings peace to 
New Hampshire frontier. 

1769 — New Hampshire divided into 5 counties; effective, 
1771. Dartmouth College chartered at Hanover. 

1774 — Military supplies at Fort William and Mary in 
Newcastle captured by colonists from British. 

1775 — Wentworth forced to resign as governor; Commit- 
tee of Safety organized; first Provincial Congress 
meets at Exeter. 

1776 — Provincial Congress adopts temporary constitu- 
tion for state, January 5; New Hampshire adopts a 
declaration of independence, June 15; privateers 
begin operating out of Portsmouth. 

1777 — Vermont becomes independent state, separating 
from New Hampshire. Gen. John Stark leads New 
Hampshire troops in defeat of British at battle of 
Bennington (Vt.), August 16. 

1782 — Vermont-New Hampshire border dispute settled; 
Vermont cedes border towns to New Hampshire. 

1784 — Present state constitution adopted, June 2. 

1788 — New Hampshire is 9th state to ratify U. S. Con- 
stitution, June 21; completes number necessary to 
inaugurate new federal government. 

1792 — ^Title of president of state changed to governor. 
First bank in state opens at Portsmouth. 

1 793 — Paper mill built at Alstead. 

1796 — New Hampshire Turnpike from Portsmouth to 
Concord opened. 

1 800 — U. S. government purchases site for Portsmouth 
Navy Yard. 

1804 — One of state’s first cotton mills erected at New 
Ipswich. 

1 808 — Concord becomes permanent state capital. 

1813 — Building of famous “Concord” stagecoaches be- 
gins at Concord about this time. 

1815 — Famous “Dartmouth College” case begins; won, 
1819, by Daniel Webster, born near Franklin. 
(U. S. Supreme Court upholds federal contract.) 

1819 — Religious Toleration Act prohibits state taxation 
to raise money for church purposes. Power looms 
introduced in Manchester mills stimulate grow 
of New Hampshire’s textile industry. 

1 822 — First free library in state opened at Dublin. 

1 823 — First shoe factory in state opened at Weare. 

1833 — Library founded at Peterborough; oldest in U. 

to be continuously tax-supported. , 

1852 — Franklin Pierce, born at Hillsboro, elected 1 
president of U. S. 

1 855 — First state prohibition act is passed. 

1 868 — New Hampshire College of Agriculture nnd * n* 
chanic Arts opens at Hanover; moved to 
1893; becomes Univ. of New Hampshire, , 

1 881 — Board of Health and Forestry Department crea c • 

1905 — ^Treaty ending Russo-Japanese War is signed s 
Portsmouth. 

1909 — ^Direct primary law passed. 

1913 — State Department of Agriculture established. 

1919 — New Hampshire Board of Education created. 

1931 — Governor establishes League of Arts and 

1950 — State executive department reorganized. ^ 
Hampshire Turnpike, 15-mile Massachuse 
Maine shoreline toll road, completed. 

1951 — New Hampshire Business Development Corpor 
tion established to encourage new industries. 

1 953— Portsmouth-Rochester extension to New B'ld'I 
shire Turnpike and Everett Turnpike bcti'C 
Nashua and Concord authorized. 


148 


NEW HAMPSHIRE 


COUNTIES 


Belknap 

26,632 

D 4 

Carroll 

15,868 

D 4 

Cheshire 

38,811 

B 6 

Coos 

35,932 

D 2 

Grafton 

47,923 

C4 

Hillsboro 156,987 

C 6 

Merrimack. 63,022 

C 5 

Rockingham 



70,059 

D 5 

Strafford 

51,567 

D 5 

Sullivan 

26,441 

B 5 

CITIES AND TOWNS 

Acworth 

+418 

B 5 

Alexandria 

+402 

C4 

Allenstown +1,540 

D 5 

Alstead 

+851 

B 5 

Alton 

+1,189 

D 5 

Alton Bay 

200 

D 5 

Amherst 

+1,461 

C 6 


t Population of township 


Andover 

+1,057 

C 5 

Antrim 

+1,030 

C 5 

Apthorp 


C 3 

Ashland 

+1,599 

C4 

Ashuelot 

500 

B 6 

Atkinson 

+492 

D 6 

Atkinson Depot 

D 6 

Auburn 

+1,158 

D 5 

Barnstead 

+846 

D 5 

Barrington +1,052 

E 5 

Bartlett 

+1,074 

D 3 

Bath 

+706 

C 3 

Bear Island 

D 4 

Bedford 

+2,176 

C 6 

Beebe River’ 275 

C4 

Belmont 

+1,611 

D 5 

Bennington 

'+593 

C5 

Benton 

+247 

C 3 

Berlin 

16,615 

D 3 

Berlin Mills 

D 3 

Bethlehem 

+882 

C 3 


Blodgett 


D 5 

Blodgett Landing 

C 5 

Boscawen 

+1,857 

C 5 

Bow 

+1,062 

C 5 

Bradford 

+606 

C 5 

Brentwood 

+819 

D 6 

Bretton Woods 14 

D 3 

Bridgewater +222 

C4 

Bristol 

+1,586 

C4 

Brookfield 

+159 

D 4 

Brookline 

+671 

C 6 

Campton 

+1,149 

C4 

Canaan 

+1,465 

B 4 

Canaan Ct. 

179 

B 4 

Candia 

+1,243 

D 5 

Canobie Lake 778 

D 6 

Canterbury' 

+627 

C 5 

Carroll 

+359 

D 3 

Cascade 

Center 

1,000 

D 3 

Barnstead 550 

D 5 


Center Conway 

400 D 4 

Center Harbor 

t451 D 4 
Center Ossipee 

750 D 4 

Center 

Sandwich 725 C 4 
Center Strafford D 5 
Center Tufton- 
boro 500 D 4 

Charlestown 

t2.077 B 6 
Chatham tl77 D 3 
Chesham B 6 

Chester t807 D 6 
Chesterfield t970 B 6 
Chichester t"35 D 5 
Chocorua 375 D 4 
Claremont 12,811 B 5 
Colebrook +2,116 D 2 


CONCORD 



27,988 

C 5 

Contoocook 

; 1,000 

C 5 

Conway 

+4,109 

D 4 

Coos Junction 

C 2 

Cornish Flat 200 

B 5 

Crawford Hse. 6 

D 3 

Croydon 

+349 

B 5 

Crystal 

50 

D 2 

Dalton 

+557 

C 3 

Danbury 

+496 

C4 

Danville 

+508 

D 6 

Deerfield 

+706 

D 5 

Deering 

+392 

C 5 

Derry 

+5,826 

D 6 

Dixville Notch 



+13 

D 2 

Dorchester 

+133 

C4 

Dover 

15,874 

E 5 

Drewsville 

150 

B 5 

Dublin 

+675 

B 6 



A tram car of the unique Cannon 
Mountain Aerial Tramway soars high 
over the head of a skier in its mile- 
long sky ride to the summit of Can- 
non Mountain. It offers a breath- 
taking view of the snow-covered 
mountains and valleys of New Hamp- 
shire at Franconia Notch. This 
scenic mountain gap in the White 
Mountains is in the west central 
part of the state in the Franconia 
Notch State Reservation. 


11491 




Northficld, 
















NEW HAMPSHIRE— Conf,w 


Dummer 

1229 

Dunbarton 

1533 

Durham 14,770 

E. Andover 


E. Barrington 

E. Candia 

250 

E. Canterbun.- 

E. Concord 


E. Derry 

300 

E. Grafton 

100 

E. Hampstead 920 

E. Haverhill 

150 

E. Hebron 


E. Jaffrej' 

1,866 

E. Kingston 

1449 

E. Lempster 


E. Madison 

80 

E. Milford 


E. Rindge 

200 

E. Rochester 



1,100 

E. Sullivan 

150 

E. Swanzey 

700 

E. Tilton 


E. Wakefield 


E. Weare 

260 

E. West- 


moreland 

200 

E. Wolfeboro 

1 301 

Easton 

194 

Eaton Ct. 

1221 

Effingham 


FaUs 

1341 

Elkins 

200 

Ellsworth 

124 

Elmwood 


Emerson 



(W. Henniker) 
Enfield tl,612 

Enfield Center 
Epping tl.796 

Epsom f756 

Errol t224 

Etna 

Exeter t5.G(>4 

Fabyan House 

300 

Fain-iew 

Farmington 

t3,454 
Fitzwilliam t872 
Fitzwilliam 
Depot 250 
Franccstovm 

t405 

Franconia jwO 
Franklin 0,552 
Freedom t315 
Fremont fOOS 
Gaza 

Georges Mills 170 
Gorrish 275 

Gilford tl.251 
Gilmanton t754 
Gilmanton 
Iron Works 
Gilsum -f57S 
Glen 

Glencliff 200 
Glendale 

Goffs Falls 800 
Goffstou-n 15,038 
Gonic 1,000 

Gorham 12,039 
Goshen -fOOG 
Gossvillc 300 
Grafton 1442 
Grafton Center 

93 

Grange SO 


Grantham 

1359 

Grasmere 

1,545 

Greenfield 

1430 

Greenland 

1719 

Greenx-ille 

11,280 

Groton 

1105 

Groveton 

1,918 

Guild 

200 

Hampstead 

1902 

Hampton 

12,847 

Hampton Beach 

Hampton Falls 


1629 

Hancock 

1612 

Hanover 

10,259 

Harris^dlle 

1519 

Haverhill 

13,357 

Hedding 


Henniker 

11,675 

Hill 

1310 

Hillsboro 

12.179 

Hillsboro Lower 

Village 

400 

Hillsboro Upper 

Village 

500 

Hinsdale 

11,950 

Holderness 

1731 

Hollis 

11,196 

HoUis Depot 380 

Hooksett 

12,792 

Hopkinton 

11,831 

Hudson 

14,183 

Intervale 

600 

Jackson 

1344 

Jaffrey 

12,911 

Jefferson 

1728 

Kearsarge 


Keene 

15,638 

Kingston 

11,283 

Laconia 

14,745 

Lakeport 

3,600 

Lancaster 

13,113 

Landaff 

1342 

Langdott 

378 

Lea«tts Hill 

Lebanon 

18,495 

Lee 

1575 

Lempster 

1309 

Lincoln 

11.415 

Lisbon 

12,009 

Litchfield 

1427 

Little Boars Head 

Littleton 

14,817 

Livermore Falls 

Londonderry* 


11,640 

Loudon 

11,012 

Lyme 

1924 

Lynne Center 350 

Ly’ndeboro 

1552 

Madbury* 

1489 

Madison 

1486 

Manchester 


82,732 

Maplewood 
Marleboro f 1.501 
Marlow t330 
Martins 

Mascoma lOO 
Meador\'s 89 
Mcl\-in Mills 05 
Melvin Village 
Meredith t2,222 
Meredith Ct. 150 
Meriden 500 
Merrimack tl.OOS 
Middleton t255 
Milan t743 

Milford t4.159 
Milton 1,510 


D 2 
C 5 
E5 
C 5 
E5 
D 5 
D 5 
D 5 
D 6 
C4 
D 6 
C 3 
C4 
B 0 
E 6 
B 5 
D 4 
C 6 
C 6 

E 5 
B 6 
B 6 
D 5 
E 4 
C 5 

B 6 
D 4 
C 3 
D 4 

D 4 
C 5 
C4 
C 0 

C 5 
B 4 
B 4 
D 5 
D 5 
D 2 
B 4 
E 0 

D 3 
C 3 

D 5 
B 6 

B 6 

C 0 
C 3 
C 5 
E 4 
D 0 
C4 
B 5 
C 5 
D4 
D 5 

D 5 
B 5 
D 3 
C4 
D4 
D 0 
C 5 
E 5 
D 3 
B 5 
D 5 
C 4 

C4 
D 3 


t Popalation of town-hip 


B 5 
D 5 
C 6 
E 5 
C 6 
C4 
C 2 
B 5 
D 6 
E 0 
E 6 

E 6 
B 6 
B 4 
B 6 
B 3 
E5 
C 5 
C4 
Co 

C 5 


MHton Mills 280 Eo 
Mirror Lake 135 D 4 
Monroe t^lO B 3 
M ont Vernon t405 C 6 
Moultonboro fSSO D 4 
Moult on vUle 200 D 4 
Mt. Sunapee 125 B 5 
Munsonville B 5 

Nashua 34,669 C 6 
Nelson t231 B 5 
New Boston t865 C 6 
New Castle i'583 E 5 
New Durham 

t463 D 5 
New Hampton 



1723 

C4 

New Ipswich 



11,147 

C 6 

New London 



11,484 

C 5 

Newbury 

1320 

C 5 

Nevrfields 

1469 

Eo 

Newington 

Newmarket 

1494 

E 5 


C 5 
A 6 
C4 
C 6 
C 6 
D 5 
C 5 
D 6 
D 3 
D 3 
B 6 
C 3 
D 3 
B 6 
D 6 
D 4 
C4 
C 3 
C 3 
B 5 
D 5 
B 4 
E5 
B 5 
C 3 
C 3 
D 6 
E 6 
C 3 
C 4 


t2.709 D 5 
Newport t5.131 B 5 
Newton tl.l73 E 6 
Newton Junction D 6 
N. Branch C 5 

N. Charlestown 

200 B 5 
N. Chatham 177 D 3 
N. Chichester 

740 D 5 
N. Conway 1,200 D 3 
N. End C 4 

N. Groton 30 C 4 
N. Hampton 

tl,104 E 6 
N. Haverhill 500 C 3 
N. Holderness C 4 
N. Monroe 160 C 3 
N. Newport 200 B 5 
N. Rochester E 5 
N. Salem 400 D 6 
N. Sandwich D 4 

N. Stratford C 2 

N. Sutton Q 5 

N. Wakefield D 4 
N. Walpole 1,000 B 5 
N. Weare Q 5 

N. Woodstock 
„ 675 C3 

Northfield tl,561 C 5 
Northumber- 


D 6 
D 5 
B 4 
B4 
C 6 
Eo 
D 4 

C 6 
C 3 
B 6 
B5 
D 5 
B4 
C 3 
C5 
D 4 
C4 
C4 
B4 
C 6 
D 5 
D 2 
C 6 
E5 


land t2.779 
Northwood t966 
Northwood 
Center 
Northwood 
Narrows 
Nottingham 
Orange 
Orford 
Orfordville 
Ossipee 
Parkhill 
Pelham 
Pembroke 
Penaeook 
Percy 

Peterborough 

12,556 

Piermont 
Pike 

Pittsburg 
Pittsfield 
Plainfield 
Plaistow 
P].vmouth 


D 2 
D 5 


120 D 5 


325 

t56G 

182 

1726 

11.412 
45 
11.317 
13.094 
3,100 
48. 


1511 

175 

1697 

12.321 

11.011 

12,082 

13,039 


D 5 
D5 
C4 
B4 
B4 
D 4 
B 6 
D6 
D 5 
C5 
D 2 

C 6 
B4 
B 3 
D 1 
D 5 
B 4 
D 6 
C4 


1 1521 


Ponemah 


C 6 1 Swanzey 

12,806 

B6 

Portsmouth 


Swiftwater 

C3 


18,830 

E 5 

Tamworth 

11,025 

D4 

Powwow R. 75 

D 6 

Temple 

1330 

C6 

Province Lake 

E4 

The Weirs 


D4 

Quincy 

125 

C4 

Thornton 

1460 

C4 

Randolph 

1158 

D 3 

Tilton 

12,085 

Co 

Raj-mond 

11,428 

D 5 

Troj’ 

11,360 

B6 

Redstone 

250 

D 3 

Tuftonboro 

1697 

D4 

Reeds Ferr3' 500 

C 6 

Twin Mt. 

352 

C3 

Richmond 

1259 

B 6 

Union 

550 

Do 

Rindge 

1707 

B 6 

Unity 

1653 

Bo 

Riverdale 


C 5 

Village 

DG 

Rochester 

13,776 

D 5 

Wakefield 

11,267 

E4 

Rockingham 

E 5 

Walpole 

12,536 

Bo 

Roxburj- 

1117 

B 6 

Warner 

11,080 

Co 

Rumnej- 

1859 

C4 

Warren 

1581 

C4 

Rumne.y Depot 


Washington 

: 1168 

Bo 


165 

C4 

Waterville 



Rye 

11,982 

E 5 

Valley 

til 

C4 

Rj'e Beach 

1,000 

E 6 

Weare 

11,345 

C4 

Rye North Beach 

Eo 

Webster 

1386 

Co 

St. Paul’s School 

C 5 

Wendell 

200 

Bo 

Salem 

14,805 

D 6 

Wentworth 

1413 

C4 

Salem Depot 


Wentworth 




1,637 

D 6 

Location 

00 

D2 

Salisburj' 

1423 

C5 

W. Alton 


D4 

Salmon Falls 


W. Andover 

Co 


Sanbornton 1755 
Sanbornville 460 


Sandown 
Sandwich 
Seabrook 
Sharon 
Shelburne 
Short Falls 
Silver Lake 
Smithtown 
Snowville 
Somersworth 


1315 
1615 
11,788 
162 
1184 
100 
500 
100 
100 


6,927 

25 


100 

54 

125 


Soo Nipi 
S. Acworth 
S. Alexandria 
S. Chatham 
S. Danbury 
S. Danidlle 
S. Deerfield 
S. Effingham 
S. Hampton 1314 
S. Keene 200 
S. Lee 70 

S. Lyndeboro 552 
S. Merrimack 250 


88 
1,000 
139 


S. Newburx' 

S. Pittsfield 
S. Seabrook 
S. Stoddard 
S. Sutton 
S. Tamworth 
S. Wolfeboro 248 
S. Weare 
Spofford 
Springfield 
Stark 
State Line 


Stewartstowm 
Stinson Lake 


350 

1324 

1373 

125 


1970 


Stoddard 

Strafford 

Stratford 

Stratham 

Sugar Hill 

Sullivan 

Simapee 

Suncook 

Surry 

Sutton 


1200 

1770 

1973 

1759 

250 

1272 

11,108 

1291 

1554 


E 5 W. Brentwood 
C 5 W. Campton 125 
E 4 W. Canaan 
D 6 W. Chesterfield 
D 4 250 

E 6 W. Claremont 100 
C 6 W. Epping 
D 3 W. Hampstead . 

D 5 W. Henniker 
D 4 (Emerson) 

E 6 W. Hopkinton 
D 4 100 

W. Lebanon 1,737 
E 5 W. Manchester 
C 5 W; Milan 250 

B 5 W. Nottingham 
C 4 80 

E 3 W. Ossipee 175 

C 5 W. Peterborough 
D 6 350 

D 5 W. Rindge 230 
E 4 W. Rumney 200 
E 6 W. Rye 55 

B 6 W. Springfield 100 
D 5 W. Stewarts- 
C 6 town 385 

C 6 W. Swanzey 1,400 
C 5 W. Thornton 450 
D 5 W. Windham 
E 6 Westmoreland 
B 5 1789 

C 5 Westmoreland 
D 4 Depot 
D 4 Westport 328 
C 5 WestxTlle 300 
B 6 Whiteface 
B 4 Whitefield 11,077 
D 2 Willey House 10 
B 6 Wilmot 1370 
Wilmot Flat 
D 2 Wilton 11,952 
C 4 Winchester 12,388 
B 5 Windham 1961 
D 5 Windham Depot 
C 2 Winnipesaukec 
E 5 Winnisquam 400 
C3 Wolfeboro 12,581 
B 5 Wolfeboro Falls 
B 5 600 

C 5 Wonalancet 36 
B 5 Woodstock 894 
C 5 Woodsville 1,542 


DG 

C4 

B4 

A6 

Bo 

Do 

D6 

Co 

Co 

B4 

C6 

D2 

Do 

D4 

B6 

C6 

C4 

E6 

Bo 

C2 

B6 

C4 

D6 

B6 

A 6 
B6 
DG 
D4 
C3 
D3 
C5 
C5 
CG 
B6 
DC 
DG 
D4 
Do 
D4 

D4 

D4 

C4 

B3 



A LAND OF BEAU TY, CULTURE, AND INDUSTRY 



There is colonial charm about the “Old Row” of famous Dart- hut built in 1770 grew this group of dignified white buildings, 
mouth College at Hanover, From an Indian school in a log Dartmouth is the state’s oldest institution of higher learning. 












iw 









Si 


, 'V I t « 


■'"N;- f-S t ■?• ■ 

.y iLiilfi-. 


I* M 


Winter makes a picturesoue setting for the beautiful campus Above Concord rises the green-domed capitol of New Hamp- 
of the Univemi^^of New’Kjshife at Durham. This coedu- shire. The state house was bui t in 1819 of Concord ^ite ^d 
caUonal state university is the largest school in the sUte. Vermont marble. On the pedestal is a statue of Darnel Webster. 


154 


NEW HAMPSHIRE 

The city of Nashua is also the distributing center 
for an extensive agricultural district. Concord, the 
capital, on the iMerrimack, is a manufacturing center 
and nearby are extensive quarries of fine-grained 
white granite. It is the seat of St. Paul’s School. 
This school and Phillips Exeter Academy at Exeter 
are among the best-known college preparatorj- schools 
for boj-s in the United States {see Concord). The 
state’s higher institutions of education include the 
University of New Hampshire at Durham, state teach- 
ers colleges at Keene and Phanouth, Dartmouth Col- 
lege at Hanover, and St. Anselm’s College (Roman 
Catholic) for men at IManchester. 

The State's History 

What is now the state of New Hampshire began with 
m a n y isolated settlements woven into a bewildering 
maze of English land grants to absentee companies or 
landlords. The first settlements were at the mouth 
of the Piscataqua, in 1623. Captain John jMason and 
Sir Ferdinando Gorges were the most prominent 
grantees of the region between the jMerrimack and Pis- 
cataqua rivers. Mason gave the area the name of New 
Hampshire, after his own county of Hampshire in 
England. Both grantees were stanch Church of Eng- 
land men and friends of King James I. There were dis- 
putes with Massachusetts arising out of conflicting 
grants. For about 70 x'ears New Hampshire was either 
a part of Massachusetts or was under a Massachusetts 
governor appointed bj* the crown. The colony became 
d proxrince under its own governor in 1741. 

1 A boundar}' dispute with ^lassachusetts was finally 
settled at thE time. Massachusetts had claimed the 
drea west of the ilerrimack up to the river’s source. 
The kmg. however, gave this land to New Hampshire 
by running the boundary west from a point on the 
Merrimack 50 miles south of its source. New Hamp- 
shire also had many disputes with New York over the 


region between them. The disputes were settled h 
1791 b5’ admitting the region to the Union as tie 
state of Yermont. The Connecticut River was nnie 
the western boundary of New Hampshire. 

New Hampshire was the ninth state to ratify tie 
Federal Constitution (June 21, 1788). This completed 
the number needed to start the new government. (&: 
also chronology* in New Hampshire Fact Summa-w; 
United States, section “New England.’’) 

New HAt'EN, CoN*N. The “city* of elms,” famed fc: 
200 years as the seat of Y'ale University, is situated 
at the head of New Haven Harbor, an inlet of lour 
Island Sound 72 miles northeast of New York City. 
New Haven is Cormecticut’s second city in populafiou 
and manufactures and one of the foremost educafiomi 
centers of the United States. 

A line of rugged hills, ending in two 360- sad 
400-foot spurs called East Rock and West Rock, loDis 
down upon the city built on a plain. The older part 
of the city is laid out in square around the 1&- 
acre public Green. Once a social and religious ceuter, 
it has three churches of architectural interest bait 
in the early ISOO’s. North and east of the Green ria 
the fine buildings of Y'ale Universi^. The city has 
beautiful public buildings and parks. 

With its harbor and the main line and branches K 
the New T'ork, New Haven, and Hartford Rai^i 
the city has good shipping facilities. It is a 
uting point for coal, cement, lumber, and fertiliis 
brought by water and for farm and factory products 
sent in and out by rail and truck. 

New Haven is an industrial city* producing a 
%*ariety* of manufactures. They include firean^j 
clocks, hardware, tools, steel products, copper 
and cables, electrical parts and appliances, battene:, 
tires, rubber goods, paper boxes, chemicab, zipps^i 
corsets, and toys. In the city abo are the main oScej 
and machine and repair shop- u- 
the New Haven Railroad. 

New Haven was called by its lu- 
dian name Quinnipiac (Long Ime^ 
Place) in 1638 when Theophili^ 
Eaton, John Davenport, and a sauu 
company of Puritans settled there- 
Two years later it received its pre^“ 
name (after Newhaven, England) - h 
remained a colony* separate 
Cormecticut until 1662. From 1701 to 
1875 New Haven was the joint 
tal with Hartford. In 1716 Y’ale Co * 
lege was moved here from Saybroo^ 
New Haven b the burial place of sue 
famous men asNoah Webster, Samu^. 
F. B. Ylorse, Lyman Beecher, LJ 
Whitney, and Roger Sherman. 

In 1949 a tunnel was open- 
through West Rock enabling 
Y’’ork-YIassachusetts traffic to skni 
the city*. New Haven has a nuayM 
council form of government. Popuin 
tion (1950 census), 164,443. 


NEW HAMPSHIRE'S MOUNT.^IN-CLIMBING RAILR0 ..\D 




155 


-NEW JERSEY 


NEW JERSEY, a GARDEN and FACTORY State 











Although in the 1800’s New Jersey changed from a farming to a manufacturmg state, agriculture is still important. The 
state’s rich farms supply cities in several states with diverse produce, including truck crops, fruit, and dairy and poultry 
products. The numerous large truck farms have won for New Jersey the nickname of the “Garden State.’’ 


ATEW JERSEY, “Like a cider barrel tapped at both 
ends” was Benjamin Franklin’s description of 
New Jersey in the late 1700’s. At that time New York 
City and Philadelphia were attracting many people 
from the farms and towns of the New Jersey colony. 

Today New York and Philadelphia still tap New Jer- 
sey for a good share of their supplies of fresh food. 
The markets of these two cities receive trucks that 
are loaded with fresh Jersey fruits and vegetables 
from early spring until late fall. They also receive 
New Jersey milk, butter, chickens, and eggs. 

Every morning thousands of New Jersey commuters 
board trains, ferries, and busses for their work in 
New York and Philadelphia. Because these cities have 
become overcrowded, many who work there have 
found it necessary or preferable to live in New Jer- 
sej^ Every evening they commute back to their homes 
in New Jersey cities, towns, or suburbs. These com- 
muters are only a small part of the inhabitants. 
About 90 per cent work within their own state. 

New Jersey ranks 45th in area among the states in 
the Union. Only Connecticut, Delaware, and Rhode 
Island are smaller in size. Yet New Jersey has almost 
5 million people and ranks 8th in population. It is 
the second most denselj’ populated state, with an aver- 
age of about 643 persons to the square mile. 

Alost of the population is concentrated in the north- 
east corner near New York City. Within a radius of 30 
miles from Newark, New Jersey’s largest city, are 
the state’s five largest counties and three largest 
cities. Here live about 3i million people, or 70 per 
cent of the state’s population. About nine out of 
ten people in New Jersey live in cities or towns. 

The State’s Geography 

New Jersey is surrounded by water except for the 
oO-mile strip bordering New York. -West and south are 


the Delaware River and Delaware Bay, On the east are 
the Atlantic Ocean, New York Baj’^, and Hudson River, 
The state has five sections that run in parallel 
strips in a northeastei’lj’ direction. The liattatinny 
Mountains, part of the Appalacliians, are along the 
Delaware in the northwest. They extend from Dela- 
ware Water Gap to the New York line. Here High 
Point rises to 1,801 feet, the state’s highest elevation. 
The second section is fertile ICittatinny Valley, be- 
tween the Kittatinnj’’ Mountains and the Highlands. 


THE NEW JERSEY TURNPIKE 



This Fairchild air view shows the New Jersey Turnpike as it 
cuts through Elizabeth. The llS-njile expressway is a toll road 
designed to carry the heavy traffic of the industrial heart of the 
state. It has no traffic lights or crossroads along its length. 



156 


NEW JERSEY- 


NEW JERSEY’S FINE POSITION 



W ' V 

^•Atlantic City 


75-| May 


SCALE OF MILES 
O lO 20 30] 


New Jersey’s location between New York and Pennsylvania, with 
many good railroads, highways, and ports, gives the state a key posi- 
tion for industry and trade. Most of its factories are in northeastern 
cities, near New York. Farms are scattered everywhere. 


The scenic Highlands are the third section. They 
are northwest of a line running through Clinton and 
Pompton Plains. Still farther southeast is the Pied- 
mont Plateau, a 20- to SO-mile rolling upland belt ex- 
tending from the Delaware to the New York border. 

The fifth section, the Coastal Plain, covers the 
southern half of the state. It is southeast of the 
fall line of the rivers, which e.xtends from Trenton 
to Perth Amboy. The plain is less than a hundred 
feet above sea level. Aluch of it is marshland suit- 
able for raising cranberries. Here is an extensive 
area of stunted pine woods — the Pine Barrens; 
here also are large areas of sandy soils. Parts of this 
section are devoted to truck crops, fruits, and poultry. 

The northern part of the state has a humber of 
small lakes. Many are bordered by cottages and 


hotels, which are used by thousands of summer 
visitors from Jersey cities and New York. The 
largest is Lake Hopatcong, west of Paterson. 
New Jersey Resorts 

Even more popular as a vacation land is the 
Atlantic shore line with its noted summer resorts. 
The 125 miles of surf- washed, salt-water beaches 
from Sandy Hook to Cape May are dotted with 
some 50 resort cities and towns. All these places 
have a pleasant summer climate, sandy beaches, 
and summer hotels and cottages. Many are oa 
or near bays or inlets which are ideal for sailing. 
Up and down the long Atlantic coast, sportsmen 
enjoy deep-sea, bay, and surf fishing. 

South of Sandy Hook, or “the Hook,” as it is 
often called, are the resort cities of Long Branch, 
Asbury Park, and Ocean Grove. About 60 miles 
south of Ocean Grove is Atlantic City (see 
Atlantic City). It is the largest year-round resort 
in the United States. Almost any month of the 
jmar its many splendid hotels are crowded with 
tourists on vacation or guests attending conven- 
tions, wliich are attracted by its fine facilities. At 
the extreme southern tip of the state is Cape May. 
It is the oldest of all Jersey coastal resorts and 
was once among the most fashionable. 

Resources of Land and Sea 
New Jersey's main farm products are milk, eggs, 
truck crops, chickens, potatoes, corn, hay, cattle, 
and hogs. Dairying is important in virtually every 
county. Great poultry farms are located mostly m 
the north. Nearly all the state’s hay is used to 
feed dairy cows. Much of its corn goes to the 
feeding of cattle and poultry. 

New Jersey earns its nickname, "the Garden 
State’’ from its many truck farms. It is one of the 
leading states in production of truck crops. Al- 
most every kind of temperate-climate fruit ana 
vegetable can be raised in some part of the state. 
Jersey sweet potatoes are produced in large 
amounts. The state is second only to California 
in raising asparagus. Many orchards produce 
apples and peaches; plums, cherries, and currants 
are common to all sections. The southern coun- 
ties produce large quantities of strawberries, rasp- 
berries, blackberries, and grapes. The annual yield o 
cranberries grown here is exceeded only by Alassa- 
chusetts and Wisconsin. , 

With its long seacoast and with the Delaware an 
Hudson rivers along its borders. New Jersey has a 
large fishing industry. Along the coast and in Pc - 
ware Bay there are about 15,000 acres of productive 
oyster beds. 

New Jersey does not rank high among the states in 
the total value of its mineral production. Its chic 
minerals are zinc, iron ore, sand and gravel, en 
stone. The state also produces a variety of clays- 
A Leading Manufacturing State 
Although tiny in size. New Jersey is one of j 
most important manufacturing states in the 
both in the variety and quantity of its manufactureu 



— 157 


NEW JERSEY 


THE FAMOUS PALISADES OF THE HUDSON RIVER 



This view by Fairchild Aerial Survey shows United States High- 
way 9W atop the Palisades in northeastern New Jersey. Far be- 
low the scenic highway, at the right, lies the Hudson River. 


The great cliff of the Palisades parallels the Hudson for al- 
most 20 miles north of Weehawken. It contains stretches of 
basaltic rock broken into the interesting columns we see here. 


goods. It ranks seventh among the states in the value 
of its manufactures. Manufacturing is the leading 
industrj'- in the state and employs the most workers. 

The ideal location of New Jersey largely accounts 
for its importance in industry. Situated between the 
financial and commercial giants, New York City and 
Philadelphia, it is a crossroads of commerce. Besides 
important markets, it has excellent railroads, high- 
ways, and waterways, with outstanding ports in the 
Newark area and at Camden and Trenton. 

The 118-mile New Jersey Turnpike, completed in 
1952, speeds traffic from George Washington Bridge 
over the Hudson in the northeast to the Memorial 
Bridge over the Delaware, south of Wilmington. An 
express route from Trenton to the north is the Tren- 
ton Expressway. Other major roads are being built. 
An interconnection will hnk the New Jersey Turn- 
pike with the Pennsylvania Turnpike from Florence, 
N. J., to Edgely, Pa., by way of a new Delaware 
River bridge. The Garden State Parkway will run be- 
tween Paramus and Cape May along the east side of 
the state. The Pahsades Interstate Parkway will con- 
nect the George Washington Bridge with Bear Moun- 
tain, N.Y., parallehng the Hudson in New Jersey . 

Ample supphes of fuel and raw materials are easilj' 
available. Coal for its factories and for its steam- 
electric power plants comes from the coal-mining areas 
of nearby Pennsylvania. Petroleum and natural gas 
are piped from the mid-continent fields of Texas and 
Oklahoma. Most of the materials for manufacturing 
come from other states, particularly Permsylvania. 

New Jersej’' surpasses all states in the production 
of chemicals, its largest industry. This includes in- 
dustrial chemicals, drugs and medicines. Other im- 
portant industries make electrical and industrial 
machinerj', food products, and textiles. 


The center of New Jersey’s industrial area is 
Newark, with Jersey City, Paterson, Elizabeth, and 
Bayonne nearby. Other concentrations of industry 
center around Camden and Trenton. 


AN EIGHT-MILE BOARDWALK 



One of the nation’s most famous resorts is Atlantic City. The 
beach and boardwalk attract millions of visitors every year. 
Rolling chairs on the eight-mile-long boardwalk are popular. 





NEW JERSEY — 158 

Newark, largest of all, is said to have more dif- 
ferent kinds of factories than any other city of its 
size in the nation (see Newark). Its factories turn 
out hundreds of different types of products. In addi- 
tion, the city is a great transportation center, lying 
across main railroads and highways from New York 
City to the west and the south. Two federal highways 
have a by-pass just east of Newark over the great 
General Pulaski Skyway. This towering series of steel 
bridges, about three and one-half miles long, carry 


THE NEW JERSEY WATERFRONT ON THE HUDSON 



The busy piers of Jersey City and Hoboken face Manhattan Island across the Hudson River. Ships 
carry heavy cargoes from these piers to ports throughout the world. In the foreground of this view by 
Fairchild Aerial Surveys is a railroad station with its train shed and ferry slips. Ferries cross the river 
day and night carrying passengers and freight cars. 


motor vehicles from the west and south over marshes 
and the Passaic and Hackensack rivers to the Holland 
Tunnel and New York City. 

About six miles east of Newark is Jersey City. Its 
busy port transfers freight cars to and from New 
York ferries and loads ocean-going ships. The Hol- 
land Tunnel and railways through the Hudson tubes 
provide transportation to New York. The city manu- 
factures many different products (see Jersey City). 

Paterson, 15 miles north of Newark, also produces 
a variety of goods (see Paterson). Five miles south 
of Newark is Elizabeth, a busy industrial city along 
Newark Bay. Its manufactures include refined pe- 
troleum, sewing machines, and automobiles. Goethals 
Bridge connects the city with Staten Island, N. Y. 
(see Elizabeth). Orange is a residential suburb north 
of Newark with many small factories and offices of 
insurance companies. 

Bayonne has enormous petroleum refineries. This 
city is the eastern terminal of oil pipe lines that 
extend as far west as the Texas and Oklahoma fields. 


The city lies on a long peninsula which separates 
Newark Bay from Upper New York Bay. Its southern 
tip is separated from Staten Island by the narroir 
channel. Kill van Kull. It is spanned by the high- 
arched Bayonne Bridge, the longest steel arch span 
in the world. 

Southwest across the state from Newark is Trenton, 
state capital and important manufacturing city (m 
Trenton). It is located on the Delaware River only 
34 miles from Philadelphia. Its factories turn out 

many kinds of goods. 
It is particularly not- 
ed for its manufac- 
ture of pottery, steel 
wire, and cables. 

Thegiant Delaware 
River Bridge joins 
Camden and Phila- 
delphia. Camden 
is miles from the sea, 
but ships leave its 
docks on the Dela- 
ware and Cooper riv- 
ers to call at Balti- 
more and other ports 
on the Atlantic and 
Pacific oceans. Cam- 
den factories make 
canned soup, sWjb, 
radios, and chemicals 
(see Camden). 
Excellent Schools 

New Jersey h^ 
more than 30 insti- 
tutions of higher edu- 
cation. Outstanding 
among the universi- 
ties are Princeton and 
Rutgers. Since colo- 
nial times, Princeton 
has shared a venerable tradition with Yale and Har- 
vard. Rutgers University at New Brunswick is the 
nation’s eighth oldest school of higher learning- , 
heads the state-supported colleges. One of these is 
the New Jersey College for Women, on a sepam e 
campus in the southeastern part of New Brunswic '- 
Three colleges in Newark, teachiug business adminis- 
tration, law, and pharmacy, are also part of Hutge^- 
The Newark College of Engineering is j 
state-supported. There are also six sta^suppor 
teachers colleges at Trenton, Montclair, hewar , 
Glassboro, Jersey City, and Paterson. 

The State Government . 

New Jersey’s original Constitution was drafte 
1776. Its second constitution was adopted m > 
and the present one in 1948. Under the last, the s 
legislature is made up of a senate elected for a o ^ 
year term and a general assembly elected for a 
year term. The governor serves a four-year e • 
For many years New Jersey had a liberal po ^ 
toward corporations incorporated within the s • 

CorUimei on V^ 




New Jersey Facf Summary 



NEW JERSEY (N.J.): Named after the 
island of Jersey (Caesarea) in 
English Channel. The province was 
granted to Carteret, who defended 
Jersey during the Civil War in Eng- 
land, and to Lord Berkeley in 1664. 
Nickname: “Garden State,” from its 
many truck farms. 

Seal: 3 plows on shield supported by Liberty and Ceres; 

helmet, horse’s head above shield; motto below shield. 
Motfo: Liberty and Prosperity. 

Flag: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Purple violet. Bird: Eastern goldfinch. Tree: Red 
oak. Song (unofficial): ‘Ode to New Jersey’ — words, 
Elias F. Carr; music, to tune of ‘0 Tannenbaum’. 



THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital: Trenton (since 1790). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 14. Elec- 
toral votes, 16. 

State Legislature: Senators, 21; term, 

4 years. General Assembly members, 

60; term, 2 years. It convenes the 
second Tuesday in January every 
year. 'There is no limit to the length of sessions. 

Constitution: Adopted 1948. Proposed amendment must 
be (a) passed by a three-fifths vote of the legislature 
or by a majority vote in 2 successive legislative years 
and (b) ratified by a majority voting on amendment; 
if rejected by voters it may not be proposed again until 
the third general election thereafter. 

Governor: Term, 4 years. May succeed himself once; 
and may be re-elected after a 4-year interval. 

Other Executive Officers: Secy, of state, atty. gen., 
treasr. appointed b}^ governor (\rith Senate approval); 
terms, 4 yrs. but treasr. holds office at governor’s 
ple^ure; auditor appointed by legislature; term, 5 yrs. 

Judiciary: All judges appointed by governor with Senate 
approval. Supreme ct. — 7 justices. Superior ct. — ^at 
least 24 judges. Judges of both courts serve one term 
of 7 yrs.; if reappointed, hold office until 70 yrs. old. 
County courts — 1 in each county; term, 5 yrs. 

County; 21 counties, each governed by a board of 
Chosen Freeholders, usually of 5 members. Boards 
and officers elected; term, 3 years. 

Municipal: Mayor-council, commission, or city manager. 

Voting Qualifications; Age, 21 ; residence in state, 1 year; 
in county, 5 months. 



transportation and communication 

Transportation: Railroads, 2,000 miles. First railroad, 
Camden to South Amboy, 1834. Rural roads, 18,400 
miles. Airports, 78. 

Communication: Periodicals, 139. Newspapers, 314. First 
newspaper. Constitutional Courant (one issue only), 
Woodbridge, 1765; New York Gazette, Newark, 17/6. 
Radio stations (AM and FM), 32; first station, WJZ, 
Newark, licensed June 1, 1921 (now in New York). 
Television stations, 3; WATV, Newark, began operation 
■ May 15, 1948. Telephones, 1,989,000. Post offices, 627. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 4,835,329 (rank among 48 
states — 8th); urban, 86.6%; rural, 13.4%. Density: 
642.8 persons per square mile (rank — 2d state). 

Extent; Area, 7,836 miles, including 314 square miles of 
water surface (45th state in size). 

Elevation: Highest, High Point, 1,801 feet, in Kittatinny 
Mountains near Colesville; lowest, sea level. 

Temperature (‘’F.): Average — annual, 52°; winter, 32°; 
spring, 50°; sununer, 72°; fall, 55°. Lowest recorded, 
—34° (Rivervale, near Hillsdale, Jan. 5, 1904); highest 
recorded, 110° (Runyon, Middlesex County, July 10, 
1936). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 46; winter, 11; 
spring, 11; summer, 13; fall, 11. Varies from about 40 
in s.e. to about 48 in n, central and s. central. 

Natural Features: Five almost parallel sections cross the 
state diagonally. In the northwest are the Kittatinny 
Mts., southeast of which lies a wide valley. The 
Highlands come next. Still farther southeast is the 
Piedmont Plateau. At the extreme southeast the Coastal 
Plain covers about one half of the state. Principal 
Rivers: Delaware, Great Egg, Hackensack, Hudson, 
Maurice, Mullica, Passaic, Raritan, Toms. 

Land Use: Cropland, 19%; nonforested pasture, 6%; 
forest, 49%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, w'aste- 
land, cities, etc.), 26%. 


CROPS 


PASTURE 


FOREST 


OTHER 


I 


Natural Resources: Agricultural — areas of good soil; 
ample precipitation. Industrial — salt- and fresh-water 
fish, forests, zinc, stone, iron ore, clay, sand and gravel, 
marl (used as water-softening agent). Commercial — 
navigable rivers to inland industrial centers; location 
near metropolitan markets; lake and seaside resorts. 

OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 
What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 

Manufacturing 

739,860 

37.8 

Wholesale and retail trade 

Transportation, communication, 

350,971 

17.9 

and other public utilities. . ! 

Professional services (medical, le- 

163,332 

8.3 

gal, educational, etc.) 

149,865 

7.6 

Construction 

Personal ser^^ces (hotel, domestic. 

121,897 

6.2 

laundering, etc.) 

109,426 

5.6 

Finance, insurance, and real estate 

98,659 

6.0 

Government 

80,887 

4.1 

Agriculture, forestry, and fisherj-. . , 

51,779 

2.6 

Business and repair services 

Amusement, recreation, and related 

51,056 

2.6 

services 

16,178 

0.8 

Mining 

4,062 

0.2 

Workers not accounted for 

24,660 

1.3 

Total employed 

1,962,632 

100.0 


169 



New Jersey Fact Summary 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 7th) 
Value added by manufacture* (1952), $5,764,365,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Chemicals and Allied Products ... 
Industrial chemicals; drugs and 
medicines: toilet preparations 

$744,601,000 

1 

Electrical Machinery 

Telephone and telegraph equip- 
ment; radios, related products 

393,992,000 ; 

1 

5 

Food and Kindred Products 

Malt liquors; canned fruits, veg- 
etables, and soups; bakery goods 

354,821,000 

7 

Machinery (except Electrical) . . . 
General industrial machinery: 
special-industry machinery; 
service and household machines 

334,610,000 

10 

Textile Mill Prooucts 

Finishing textiles; woolen and 
worsted fabrics; carpets and rugs 

326,239,000 

7 


*For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 





B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 35th) 
Total cash income (1952), $347,497,000 


Products 

Amount Produced 
(10- Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

States! 

Milk 

485,000,000 qts. 

1 

31 

Eggs 

98,000,000 doz. 

2 

16 

Truck crops. . . . 

556,000 tons 

3 

7 

Chickens 

64,944,000 lbs. 

4 

25 

Potatoes 

11,213,000 bu. 

6 

11 

Corn 

7,816.000 bu. 

6 

31 

Hay 

426,000 tons 

7 

44 

Cattle 

33,910,000 lbs. 

8 

43 

Hogs 

30,099,000 lbs. 

9 

37 

Sweet potatoes . . 

2,185,000 bu. 

10 

10 


♦Rank in dollar value fRank in units produced 



C. Fish (Rank among states — 10th) 

(Marine waters and coastal rivers, 1950), catch, 
188,623,000 lbs.; value, $10,201,000 


D. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 


Annual value (1951), -$59, *024, 000 

Rank among states — 29th 

Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced 

Value 

Zinc 

63,000 tons 

824,280,000 

Stone 

6,457,000 tons 

10,988,000 

Sand and gravel.. 

6,652,000 tons 

9,106,000 

Iron ore 

658,000 tons 

7,811,000 

Clays 

683,000 tons 

2,107,000 


E. Trade 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 

Wholesale 

83,629,810,000 

11 

Retail 

4,479,205,000 

8 

Service 

486,728.000 

8 


EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 1,522; sec- 
ondary, 270. Compulsory school age, 

7 through 15. State Board of Edu- 
cation composed of 12 members ap- 
pointed by governor for 6-year terms. 

State commissioner of education 
appointed by governor for 5-year 
term. County supts. appointed by 
state commissioner for 3-year terms. Local school 
boards generally elected, although appointed by mayor 
in certain cities. City supts. appointed by city boards! 
Private and Parochial Schools: 488. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges, 39; 
junior colleges, 10. Rutgers University, which is stale 
supported, includes the New Brunswick Campus (for 
men). New Jersey College for Women, New Bruns- 
wick, and the Newark Colleges. Newark College ofEn- 
gineering is also partially state supported. There are 
6 state-supported teachers colleges — Trenton, Mont- 
clair, Newark, Glassboro, Jersey City, and Paterson, 
Special State Schools: School for the Deaf, West Trenton; 

Manual Training and Industrial School, Bordentown. 
Libraries: City and town public libraries, 299; independ- 
ent county library systems, 12. Dept, of Education re- 
sponsible for developing libraries. Work headed by 
Public and School Library Services Bureau, Div. of 
State Library, Archives and History, State Dept, of 
Education. 

Outstanding Museums: Monmouth Co. Historical As- 
sociation, Freehold; Montclair Art Museum; Newarl: 
Museum; Museum of Natural History, Paterson; 
Museum of Art, Princeton; State Museum, Trenton. 

WELFARE INSTITUTIONS FOR CHILDREN 

For boys: New Lisbon Colony, New Lisbon; Woodbine 
Colony, Woodbine. For girls: North Jersey TraimnS 
School, Totowa; Vineland State School, j 

For boys and girls: Arthur Brisbane Child Treatme 
Center, Allaire. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

For boys: Highfields, Hopewell; State Home for 
Jamesburg. For girls: State Home for Girls, Tren 
For men: State Prison, Trenton, and 2 ® | , 

Prison Farms at Leesburg and Rahway. 
at Bordentown and Annandale. For women. Be 
atory at Clinton. 

STATE PARKS* ,,,) 

Barnegat Light — famous old lighthouse; ‘i*' 
Cheesequake — forested park near Earitan Bay 1 
Edison — Menlo Park; Memorial Tower on site p 
tory where Edison invented incandescent u 
Hacklebarney — in scenic gorge of Black River t ' 
High Point — along Kittatinny Mountains, pa . 

view of New Jersey, New York, and Pennsy va 
Hopatcong — bathing and fishing at Hopatcong a 

Musconetcong — water sports on Lake Muscone con 

Palisades Interstate — extends into N. Y.; majcs 

columns (palisades) rise above Hudson River 'y' 
Parvin — woodland of pine and oak; abundaime o 
ing plants and wide variety of bird life (46)- . 

Ringwood Manor — 150-year-old manor once o 
Cooper-Hewitt family; now a museum (3). . 

Saxton Falls — lock of old Morris Canal; (H). 

Stephens — scenic mile along Musconetcong > . 

Swartswood — in foothills of the Kittatinny M 
♦Numbers in parentheses ore keyed to map. 



160 


New Jersey Fact Summary 






NEW JERSEY 

I 1 Stafe Forest 
National Park 
State Park 
Place of Interest 



Paterso^^^;^; 
^ Newark^ 


I Voorhees — scenic hills (19). 

I Washington Crossing — com- 
'f memorates Washington’s 

j crossing of Delaware River 

near Trenton, Dec. 25, 1776; 

! Old McKonkey Ferry House 

I now a museum (28). 

I Washington Rock — Dunellen; 

rock from w'hich W ashington 
*' watched British troops dur- 

• ing Revolutionary War (21). 

■' Allaire (33); Cranberry Lake 

(8); Farny (6); Fort Mott 
(42); Mount Laurel (35); 

'I Princeton Battlefield (29); 

Sandy Hook (project) (25). 

STATE FORESTS* 

Abram S. Hewitt (Passaic County) — 1,890 
V acres; n.w. of (5). 

Bass River (Burlington-Ocean Counties) — 

!• 9,270 acres (43). 

r, Belleplain (Cape May-Cumberland Coun- 
1 , ties) — 6,492 acres (48). 

Green Bank (Burlington-Atlantic Counties) 

, — 1,833 acres (44). 

Jackson (Ocean County) — 43 acres; n. of 
(36). 

Jenny Jump (Warren County) — 967 acres 

( 10 ). 

' Lebanon (Burlington-Ocean Counties) — 

22,185 acres (36). 

i Norvin Green (Passaic County) — 2,260 

acres (5). 

; Penn (Burlington County) — 2,958acres (40). 

.! Stokes (Sussex County) — 12,429 acres (2). 

r NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK* 

i, Morristown — 958 acres; Ford House, Wash- 

• ington’s headquarters, 1779-80; museum 
contains Revolutionary War documents 

^ and exhibits; Jockey Hollow, soldiers’ en- 
campment (15). 

PLACES OF INTEREST* 

;< Atlantic City — “boardwalk” extends 8 miles 

along beach (see Atlantic City) (47). 

,i Berrien House — Rocky Hill; here Washing- 
ton wrote his farewell to the army in 
1783 (26). 

Boudinot Mansion — Elizabeth; home of 
^ Elias Boudinot, president of the Conti- 

■: nental Congress, built about 1750 (20). 

I Clara Barton Schoolhouse — Bordentown, 
il one of the first free schools that was 

opened by the founder of the American Red Cross (32). 
f' Dey Mansion — Washington’s headquarters, near Pater- 
son, in 1780; now a museum (9). 

)' Grover Cleveland Birthplace — in Caldwell (14). 

< Hancock House — built at Hancock’s Bridge, 1734; N.J. 
/ militia massacred here by British troops, 1778 (45). 

Indian King Tavern — in Haddonfield; famous Revolu- 
; tionary War meeting place built in 1750; first state 
legislature met here in 1777 (39). 

■ Jersey City — across Hudson River from New York City; 

New Jersey’s 2d largest city (see Jersey City) (17). 
Lakehurst — U. S. Naval Air Station; huge hangars for 
lightcr- than-air craft; Cathedral of the Air (34). 
•lumbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


Monmouth Battlefield — near Freehold; where Molly 
Pitcher took her husband’s battle post (30). 

Newark — state’s largest city (see Newark) (16). 

Paterson — the museum and West Side Park each exhibit 
a submarine built by J. P. Holland (see Paterson) (13). 

Princeton — historic campus and buildings of Princeton 
University; 50-ft. Princeton Battle Monument (27). 

Red Bank Battlefield — site of Fort Mercer,, attacked by 
Hessian troops and British fleet in 1777 (37). 

Somerville — Old Dutch Parsonage (1751) ; Wallace House 
where Washington stayed 1778-79 (22). 

Trenton — many places including State Capitol, Old Bar- 
racks (1758), Battle Monument (see Trenton) (31). 

Walt Whitman House — the poet’s home in Camden (38). 


161 



New Jersey Facf Summary 


LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

Newark (438,776): busy transportation center near New 
York City; insurance companies; makes electrical 
equipment, jewelry, paints and varnishes. 

Jersey City (299,017): Hudson River rail-ship terminal 
for New York City; large manufacturing industries. 

Paterson (139,336) : important industrial and commercial 
city on Passaic River; manufactures many products, 

Trenton (128,009): state capital; Delaware River port; 
large potteries; steel wire and cable; rubber goods. 

Camden (124,555): port on Delaware River; shipyards. 

Elizabeth (112,817): industrial city near Newark; sewing 
machines; petroleum products; automobile parts. 

East Orange (79,340): residential suburb of Newark. 

THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1524 — Giovanni da Verrazano, in serv- 
ice of France, explores Upper 
New York Bay, including shore 
of what is now New Jersey. 

1609 — Heniy Hudson explores river 
named for him. 

1618 — Dutch trading post built at 
Bergen, now Jersey City. 

1623 — Captain Cornelius Mey establishes Fort Nassau 
near present Gloucester City. 

1629 — Michael Pauw receives land grant near present 
Jersey City; Cornelius van Vorst develops colony. 

1638 — Swedish settlers build forts on east bank of Dela- 
ware River; expelled by Dutch, 1655. 

1661 — First school established at Bergen. 

1 664 — England takes over New Netherland from Dutch; 
Charles II of England grants area including New 
Jersey to Duke of York; Duke grants area to Lord 
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Philip Carteret, 
cousin of Sir George, named first governor. 

1668 — First colonial assembly meets at Elizabethtown, 
later Elizabeth. 

1 670 — Colonists agitate against proprietary government; 
refuse to pay rents to proprietors. 

1672 — Colonists meet at Elizabethtown; replace Philip 
Carteret as governor with James Carteret. 

1673 — Dutch retake part of New Jersey; land restored 
to England by Treaty of Westminster, 1674. 

1674 — ^Philip Carteret returns as governor. Edward 
Byllynge and John Fenwick, Quakers, buy Berke- 
ley’s interest in western New Jersey. Edmund 
Andros becomes governor of New York with 
authority over New Jersey; action provokes dis- 
pute ending in independent rule for New Jersey. 

1 676 — Colony divided into East and West Jersey; William 
Penn receives western part in trust. 

1677 — Burlington, settled by Quakers, becomes capital 
of West Jersey. 

1682 — ^East Jersey put up for auction; Penn and asso- 
ciates buy the land and resell it to colonists. 

1686 — Perth Amboy chosen capital of East Jersey. 

1702 — ^East and West Jersey surrender government to 
English Crown; New Jersey becomes royal colony 
ruled by governor of New York. 

1738 — New Jersey separated from New York; Lewis 
hlorris is first governor of eolony. 

1740 — ^First glass factory in colony built near Salem. 

1746 — College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) 
chartered; opens first at Elizabeth; moves to New- 
ark, 1748; then to Princeton, 1756. 

1766 — Queens College founded at New Brunswick; be- 
co'ines Rutgers, 1825 and state university, 1917. 



1774 — First Provincial Congress meets at New Bruns- 
wick; chooses delegates to Continental Congress; 
adopts state declaration of independence and con- 
stitution, 1776; first governor, William Livingston. 
Greenwich men burn shipload of English tea. 

1776 — Washington retreats across state into Pennsyl 
vania, recrosses Delaware River, takes Trenton. 

1777 — Americans defeat British at Princeton, January 3; 
General Howe withdraws from state. 

1778 — British retreat across New Jersey from Philadel- 
phia; Washington defeats them at Monmouth 

1779 — Washington and army winter at Morristown. 

1 783 — Princeton is national capital, June 30-November4; 
Trenton, capital, Nov. 1-Dec. 24, 1784; Washing- 
ton gives farewell address to army at Eocky HiD. 

1786 — New Jersey is one of five states at Annapolis Con- 
vention. State grants John Fitch steamship rights; 
tries out first craft on Delaware River, 1787. 

1787 — New Jersey ratifies U. S. Constitution (3d state). 

1790 — Trenton becomes permanent state capital. Women 
given suffrage right; right withdrawn, 1807. 

1791 — Alexander Hamilton plans factory city on site of 
Paterson; calico printing plant opens, 1794. 

1804 — Alexander Hamilton killed in duel with Aaron 
Burr at Weehawken. New Jersey’s first bank, the 
Newark Banking Company, chartered. 

1811 — John Stevens opens first steam ferry between 
Hoboken and New York City. 

1824 — Morris Canal begun; opens, 1831. 

1 834 — ^Delaware and Raritan Canal opened. 

1 844 — New state constitution adopted, August 13; grants 
free male suffrage and bill of rights. 

1 869— Thomas A. Edison opens first workshop at Newark. 

1871 — State-wide free public-school system established. 

1875 — First Bayonne oil refinery opened. 

1 879 — Edison demonstrates first practical electric lamp 


at Menlo Park laboratory. , 

1881— John P. Holland launches first successful sue- 
marine in Passaic River. 

1 885 — Grover Cleveland, born at Caldwell, becomes 
president of the U. S., and the 24th in 1893. 

1 889 — ^Legislature enacts first of several liberal corpora 
tion laws attracting businesses into state. 

1908 — First (railroad) tunnel under Hudson River 
tween Jersey City and New York opened. 

1913— “Seven Sisters” laws against nionopolies enacM • 
Woodrow Wilson, former president of 
University, and governor of New Jersey, 19 ' 

becomes 28th president of U. S. , 

1 91 6— “Black Tom” explosion on Jersey City water iron , 
July 30, caused by German sabotage. 

1921— Port of New York Authority established by trea j 
between New Jersey and New York. 

1927— Holland Tunnel opened. George Washuigi 
Bridge opened, 1931; Lincoln Tunnel, 193 

1 928 — Newark Airport opened. . , 

1 930 — ^Inst. for Advanced Study founded at Princ 

1933— Pulaski Skyway, Jersey City to Newark, open 

1 948 — Present state constitution adopted. 

1951 — Delaware Memorial Bridge opened. j 

1 952— New Jersey Turnpike completed. Newark a 1 

temporarily closed after 3d crash. nia 

Port Authority of New Jersey and Penns) 
created for Camden-Philadelphia area. 

1953— Army Signal Corps laboratories at Fort _ 
mouth near Red Bank figures in Senate n 
gations hearings of Sen. Joseph McCarthy. 

1 954 — Sections of Garden State Parkway complex 


162 



NEW JERSEY 


COUNr/K 


Atlantic 

132,399 

D 5 

Bergen 

539,139 

E 2 

Burlington 135,910 

D 4 

Camden 

300,743 

D 4 

Cape May 

37,131 

D 5 

Cumberland 88,597 

C 5 

Essex 

905,949 

E 2 

Gloucester 

91,727 

C 4 

Hudson 

647,437 

E 2 

Hunterdon 

42,736 

D 2 

Mercer 

229,781 

D 3 

Middlesex 

264,872 

E 3 

Monmouth 225,327 

E 3 

Morris 

164,371 

D 2 

Ocean 

56,622 

E 4 

Passaic 

337,093 

E 1 

Salem 

49,508 

C 4 

Somerset 

99,052 

D 2 

Sussex 

34,423 

D 1 

Union 

398,138 

E 2 

Warren 

54,374 

C 2 


CITIES AND TOWNS 


Absecon 

2,355 

D 5 

Adamston 

450 

E 3 

Adelphia 

300 

E 3 

Ailamuchy 

600 

D 2 

Allendale 

2,409 

B 1 

AUenhurst 

758 

F 3 

Allentown 

931 

D 3 

AUenwood 


E 3 

AUoway 

700 

C 4 

Almonesson 


B 4 

Alpha 

2,117 

C 2 

Alpine 

644 

C 1 

Ampere 

10,000 

B 2 

Andover 

560 

D 2 

Annandale 


D 2 

Arlington 

16,000 

B 2 

Asbury 

300 

C 2 

Asbury Pk. 

17,094 

F 3 

Ashland 

1,240 

D 4 

Atco 

2,500 

D 4 

Atlantic City 



61,657 

E 5 

Atlantic 



Highlands 

3,083 

F 3 

Audubon 

9,531 

C 4 

Audubon Pk. 1,859 

B 3 

Augusta 

80 

D 1 

Aura 

100 

C 4 

Avalon 

428 

D 5 

Avenel 

8,700 

E 2 

Avon by the 


Sea 

1,650 

F 3 

Awosting 


E 1 

Baptistown 

350 

D 2 

Barber 


E 2 

Bamegat 

1,150 

E 4 

Barnegat Light 227 

E 4 

Barrington 

2,651 

B 3 

Bartley 

500 

D 2 

Basking Ridge 



1,899 

D 2 

Bay Head 

808 

E 3 

Bayonne 

77,203 

B 2 

Bayville 

2.000 

E 4 

Beach Haven 1,050 

E 4 

Beach Haven 


Crest 


E 4 

Beach Haven 


Terrace 

350 

E 4 

Beachwood 

1.251 

E 4 

Beaver Lake 175 

D 1 

Bed minster 

650 

D 2 

Beesloys Point 300 

D 5 

Belford 

1.832 

E 3 

Belle Mead 

650 

D 3 

Belleplain 

700 

D 5 

Belleville 

32.019 

E 2 

Bellmawr 

5.213 

B 3 

Belmar 

4.636 

E 3 

Behidere 

2,406 

C 2 

Bergcnfield 

17.647 

C 1 

Berkeley Hts.3.460 

E 2 


Berlin 2,339 

Bemardsville 3,956 
Be vans 

Beverly 3,084 
Bir min gham 250 
Bivalve 

Blaclnvood 1,344 
Blackwood 

Terrace 2,100 
Blairstown 875 
Blawenburg 200 
Bloomfield 49,307 
Bloomingdale 3 ,25 1 
Bloomsbury 722 
Bogota 7,662 
Boonton 7,163 
Bordentown 5,497 
Bound Brook 8,374 
Bradley Beach 



3,911 

Brainards 

350 

Branch viile 

810 

Brant Beach 


Bridgeboro 

750 

Bridgeport 

650 

Bridgeton 18,378 

Brielle 

1,328 

Brigantine 

1,267 

Broadway 

250 

Brooklawn 

2,262 

Brookside 


Browns Mills 


Budd Lake 

1,032 

Buena 

2,640 

Burlington 12,051 

Butler 

4,050 

Buttzville 

300 

Byram Cove 


Caldwell 

6,270 

Califon 

623 

Camden 124,555 

Campgaw 


Canton 

300 

Cape May 

3,607 

Cape May Court 

House 

1,093 


Cape May Point 

198 

Carlstadt 5,591 
Carlton Hill 1,000 
Carneys Pt. 4,000 
CarpentersviUe 
Carteret 13,030 
Cassville 

Cedar Brook 600 
Cedar Grove 7,723 
Cedar Knolls 1,500 


Cedar Run 260 
Cedarville 1,009 
Centerton 200 
Changewater 225 
Chatham 7,391 
Chatsworth 350 
Cheesequake 300 
Chesilhurst 314 
Chester 754 

Chesterfield 500 
Chews 1,500 

Clarksboro 800 
Clarksburg 500 
Clayton 3,023 
Clementon 3,191 
CliffsidePk. 17,116 
Cliffwood 1,800 
Clifton 64,511 
Clinton ,1,118 
Closter 3.376 

Cold Spring 100 
Cold Spring 

Harbor 25 

Coles-sille 150 
Collingswood 

15,800 

Cologne 672 

Colonia 

Colts Neck 200 
Columbia 300 


D 4 
D 2 
D 1 
D 3 
D 4 
C 5 
C 4 

C 4 
C 2 
D 3 
B 2 
E 1 
C 2 
B 2 
E 2 
D 3 
D 2 

F 3 
C 2 
D 1 
E 4 
D 3 
C 4 
C 5 
E 3 
E 5 
C 2 
B 3. 
D 2 
D 4 
D 2 
D 4 
D 3 
E 2 
D 2 
D 2 
E 2 
D 2 
C 4 
B 1 
C 5 
D 6 

D 5 

D 6 
B 2 
B 2 
C 4 
C 2 
E 2 
E 3 
D 4 
A 2 
E 2 
E 4 
C 5 
C 4 
D 2 
B 2 
D 4 
E 3 
D 4 
D 2 
D 3 
B 4 
C 4 
E 3 
C 4 
D 4 
F 2 
E 3 
E 2 
D 2 
C 1 
D 6 

D 6 
D 1 

C 4 
D 4 
E 2 
E 3 
C 2 


Columbus 600 
Convent Station 


Cookstown 

450 

Corbin City 

238 

Coytesville 

2,500 

Cranberry L, 

. 200 

Cranbury 

1,843 

Cranbury Sta. 
Cranford +18,602 

Creamridge 

50 

Cresskill 

3,534 

Crosswicks 

850 

Crystal Lake 

Daretown 

150 

Dayton 

450 

Deal 

1,064 

Deans 

300 

Deepwater 

1,500 

Deerfield St. 

500 

Delair 

2,237 

Delanco 

2,494 

Delawanna 

4,000 

Delaware 

279 

Dehnont 

330 

Demarest 

1,786 

Dennisville 

300 

Denville 

4,200 

Dias Creek 

400 

Dividing Cr. 

900 

Dorchester 

235 

Dorothy 

400 

Dover 

11,174 

Drakestown 

100 

Dumont 

13,013 

Dunellen 

6,291 

Dutch Neck 

150 

E. Keansburg 


2,596 

E. Millstone 
E. Newark 

2,173 

E. Orange 

79,340 

E. Paterson 15,386 
E. Rutherford 


7,438 

Eatentown 
Echo Lake 

3,044 

Edgewater 

3,952 

Edgewater Pk. 150 

Egg Harbor 


City 

3,838 

Elberon 

1,200 

Eldora 

350 

Elizabeth 112,817 

Ellisdale 

60 

Elmer 

1,460 

Elwood 

600 

Emerson 

1,744 

Englewood 

23,145 

Englewood Cliffs 


966 

English Creek 350 

EngUshtown 

1,004 

Erl ton 

2,000 

Essex Fells 

1,617 

Estell Manor 381 

Everett 

100 

Ewan 

240 

Fair Haven 

3,560 

Fair L.awn 

23,885 

Fairton 

Fairview' 

8,661 

Fanwood 

3,228 

Far Hills 

600 

Farmingdale 

755 

Fieldsboro 

589 

Finesville 

275 

Flagtown 

450 

Flanders 

450 

Flatbrookvillo 

Flemington 

3,058 

Florence 

3.460 

Florham Pk. 

2.385 

Folsom 

292 

Fords 

5,200 

Forked River 1,000 

Fort Lee 

11.648 

Fortcscue 

500 


* No room on map for name. tPopulation of township. 


(1631 


D 3 
E 2 
D 3 
D 5 
C 2 
D 2 
E 3 
E 3 
E 2 
E 3 
C 1 
D 3 
B 1 
C 4 
D 3 
F 3 
D 3 
C 4 
C 4 
C 4 
D 3 
B 2 
C 2 
C 5 
C 1 
D 5 
E 2 
D 5 
C 5 
D 5 
D 5 
D 2 
D 2 
F 2 
D 2 
D 3 

E 3 
D 3 
B 2 
B 2 
B 2 

B 2 
E 3 
E 1 
C 2 
D 3 

D 4 
E 3 
H 5 
E 2 
D 3 
O 4 
D 4 
B 1 
C 2 

C 2 
D 5 
E 3 
B 3 
A 2 
D 5 
E 3 
C 4 
E 3 
B 1 
C 5 
C 2 
E 2 
D 2 
E 3 
D 3 
C 2 
D 2 
D 2 
D 1 
D 2 
D 3 
E 2 
D 4 
E 2 
E 4 
C 2 
C 5 


Franklin 

3,864 

D 1 

Hohokus 

2,254 

B 1 

Franklin Lakes 


Holmdel 

500 

E 3 


2,021 

B 1 

Hohneson 


E 3 

Franklin Park 715 

D 3 

Hopatcong 

1,173 

D 2 

Franklin viile 

1,226 

C 4 

Hope 

500 

D 2 

Freehold 

7,550 

E 3 

Hopewell 

1,869 

D 3 

Frenchtown 

1,305 

C 2 

Homerstown 140 

E 3 

Garfield 

27,550 

E 2 

Hudson Hts. 2,000 

C 2 

Garwood 

4,622 

E 2 

Imlaystown 


D 3 

Glbbsboro 

906 

D 4 

Interlaken 

833 

E 3 

Gibbstown 

2,546 

C 4 

Iona 

150 

C 4 

Gillette 

1,300 

E 2 

Ironia 

300 

D 2 

Gladstone- 



Irvington 

59,201 

B 2 

Peapack 

1,450 

D 2 

Iselin 

7,000 

E 2 

Glassboro 

5,867 

C 4 

Island Beach 13 

*E 4 

Glasser 

100 

D 2 

Island Heights 795 

E 4 

Glen Gardner 654 

D 2 

Jacobstown 


D 3 

Glen Ridge 

7,620 

B 2 

Jamesburg 

2,307 

E 3 

Glen Rock 

7,145 

B 1 

Jersey City 299,017 

F 2 

Glendola 

700 

E 3 

Jobstown 

250 

D 3 

Glenwood 

425 

D 1 

Johnsonburg 150 

D 2 

Gloucester City 


Juliustown 

350 

D 3 


14,357 

C 4 

Jutland 

120 

D 2 

Gloucester 



Keansburg 

5,559 

E 3 

Heights 

1,200 

B 3 

Kearny 

39,952 

B 2 

Goshen 

360 

D 5 

Keasbey 

2,000 

E 2 

GrasseUi 


B 3 

Kenilworth 

4,922 

E 2 

Great Meadows 


Kenvil 

1,361 

D 2 


825 

D 2 

Keswick Grove 150 

E 4 

Great Notch 

1,000 

B 2 

Keyport 

5,888 

E 3 

Green Bank 

200 

D 4 

Kingston 

900 

D 3 

Green Creek 


D 5 

Kinnelon 

1,350 

E 2 

Green Pond 

105 

E 1 

Kirkwood 

550 

B 4 

Green Village 800 

D 2 

Lafayette 

1,100 

D 1 

Greendell 

100 

D 2 

Lake Como 


E 3 

Greemrich 

950 

C 5 

Lake Hiawatha 


Greenwich Pier 25 

C 5 


8,000 

E 2 

Grenloch 


C 4 

Lake Hopatcong 


Greystone Pk. 

D 2 


5,000 

D 2 

Groveville 

700 

D 3 

Lakehurst 

1,518 

E 3 

Guttenberg 

5,566 

C 2 

Lakewood 

9,970 

E 3 

Hackensack 29,219 

F 2 

Lambertville 4,477 

D 3 

Hackettstown 


Lamington 

150 

D 2 


3,894 

D 2 

Landing 

1,500 

D 2 

Haddon Hts. 7,287 

C 4 

Landisville 

1,500 

D 4 

Haddonfield 10,495 

D 4 

Lanoka Harbor 250 

E 4 

Hainesburg 

437 

C 2 

Laurel Sprs. 

1,540 

B 4 

Halnesport 

1,130 

D 4 

Laurel ton 

800 

E 3 

Hainesville 

100 

D 1 

Laurence 



Haledon 

6,204 

B 1 

Harbor 

5,000 

E 3 

Haleyville 

100 

C 5 

Lavallette 

567 

E 4 

Hamburg 

1,305 

D 1 

Lawnside 

1,566 

B 3 

Hamilton 

750 

E 3 

Lawrencevillel,056 

D 3 

Hamilton Sq. 

, 3,500 

D 3 

Layton 

350 

D 1 

Hammonton 

8,411 

D 4 

Lebanon 

752 

D 2 

Hampton 

975 

D 2 

Ledgewood 

800 

D 2 

Hancocks 



Leeds Point 

400 

E 4 

Bridge 

300 

C 4 

Leesburg 


D 5 

Hanford 


D 1 

Leonardo 

1,887 

E 3 

Hanover 


E 2 

Leonla 

7,378 

C 2 

Harbourton 

82 

D 3 

Liberty Cor. 

1,500 

D 2 

Hardlngville 

75 

C 4 

Lincoln Pk. 

3,376 

A 1 

Harlingen 


D 3 

Lin croft 


E 3 

Harrington 



Linden 

30,644 

E 2 

Park 

1,634 

C 1 

Lindenwold 

3,479 

B 4 

Harrison 

13,490 

B 2 

LInwood 

1,925 

D 5 

Harrisonville 

338 

C 4 

Little Falls 

6,600 

E 2 

Hartford 

500 

D 4 

Little Ferry 

4,955 

B 2 

Harvey Cedars 106 

E 4 

Little Silver 

2,595 

F 3 

Hasbrouck 



Little York 


C 2 

Heights 

9,181 

B 2 

Livingston 

10,100 

E 2 

Haskell 

3,000 

A 1 

Locust 

500 

F 3 

Haworth 

1,612 

C 1 

Lodi 

15.392 

B 2 

Hawthorne 14,816 

E 2 

Long Branch 


Hazlet 

800 

E 3 

23.090 

F 3 

Heislerville 

300 

D 5 

Long Valley 


D 2 

Helmetta 

580 

E 3 

Longport 

618 

D 5 

Hewitt 


E 1 

Lower Bank 

118 

E 4 

Hi-Nella 

237 

B 4 

Lower 



Hibernia 

350 

E 2 

Squankum 

150 

E 3 

High Bridge 

1,854 

D 2 

Lumberton 

600 

D 4 

Highland Pk. 9.721 

E 2 

Lyndhurst +19,980 

B 2 

Highlands 

2,959 

F 3 

Lyons 


D 2 

Hightstown 

3,712 

D 3 

Madison 

10,417 

E 2 

Hillsdale 

4,127 

E 2 

Magnolia 

1,883 

C 4 

Hillside +21,007 

B 2 

Mahwah 

3,800 

E 1 

Hoboken 50,676 

C 2 

Malaga 

425 

C 4 












NEW JERSEY Continued 


Manahawkin 1,200 
Manalapan 
Manasquan • 3,178 
Mantoloklng 72 
Mantua 3,000 
Manville 8,597 
Maple Shade 7,500 
Maplewoodt25,201 
Marcella 300 

Margate City 4,715 


300 

475 

175 


Marlboro 
Marltou 
Marmora 
Martinsville 2,700 
Masonville 1,500 
Matawan 3,739 
Maurice River 
Mauricetown 500 
Mayetta 150 

Mays Landing 

1,301 

Maywood 8,667 
McAfee 

McKee City 200 
Medford 1,300 
Medford Lakes 461 
Mendham 1,724 
Menlo Park 
Mercerville 5,000 
Merchantville 

4,183 

Metuchen 9,879 
Mickleton 325 
Middle Valley 300 
Middlebush 
Middlesex 
Middletown 
Middleville 


5,943 

700 

75 


Midland Pk. 5,164 


Midvale 

Milford 

Milhurst 


2,000 
1,012 
25 


Millbum ti 4,560 


Millington 
Millstone 
Mill town 
Millville 
Milmay 
Milton 
Mine Hill 
Mlnotola 
Mizpah 
Momnotith 
Beach 
Monmouth 
Junction' 
Monroe 
Monroeville 
Montague 


400 
289 
3,786 
16,041 
294 
1,100 
1,500 

875 


E 4 
E 3 
E 3 
E 3 
C 4 
D 2 
D 4 
E 2 
E 2 
E 5 
E 3 
D 4 
D 5 
D 2 
D 4 
E 3 
D 5 
D 5 
E 4 

D 5 
B 2 
D 1 
D 5 
D 4 
D 4 
D 2 
E 2 
D 3 

C 4 
E 2 
C 4 
D 2 
D 2 
E 2 
E 3 
D 1 
B 1 
E 1 
C 2 
E 3 
E 2 
D 2 
D 2 
E 3 
C 5 
D 5 
D 1 
D 2 
D 4 
D 5 


806 P 3 


443 

150 

500 

600 


Montclair 43,297 
Montvale 1,856 
Montvllle 2,000 
Moonachle 1,775 
Moorestown 9,175 
Morgan vUle 
Morris Plains 2,707 
Morristown 17,124 
Mt. Arlington 639 
Mt. Ephraim 4,449 
Mt. Freedom 500 


D 3 
D 1 
C 4 
D 1 
E 2 
E 1 
E 2 
B 2 
D 4 
E 3 
D 2 
D 2 
D 2 
B 3 
D 2 


New Bedford 600 
New Brunswick 

38,811 

New Egypt 1,294 
New Gretna 600 
New Hampton 200 
New Lisbon 
New Market 1,500 
New Milford 6,006 
New Monmouth 

700 

New Providence 

3,380 

New Sharon 50 
New Vernon 1,100 
Newark 438,776 
Newfield 1,010 
Newfoundland 
Newport 950 

Newton 5,781 
Newtonville 
Nixon 
Norma 
Normandy 
Beach 
N. Arllngtonl5,970 
N. Bergen t41,560 
N. Branch 600 
N. Caldwell 1,781 
N. Cape May 
N. Hackensack 
N. Haledon 3,550 
N. Plainfield 

12,766 

N. Wildwood 3,158 
Northfleld 3i498 
Northvale 
Norwood 
Nutley 
Oak Ridge 
Oak Tree 
Oakhurst 
Oakland 
Oaklyn 


2,500 


150 


1,455 

1,792 

26,992 

75 

2,000 

2,388 

1,817 

4,889 


Ocean City 6,040 
Ocean Gate 452 
Ocean Grove 3,806 
Ocean View 195 
Oceanport 7,588 
OceanvUle 1,500 
Ogdensburg 1,169 
Old Bridge 3,500 
Old Tappan 
Oldwlck 
Oradell 
Orange 


828 
500 
3,665 
38,037 


Osbornsville 800 
Oxford 1,041 

Packanack Lake 

3,000 

Palermo 
Palisade 


150 

3,784 


Palisades Pk. 9,635 


Palmyra 
Paramus 
Park Ridge 3,189 
Parkertown 
Parlin 
Parslppany 
Passaic 


5,802 

6,268 


2,000 


57,702 


E 3 

E 3 
E 3 
E 4 
D 2 
D 4 

,D 2 
B 1 

E 3 

*E 2 
D 3 
D 2 
E 2 
D 4 
D 1 
C 5 
D 1 
D 4 
E 2 
C 4 

E 3 
B 2 
B 2 
D 2 
B 2 
C 6 
B 2 
B 1 

»E 2 
D 6 
D 5 
F 1 
C 1 
B 2 
E 1 
E 2 
E 3 
E 1 
B 3 
D 5 
E 4 
F 3 
D 5 
E 3 
D 5 
D 1 
B 3 
C 1 
D 2 
B 1 
B 2 
E 3 
C 2 

B 1 
D 5 
C 2 
C 2 
D 4 
B 1 
B 1 
E 4 
E 3 
E 2 
E 2 


Phalanx 

Philllpsburg 18,919 


495 

500 

2,546 

39 

6,960 

273 


Pine Beach 
Pine Brook 
Pine Hill 
Pine Valley 
Pitman 
Pittstown 
Plainfield 42,366 
Plainsboro 1,118 
Pleasant Gr. 75 
Pleasant'ville 

11,938 

Pluckemln 300 
Pt. Pleasant 4,009 
Point Pleasant 
Beach 2,900 
Pomona 300 

Pompton Lakes 

4,654 

Pompton Plains 

3,450 

Port Elizabeth 500 
Port Monmouth 

1,767 

Port Morris 600 
Port Miuray 400 
Port Norris 1,735 
Port Reading 3,500 
Port Republic 423 
Pottersvllle 350 
Princeton 12,230 
Princeton Jet. 
Prospect Pk. 5.242 
Prospect 
Plains 160 

Quakertown 148 


Quinton 
Rahway 
Ralston 
Ramsey 
Rancocas 
Raritan 
Readington 
Reaville 


1.000 

21,290 

500 

4,670 

500 

5,131 

300 

219 


Red Bank 12,743 


Richland 
Richwood 
Ridgefield 
Ridgefield Pk. 

11,993 

Ridgewood 17,481 
Riegelsville 
Ringoes 
Ringwood 
Rio Grande 
Risley 
River Edge 9,204 
Riverdale 
Riverside 
Riverton 
Roadstown 
Robbinsville 2,038 
Rochelle Pk. 4,475 
Rockaway 3,812 
Rockleigh 110 
Rocky Hill 537 
Roebling 3,325 
Roosevelt 720 
Roseland 2,019 


800 

350 

8,312 


250 

400 

1,752 


1,352 

7,199 

2,761 

125 


E 3 
C 2 
E 4 
B 2 
*C 4 
D 4 
C 4 
C 2 
E 2 
D 3 
D 2 

D 5 
D 2 
E 3 

*E 3 
D 5 

A 1 

E 2 
D 5 

E 3 
D 2 
D 2 
C 5 
E 2 
D 4 
D 2 
D 3 
D 3 
E 2 

E 3 
D 2 
C 4 
E 2 
D 2 
E 1 
D 3 
D 2 
D 2 
D 3 
E 3 
D 5 
C 4 
B 2 

F 2 
E 2 
C 2 
D 3 
E 1 
D 5 
D 5 
B 1 
E 2 
D 3 
D 3 
C 5 
D 3 
B 2 
D 2 
C 1 
D 3 
D 3 
E 3 
A 2 


Seabrook 2,284 
Seaside Heights 862 
Seaside Park 987 
Secaucus 9,750 
Sergeantsvllle 175 


1,800 
600 
225 
427 
533 
7,000 
1,613 
3,500 

3,500 
25 
40 
350 
1,417 
2,480 
11,571 
8,422 


C 5 
E 4 
E 4 
B 2 
D 3 
E 2 
C 4 
C 4 
C 5 
E 4 
E 2 
E 3 
D 4 
A2 
D 3 
E 3 
E 1 
D 4 
D 4 
D 5 
D 2 
E 3 


Sewaren 
Sewell 
Sharp town 
Shiloh 

Ship Bottom 
Short HiUs 
Shrewsbury 
Sicklerville 
Singac 
Sklllman 
Smithburg 
Smiths Mills 
Smlthvllle 
Somerdale 
Somers Pt. 

Somerville 
S. Amboy 
S. Belmar 
S. Bound Brook 

2,905 

S. Branch 120 
S. Cape May 
S. Dennis 372 

S. Orange 15,230 

S. Plainfield 8,008 

S. River 11,308 

S. Seaville 
S. Toms River 492 
S. Vineland 
Southard 
Sparta 
Sperry Sprs. 

Spotswood 
Spring L^ke 2,008 
Spring L.Hts. 1,798 3 

Springfield t7,214 E 2 
Staflord'vllle 250 
Stanhope 1,351 
Stanton 150 

Stelton 

Stephensburg 200 
Stewartsville 1,000 
Stillwater 275 
Stirling 1,076 
Stockholm 500 
Stockton 488 
Stone Harbor 670 
Stratford 1,356 
Strathmere 110 
Succasimna 1,022 
Summit 17,929 
Surf City 291 
Sussex 1,541 

Swartswood 150 
Swedesboro 2,459 
Tabor 


1,294 *E 3 


B 2 
D 2 
D 6 
D 5 
A2 
E 2 
E 3 
D 5 
E 4 
D 5 
E 3 
D 1 
D 2 
E 3 
F3 


Vail 

Van HisevUle 


75 

250 


Vauxhall 

Ventnor 

Vernon 

Verona 

Vienna 

Villas 

Vincentown 

Vineland 

Vulcanite 

Waldwlck 

Wallington 

Wallpack Ctr. 


7,000 

8,185 

300 

10,921 


C2 

E3 

A2 

E5 

El 

E2 


275 D2 


700 

8,155 
900 
3,963 
8,910 
, 210 


D5 

D4 

05 

02 

El 

B2 

D1 

E3 

B1 

E4 

B'l 

D2 

D2 

E2 


750 

1,800 

500 

2,325 


Tavistock 

Teaneck 

Tenafly 

Teiment 

Teterboro 

Thorofare 


E 4 
D 2 
D 2 
E 2 
D 2 
C 2 
D 1 
E 2 
D 1 
D 3 
D 5 
C 4, 
D 5 
D 2 
E 2 
E 4 
D 1 
D 1 
C 4 
2,500 E 2 
15 *B 3 
t33,772 B 2 
9,651 
250 
28 
500 


Wanamassa 2,512 
Wanaque 4,222 
Waretown 750 
Warren Pt. 5,000 
Warren'rille 850 
Washington 4,802 
Watchung 1,818 
Waterford 

Works 1.200 

Wayne 
Weehawken 

tl4,380 
Wenonah 1,511 
West Berlin 
W. Caldwell 4,666 
W. Cape May 897 D 6 
W. Creek 525 E4 
W. Englewood 

14.000 

W. Freehold 100 
W. Long Br. 2,739 
W. Milford 
W. New York 

37,683 

W. Norwood 1,900 
W. Orange 28,605 
W. Paterson 3,931 
W. Pt. Pleasant 

3.000 

W. Portal 
W. Trenton 
W. Wildwood 237 
Westfield 21,243 


D4 

A1 

02 

04 

D4 

A2 


02 

E3 

F5 

El 

02 

01 

A2 

B2 


Three Bridges 700 


Titusville 
Toms River 


2,500 

2,517 


F 2 
E 3 
B 2 
B 4 
D 2 
D 3 
E 4 


Weston 
Westvllle 
Westwood 
Wharton 
Whlppany 
■Wlilte House 
Station 
Whitehouse 
Whitesbog 
Whltesboro 
Whitesville 
Whiting 
Wickatunk 
Wildwood 
Wildwood 
Crest 

Wllliamstown 


1,500 

4,731 

6,766 

3.853 

2,100 

1,750 

600 

175 

700 

450 


E3 

D2 

D3 

D6 

E2 

D2 

04 

B1 

D2 

E2 

D2 

D2 

E4 

D5 

E3 


350* 

E3 

5,475 D6 
1,772 D6 


2,632 

250 

2,720 


D4 

D3 

B3 

P4 

D4 


Mt. Holly 

8,206 

D 4 

Paterson 139,336 

E 2 

Roselle 

17.681 

B 2 

Totowa 

6,045 

,B 1 

Mount Hope 1,500 

D 2 

Pattenburg 

200 

C 2 

Roselle Pk. 

11,537 

A 2 

Towaco 

1,500 

E 2 

Mount Royal 

850 

C 4 

Paulsboro 

7,842 

C 4 

Rosemont 

117 

D 3 

Townsends 


Mountain 



Peapack- 



Rosenhayn 

1,000 

C 5 

Inlet 

175 

D 5 

Lakes 

2,806 

E 2 

Gladstone 

1,450 

D 2 

Rumson 

4,044 

F 3 

Tranquility 

100 

D 2 

Mountain 



Pedricktown 

575 

C 4 

Runnemede 

4,217 

C 4 

Treasure Isl. 


C 3 

View 

5,000 

A2 

Pemberton 

1,194 

D 4 

Rutherford 

17,411 

B 2 

TRENTON 



Mountainside 


Pennington 

1,682 

D 3 

Saddle River 1,003 

B 1 

128,009 

D 3 


2,046 

*E 2 

Penns Grove 6,669 

C 4 

Salem 

9,050 

C 4 

Tuckahoe 

800 

D 5 

Mulllca Hill 

900 

C,4 

Pennsauken 



Sand Brook 

175 

D 3 

Tuckerton 

1,332 

E 4 

Murray Hill 

950 

E 2 

t22.767 

B 3 

Sayrevilie 

10,338 

E 3 

Union t38.004 

E 2 

National Pk. 

2,419 

B 3 

Penns ville 

3,500 

C 4 

Schooleys Mt. 250 

D 2 

Union Beach 3,636 

E 3 

Naughright 

300 

D 2 

Pequannock 

2,500 

E 2 

Scobeyville 

350 

E 3 

Union City '55,537 

C 2 

Navesmk 

1,085 

E 3 

Perrinevllle 


E 3 

Scotch Plains 9,000 

E 2 

Upper 



Neptune 

3,073 

E 3 

Perth Amboy 



Sea Bright 

999 

F.3 

Macopln 

500 

E 1 

- Neshanlc 

500 

D 3 

41,330 

E 2 

Sea Girt 

1.178 

E 3 

Upper Saddle 



‘ etcong 

2,284 

D 2 

1 Petersburg 

250 

D 5 

Sea Isle City 993 

D 5 

River 

706 

B 1 


Windsor 
Winfleld 
Winslow 

Winslow Jet. „ 

Wood-Lynne 2.776 B 

Wood-Ridge 6,283 B2 
Woodbine 2,417 
Woodbridge 

t35,758 
Woodbury 10,931 
Woodbury 

Heights 1.373 
WoodclilT L. 1.^2” 
Woodport 2,000 
Woodstown 2,345 
Wortondyke 050 


D5 

E2 

04 


Wrightstown 1.199 


Wyckofl 

Yardville 

Yorktown 

Zarephath 

Zion 


5.400 

1.600 

125 

250 

100 


B4 
B 1 
D2 
04 
B 1 
D3 
E2 
D3 
04 
D2 
D3 


No room on map for name. fPopulation of tonmship. 


11661 



167 


Under this policy so many large companies incorpo- 
rated there that the state was called “the home of the 
trusts.” In 1913 New Jersey tightened its control over 
corporations with the “Seven Sisters” acts against 
monopoly, price fixing, and restraint of trade. Public 
r service franchises were also limited to 20 years, unless 
I extended to 40 years by 
popular vote. 

; History of New Jersey 
The first European 
1 visitor to what is now 
I New Jersey was Giovan- 
ni da Verrazano, an Ital- 
; ian navigator sailing 
■■ under the French flag. In 
3 the spring of 1524 he 
I sailed around Sandy 
- Hook and anchored in 
New York Bay. He was 
J followed in 1525 by the 
Portuguese sailor Este- 
van Gomez. ^ 

Henry Hudson, ex- 
i; ploring for the Dutch, ar- 
] rived in 1609. In the 
early 1600’s the Dutch 
settled at Fort Nassau, near present Gloucester City, 
j. and at Hoboken on the Hudson River. About 1638 
Swedish colonists built forts on the east bank of the 
Delaware. They were driven out by the Dutch in 1655. 
Meanwhile, the Delaware, or Lrcnni-Lenape, Indians, 
1 whose name means “the original people,” took every 
[' opportunity to attack the white trespassers. They 
I) fought to protect their land, called Scheyichbi, “land 
bordering the ocean.” They lived in lodges built of 
/ saplings and covered with bark. The first Indian 
j reservation in the country was set aside for these 
I Indians in 1758, at the present 
3 site of Indian IMills. 

‘ England claimed the region 
about the mouth of the Hudson 
5 in 1664. It granted New Jersey 
I to Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
j Carteret. The area was named 
f in honor of Carteret, who had 
' been governor of the island of 
r Jersey in the English Channel. 

^ Philip Carteret, the first Eng- 
lish governor, is said to have 
j named the town of Elizabeth 
i for the wife of his cousin. Sir 
George. Elizabeth was the co- 
, lonial capital from 1665 to 1686. 

; In 1676 the province was 
divided into East and West 
, Jei-sey. By 1682 William Penn and several other 
r Quakers had become the proprietors of both the 
, Jerseys. From 1702 to 1738, however. New Jersey 
I had the same governor as New York. 

\ Princeton Univeisity was founded in 1746. In 1766 
; Queens College was established in New Brunswick. 


NEW JERSEY 

The college’s name was changed in 1825 to Rutgers. 
It is now the state university. 

Like Boston, New Jersey had a “tea party” — at 
Greenwich near Delaware Bay in 1774. Young men in 
Indian costume burned a whole shipload of tea from 
England. New Jersey was also the site of many his- 
toric events during the 
Revolution — the retreat 
of Washington, the cap- 
ture of the British at Tren- 
ton, the battles at Prince- 
ton and at Monmouth (see 
Revolution, American). In 
the latter battle, according 
to a popular story, the 
heroic Molly Pitcher fired 
her wounded husband’s 
cannon. Washington and 
his army spent several 
winters at Morristown. 
The British took Camden, 
along with Philadelphia, 
in 1776. 

At the Constitutional 
Convention in Philadel- 
phia in 1787, New Jersey 
represented the smaller states. The large states had 
proposed the Virginia plan, which called for a strong 
national government with a congress based on popula- 
tion. The New Jersey plan proposed equal represen- 
tation of all the states. Both plans were finally adopt- 
ed, the former for the House of Representatives, and 
the New Jersey plan for the Senate (see United 
States Constitution). On Dec. 18, 1787, New Jersey 
became the third state to ratify the Constitution. 

New Jersey started the Morris Canal in 1824 and 
the Delaware and Raritan Canal in 1826. It completed 
its first railway — the Camden 
and Amboy — in 1834. John 
Fitch, a Trenton clockmaker, 
built one of the first steam- 
boats in 1787. Alexander 
Hamilton dueled with Aaron 
Burr at Weehawken in 1804. 
Samuel F. B. Morse sent his 
first telegraph message near 
Morristown in 1838. Thestate’s 
military heroes include William 
Bainbridge and James Law- 
rence (AVar of 1812), Philip 
Kearny (Civil War), and 
Robert F. Stockton (who aided 
in the conquest of California). 

In 1879 Thomas Edison lighted 
the first practical electric lamp 
at Menlo Park. In V''est Orange, he perfected other 
inventions. Vteodrow Wilson was governor of New 
Jersey when elected president in 1912. Since 1933 the 
physicist Albert Einstein has lived at Princeton. 
{See also chronology in New Jersey Fact Summarj”; 
United States, section “Middle Atlantic Region.”) 


THE STATE BUILDINGS AT TRENTON 



A gilded dome and lantern rise from New Jersey’s statehouse. 
The statehouse and its annex stand m a fine park. 


PRINCETON’S OLDEST BUILDING 



Nassau Hall was the first building erected on the 
campus of Princeton University. It was completed m 
1756 and for many years housed a dormitory, class- 
rooms, and chapel. It is now an office building. 


168 


NEWMAN 

Newman, John Henry, Cardinal (1801-1890). 
When all else that Newman did and wrote has been 
for the most part forgotten, his name will still be kept 
alive by his well-known hymn; 

Lead, Kindly Light, amid the encircling gloom, 

Lead Thou me on! 

The night is dark, and I am far from home; 

Lead Thou me on! 

Keep Thou my feet; I do not ask to see 
The distant scene, — one step enough for me. 

These beautiful lines have found their way into 
almost every heart and hymn-book. Newman com- 
posed them in 1833, while on shipboard returning to 
England from a voyage to the Mediterranean, before 
the religious questionings had arisen which led him 
from the Church of England to the Church of Rome. 
During his long life his work was largely a passionate 
expression in masterly prose of intellectual struggle 
and spiritual quest. 

Two years after taking his degree at Trinity College, 
Oxford, he obtained a fellowship at Oriel, “the center 
of Oxford intellectualism.” Always of a dreamy 
religious temperament, he became a clergyman of the 


Church of England as well as an Oxford tutor. He 
became a leading spirit in the famous “Oxford move- 
ment,” a High Church reaction which manifested 
itself in a series of ‘Tracts for the Times’, of which he 
was the chief author. His romantic vision of the 
medieval church restored in its power and grandeur 
gradually led this simple sincere ascetic, with grave 
kind eyes and a thoughtful smile, into the Bomm 
Catholic church, which he called “a home after many 
storms.” He was ordained a priest at Rome in 1815, 
and was appointed a cardinal in 1879. He died at 
Birmingham on Aug, 11, 1890. 

It was in his many sermons, lectures, and writings 
that Newman became one of the great religious forces 
of his day. The spiritual fervor, the searching subtle 
intellect, and the charm of his personality were sup* 
plemented by a fine prose style seldom surpassed. 

'The Newman Treasury’, edited by C. F. Harrold (L>os- 
mans, 1943), includes selections from Newman's essays ana 
sermons and portions of ‘Apologia pro Vita Sua’ and ‘Medi- 
tations’. Biographies include ‘John Henry Newman by 
John Moody (Sheed, 1945), and ‘Red Hat' by Coi* 
Newcomb, for young people (Longmans,T941). 


NEW MEXICO— WONDERLAND of RUGGED BEAUTY 



Adobe Homes, Dry Rolling Land, and a Mountain 


AJEW MEXICO. The strange beauty and charm of 
the ancient land which its white inhabitants have 
named New Mexico have been summed up by the 
western novelist Zane Grey, who knew this country 
well. In describing its land and natives, he wrote; 

“Red rocks, the alkali flats like snow, the sand dunes 
so graceful and curved, the long cedar slopes, speckled 
green and gray, leading up to the bold peaks; the vast 
black belts of timber; the Navajo facing the sunrise 
with his silent prayer, the Hopi in his alfalfa fields, or 
the Apache along the historic Apache trail; the coyote 
sneaking through the arroyos; the lonely cliff dwell- 
ings with their monuments of a vanished race; the 
endless slopes of sage, green and gray, and purple on 
the heights; the smell of cedar smoke, like burning 
leaves in autumn; the smell of the desert, dry and 


Range Make up a Typical View in This Scenic State 

clean and somehow new; the tangy odor of 
juniper when your nostrils seem glued as P' • ’ 
the sweet fragrance of the pine forests, and 
describable and exhilarating perfume of the purP 
sage.” New Mexico is all this and more too. 

The state is a vast tableland broken by ma 
mountain ranges. Only in the Staked Flam icB 
is it possible to get out of sight of the moun . - 
The Rocky Mountains enter the state at the n 
and extend southeast for about 120 miles, as a 
Santa Fe, in an unbroken chain of lofty 
characteristic feature is the mesas, vast fiat- °PP 
hills that rise straight up from the surrounding c 
try. Signs of volcanic action, such as lava pa 
are found. The highest point of New i nx 
Wheeler Peak (13,151 feet) in the north central p- 



CROPS AND LIVESTOCK FROM ARID LAND 



Stock raising is important in this arid or semiarid state. Here of the more than one million cattle in the state. The scene 
a modem tractor draws a hayrake to gather feed for some is near the Mescalero Apache Reservation in the south. 



The Organ Mountains near Las Cruces look down on this irri- picked cotton is pressed into 500-pound bales. This machine 
gated field of New Mexico’s leading field crop — cotton. The compresses the cotton so the metal bands can he fastened. 



r 



it a major sheep-producing state. One sheep ranch has over a 
million acres and several others have more.than 100,000 acres. 


169 






When TJncle Sam had finished this magnificent piece of irrigation engineering, he had done a tremendous thing toward the traos- 
formation of the desert. This dam stores enough water to cover 2,2 IP, 000 acres a foot deep. 


Among the most famous of the mesas are the superb 
Enchanted Mesa and its neighbor Acoma, about 55 
miles southwest of Albuquerque. On the flat-topped 
summit of Acoma is an Indian pueblo, believed to be 
the oldest continuously inhabited village in the United 
States. It was ancient when members of Coronado’s 
army visited it in 1540. Narrow foot trails lead to 
this lofty “sky city,’’ 357 feet above the plain, but 
many of the Indians prefer to use the original pre- 
cipitous trail which combines ladders with toe and 
finger holes. Every pound of mud used in building 
the three-story adobe houses was carried up from the 
plains on human backs. The Mission, established in 
1629 by a Franciscan priest, Juan Ramirez, is a mon- 
ument to patient endeavor. Its roof beams, 40 feet 
long and 14 inches square, were carried from the 
mountains 20 miles distant. 

Acoma’s''inhabitants once descended to the plains 
only to cultivate their fields and tend their stock. 
Many of them now live in the plains villages the year 
around and return to Acoma only for ceremonies and 
festivals. 

The immense arid tableland called the Staked Plain 
(“Llano Estacado”) is in the southeastern comer of 
the state. In the south central part are the remark- 
able white gypsum sand dunes, 10 to 45 feet high, 
where dwell white reptiles and insects. The region 
is now a national monument. Capulin Mountain in 
the northeastern part of the state, the cinder cone of a 


recently extinct volcano, is also a national monument. 
One of the largest caves in the world, the Carlsbad 
Caverns, has been made a national park (see Caves, 
National Parks and Monuments). 

The valleys and flood plains of the New Mexican 
streams, when irrigated, furnish fine pasture 1 ® 
salt marshes of the west center and the Rio Gran e 
border supply the cattle ranges with salt. Sage- 
brush and greasewood dot the arid plateau of c 
northwest, more than 6,000 feet high. 

Both the Rio Grande and the Pecos River are moun 
tain streams at their sources. When the snows of ■ 
Rocky Mountains begin to melt, the Rio Gran e 
floods the lowlands and covers them with a ric 
deposit of silt. In the dry season many small nve 
vanish, leaving dry beds called arroyos. 

The picturesque flowering yuccas abound 
where. Pinyon and cedar trees are abundant m 
foothills, and mesquite and the saguaro, a gicn 
cactus, in the south. The native animals are n 
numerous, but include bears, deer, mountain ic® i 
wildcats, antelopes, and coyotes. Rattlesnakes, 
Gila monster, and the tarantula are common on y 
certain places and at certain times. _ 

The climate, with its hot yet never oppressive su 
mer days and always cool nights, is peculiarly hea 
ful because of the low humidity, high altitude, a 
southern latitude. Plants dry up and dead bo = 
mummify rather than decay; wood is practical!}' ev 






171 


NEW MEXICO 


A LAND OF MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS are over. Today, in normal years, 

the state has about I 5 milhon 
sheep and lambs on its farms and 
ranges. In production of wool it 
is one of the leading states in 
the Union. 

New Mexico normally has about 
li million beef and dairy cattle on 
its ranges. The sale of cattle is 
the chief single source of farm 
income. Although the dairy herds 
are a small part of the total num- 
ber of the cattle, milk is a leading 
farm product. Cotton is the most 
valuable field crop. Hay and 
sorghum are used chiefl 3 '^ to feed 
the livestock. 

Crops Obtained with Irrigation 
Corn, wheat, and other grains, 
and fruits and vegetables are also 
grown largely with the aid of ir- 
rigation. For centuries before the 
white men came, native Pueblo 
Indians had practiced irrigation, 
but on a limited scale. At the 
present time, more than 650,000 
acres have been made fit for agri- 
culture by government and private 
irrigation projects. 

Notable among the state’s irri- 
gation projects is that of the Rio 
Grande Valley. Main unit is huge 
Elephant Butte Dam. This dam is 
used for power, flood control, and 
to provide water to irrigate land in 
New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico, 
lasting and meat can be cured in the open air with- Twenty-two miles downstream is Caballo Dam. On 
out salt or other preseiv^ative. the Cadadian River in the northeast is Conchas Dam. 

The climate of New Mexico is semiarid. Its yearly Along the Pecos Valley, especially between Roswell and 



New Mexico’s surface ranges from snow-covered northern mountains to great stretches 
of desert farther south. The state also has grazing land and irrigated river valleys. 


precipitation averages between 14 and 15 inches. Carlsbad, the government has reclaimed some 25,000 






About one third of this total is received in July unique pueblo school architecture 
and August, the months of heaviest rainfall. -v- ^ 

Precipitation also varies in different parts of 

the state. As much as 24 inches fall in the 'ij' 

southeast central section and as little as 8 -Vf'"" 

inches in the northwest and southwest areas. {-'y V y:,r~y --‘i i"' 

The temperature within the state averages V ' - ^ ' > • , • 

about 54° F. during the year. In the summer ■ f,; V. ;; ;, •; ‘ 

it averages about 72°, and in the winter about , ' V. _ - . ■. - . • • ■ . 

36°. In many places there is a wide range in - 

the daily temperature. On a hot sunshiny sum- 1 

iner daj'' the thermometer may register 90°; at . ' 1 - . 

night it may fall to 50°. , r "y gj | ml If 

Pasture Lands for Sheep and Cattle j . | - 

New Alexico is mainly a grazing state. The H| ■ ' ^ . b|^I , ii . ^ ' ' 

first merino sheep came into the provdnee Mth .p j. 

the Spanish colonists, and the descendants of 1 , " .. 

these sheep now graze in New IMexico. Some j ■ ; ■ - •-' .y yr, 

of them are tended bj^ Navajo Indian tribes. ^ — 

Tho niim- Buildings of the University of New Mexico, m Albuquerque, the state’s 

tie aa} s of the sheep kings, V no num leading institution of learning, are largely in the interesting Pueblo 
oered their animals by the hundred thousand, Indian style. The massive library shown here dominates the campus. 


7 H ( s' ml K 






NEW MEXICO 


172 


WEALTH FROM LIVESTOCK AND OIL 



Farming and mining are about equal as the leading sources of income 
for the state. Cattle are the chief farm product. Above are the huge 
stockyards of Clovis, often called “the little Chicago of the West.” 



Petroleum is the most important mineral. The Rattlesnake oil field, near 
the town of Shiprock, has some of the nation’s highest grade petroleiun. 
Beyond it. Ship Rock Peak rises 1,400 feet as a landmark. 


acres. On the Pecos are Alamogordo, McMillan, 
and Avalon dams. In the south, west of the Rio 
Grande, artesian wells are used in irrigation. 

Mineral Wealth 

Rivaling agriculture in value is miniu m 
The chief minerals are petroleum, copper, and 
potassium salts, including potash. Most of the 
nation’s potash comes from near Carlsbad 
in the southeast. Silver City, in the south- 
west, is in a copper-, lead-, silver-, and gold- 
mining region. The state also produces natural 
gas and its liquids, clays, fluorspar, pumice, 
pumicite, sand and gravel, stone, manganese 
ore, and coal. It mines turquoise and other 
gem stones. Uranium occurs in the northwest. 

New Mexico does not do much manufactur- 
ing. Its largest industry is the manufacture oi 
chemical products such as explosives, cotton- 
seed oil, and carbon black. A small amount of 
lumbering is done throughout the state, par- 
ticularly around Albuquerque. 

Cities — Yesterday and Today 

Santa Fe, the capital, was founded in 1609 
by the Spanish on the site of an Indian ul- 
lage. The first permanent white settlement in 
the Southwest, it is one of the oldest in the 
United States (see Santa Fe). 

As a territorial and state capital for about 
350 years, it has been under the flags of Spam, 
Mexico, the Confederacy, and the United 
States. Santa Fe lies in a small valley w® 
of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. It was the 
end of the Santa Fe Trail, 850 miles from In- 
dependence, Mo. William Becknell led the firs 
pack train over the trail in 1822. Then prmne 
schooners brought emigrants and traders. I 
old trail became a stagecoach line in 18' ■ 
The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroa 
partly paralleled it in 1880. . . 

Santa Fe, a noted historic and tourist ci ), 
blends Indian, Spanish, and American cu ur 
in its old and new buildings. Of interest are 
government buildings and the five units o 
Museum of New Me.xico — the Palace o 
Governors, Art Gallery, Laboratory of An i 
pology, Hall of Ethnology, and the Museum 
International Folk Art. Also in the city are 
School of American Research, a governmen 
dian school, and other schools. . 

Southfvest of Santa Fe on the upper 
Grande is Albuquerque, the largest 
was founded by the Spaniards in 1706. ' , 

health and tourist resort and a ^t„„. 

trading center. Here is the University o 
Mexico, with its notable Museum of ^ ^ jjj, 
ogy; a government school and 
dians; and the Church of San Felipe de 
{see Albuquerque). On the lower Rio ra ^ 
is Las Cruces in an irrigated farm area, v i 
state agricultural college nearb}’. Las eS* i 
east of Santa Fe, is virtually two ’ 

Continued on 



New Mexico Fact Summary 


NEW MEXICO (N. M.): Named after 
Old Mexico, in honor of Spanish ex- 
plorers. From Indian name Mexitli, 
an Aztec god, plus co (“place of”). 
Nickname: “The Land of Enchant- 
ment,” for its climate and scenery. 
Also “Sunshine State”; “Cactus 
State.” 

Seal: Small Mexican eagle grasps serpent in beak, holds 
cactus in claws; shielded by large American eagle. 

Moffo: Crescit Eimdo (It Grows as It Goes). 

Flag: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Yucca flower. Bird: Road runner. Tree: Pinon. 
Song: '0, Fair New Mexico’^ words and music by 
Elizabeth Garrett. 

THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital: Santa Fe (since 1850, when it 
became territorial capital). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 2. Elec- 
toral votes, 4. 

State Legislature: Senators, 31; term, 4 
years. Representatives, 55; term, 2 
years. Convenes second Tuesday in 
January in the odd-numbered years. Length of ses- 
sion limited to 60 days; recesses allowed. 

Constitution: Adopted 1912. Proposed amendment must 
be (a) passed by a majority vote of both legislative 
houses and (b) ratified by a majority voting on amend- 
ment at a popular election. 

Governor: Term, 2 years. May succeed himself once, then 
must wait 4 years before running for oSice again. 

Other Executive Officers: Lieutenant governor, secretary 
of state, attorney general, treasurer, auditor, land com- 
missioner, all elected; terms, 2 years; can serve only 2 
consecutive terms. Three corporation commissioners, 
1 elected every 2 years for 6-year term. 

Judiciary: Supreme court — 5 justices, elected by popular 
vote; term, 8 years. District courts — 9; judges elected; 
term, 6 years. Probate courts— 32; judges elected; 
term, 2 years. 

County: 32 counties, each governed by 3 county com- 
missioners; term, 2 years. 

Municipal: Mayor and council plan most common. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, one 
year; in county, 90 days; in precinct, 30 days. 



transportation and communication 

Transportation: Railroads, 2,500 miles. First railroad, 
Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe (Colorado boundary 
to Raton), 1878. Rural roads, 61,700 miles. Airports, 
94. 

Communication: Periodicals, 21. Newspapers, 66. First 
newspaper (in Spanish), El Crepusculo de la Libertad 
(The Dawn of Liberty), Santa Fe, 1834; in English, 
Santa Fe Republican, Santa Fe, 1847. Radio stations 
(AM), 23; first station, KOB, Albuquerque, licensed 
l^Iay 1922. Television stations, 1; KOB-TV, Albu- 
qucrque, began operation Nov. 29, 1948. Telephones, 
158,900. Post offices, 456. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 681,187 (rank among 48 states 
— ^39th); urban, 50.2%; rural, 49.8%. Density: 5.6 
persons per square mile (rank — 45th state). 

Extent: Area, 121,666 square miles, including 155 square 
miles of water surface (4th state in size). 

Elevation: Highest, Wheeler Peak, 13,151 ft., near Red R.; 
lowest, Red Bluff Reservoir, near Malaga, 2,817 ft. 

Temperature (°F.): Average — annual, 54°; winter, 36°; 
spring, 52°; summer, 72°; fall, 54°. Lowest recorded, 
—50° (Gavilan, Rio Arriba County, Feb. 1, 1951); 
highest recorded, 116° (Orogrande, July 14, 1934, and 
other locations and earlier dates). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 14; winter, 2; 
spring, 3; summer, 6; fall, 3. Varies from about 8 
along northwest and southwest to about 24 along 
southeast central. 

Natural Features: Vast country of startling beauty vdth- 
in heart of great Southwest; Continental Divide runs 
from north to south through western part of state; 
Great Plains (east); Rocky Mountains (north central); 
Basin and Range Region (south central and south- 
west); Colorado Plateau (northwest). Principal rivers: 
Canadian, Gila, Pecos, Rio Grande, and San Juan. 

Land Use: Cropland, 3%; nonforested pasture, 67%; 
forest, 25%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, waste- 
land, cities, etc.), 5%. 


CROPS PASTURE FOREST OTHER 



Natural Resources: Agricultural — plains, grazing lands, 
moist soil in central lowlands. Industrial — valuable 
deposits of petroleum, potassium salts, copper, natural- 
gas liquids, zinc. Commercial — mild dry climate, high 
elevation for health resort; many tourist attractions. 


OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 

What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries ond Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 

Wholesale and retail trade 

39,145 

18.9 

Agriculture, forestry, and fishery.. . . 

38,377 

18.6 

Construction 

Professional services (medical, legal, 

23,380 

11.3 

educational, etc.) 

Transportation, communication, and 

21,220 

10.3 

other public utilities 

Personal services (hotel, domestic, 

16,983 

8.2 

laundering, etc.) 

13,610 

6.6 

Government 

13,585 

6.6 

Manufacturing 

12,146 

5.9 

Mining 

10,522 

5.1 

Business and repair services 

5,871 

2.8 

Finance, insurance, and real estate. . 
Amusement, recreation, and related 

4,550 

2.2 

ser^nces 

1,966 

1.0 

Workers not accounted for 

5,189 

2.5 

Total employed 

206,544 

100.0 




173 



New Mexico 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 44th) 


Leading Industries in 1947 
fwith Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Chemicals and Allied Products . 

$13,738,000 

32 

Cottonseed-oil mills; explosives 
Lumber and Products 

8.250,000 

36 

Sawmills and planing mills 

Pood and Kindred Products 

7,898,000 

46 

Primary Metau Industries 

t 

Copper smelting and refining 




4 .^. vume auaea uy manuij 

Tiigure withheld by Bureau of the Census. 



Total cash income (1952), $212,269,000 


Products 

Amount Produced 
( 1 0-Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

Stalest 

Cattle 

278,651,000 lbs. i 

1 

22 

Cotton lint 

151,000 bales 

2 

14 

Milk 

124,000,000 qts. 

3 

44 

Hay 

477,000 tons 

4 

^ 40 

Sheep and lambs . . . 

64,015,000 lbs. 

5 

14 

Wheat 

4,176,000 bu. 

6 

29 

Sorghums, grain 

3,509,000 bu, 1 


5 

Sorghums, forage . , . 

216,000 tonsf 

7 

8 


•Rank in dollar value fRank in units produced 



C. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 
Annual value (1951), $256,304,000 
Rank among states— 14th 


Minerals (1951) i 

Amount Produced 

Value 

Petroleum 

52,719,000 bbls. 

1.218.000 tons | 

74.000 tons | 

45.000 tons | 

5.588.000 bbls. ] 

$129,160,000 

37.210.000 

35.602.000 

16.533.000 

13.677.000 

Potassium salts (potash) . . 
Copper 

Zinc 

Natural-gas liquids 


D. Trade 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 

Wholesale 

5259,989,000 

44 

Retail 

477,553,000 

43 

Service 

44,994,000 

42 


LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

Albuquerque (96,815): business and railroad center- 
health resort; University of New Mexico; meat packing! 
Santa Fe (27,998); oldest state capital city in U.S.; tour- 
ist trade; arts and crafts; hand-woven textiles. 

Roswell (25,738): oil, cotton processing; meat packing. 
Carlsbad (17,975): Carlsbad Caverns Natl. Park nearby; 

potash mines; oil fields; cottonseed processing. 

Clovis (17,318); livestock center; railway shops. 

Hobbs (13,875): petroleum and associated industries. 


Fact Summary 

EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 640; sec- 
ondary, 151. Compulsory school age, 

6 through 16. State Board of Educa- 
tion composed of the governor and 
state supt. of schools, elected, 2-year 
term, and 5 members appointed by 
governor, 4-year terms. County school 
boards consist of county supt., elected, 

2-year term, and 4 members, appointed by board con- 
sisting of state supt. of schools, district judge, and 
chairman of county board of commissioners. City 
school boards elected; appoint city supts. 

Private and Parochial Schools: 97. 

Colleges and Universities laccredited): Colleges, 9. 
State-supported schools include Univ. of New Mexico, 
Albuquerque; Eastern New Mexico Univ., Portalcs; 
New Me.xico Col. of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 
State College; New Mexico Military Inst., Roswell; 
New Mexico Inst, of Mining and Technology, Socorro; 
2 teachers colleges — New Mexico Western Col., Silvei 
City; New Mexico Highlands Univ., Las Vegas. 
Special State Institutions: N.M. School for Blind, Alamo- 
gordo; Home and Training School for Mental De- 
fectives, Los Lunas ; N. M. School for the Deaf, Santa Fe. 
Libraries: City and town public libraries, 38; indepen- 
dent county library systems, 2; 2 counties contract for 
service with city libraries. State Library Commission 
responsible for developing library service. Noted spe- 
cial library: Library of Museum of N. M., Santa Fe. 
Outstanding Museums: Museum of Anthropology Vniv. 
of New Mexico, Albuquerque; Museum of New Mexico 
includes 5 units at Santa Fe— Palace of the Governore, 
Hall of Ethnology, Art Gallery, Laboratory of Anthro- 
pology, and Museum of International Folk Art. 



correctional and penal INSTITUTIONS 

Girls’ Welfare Home, Albuquerque; New Me.xico In- 
dustrial School, Springer; State Penitentiary, Santa Fe. 

PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Alamogordo Dam — northwest of Fort Sumner; 

dam of Pecos R. reclamation project; northwest of (lo)- 
Avalon Dam— north of Carlsbad; forms reservoir ee 
Pecos River; south of symbol (19). 

Aztec Ruins National Monument — north of Aztec; huge 
E'shaped pueblo apartment dwelling of 500 rooms ( )■ 
Bandolier National Monument — ^ruins of ancient Inown 
pueblos and cliff dwellings northwest of Santa ^ 
Caballo Dam — on Rio Grande near Arrey; south 
Capulin Mountain National Monument — steep ei® ® 
cone of extinct volcano; northeast of Capulin (2)- 
Chaco Canyon National Monument — northeast 
reau; Pueblo Indian ruins; Pueblo Bonito built 919 ( /- 
Elephant Butte Dam— east of Truth or 

chief dam of reclamation project on Bio Grande (* I 

El Alorro National Monument — ^tablelike rock resemb mg 

fortress, used as refuge by Spanish conquerors, m o 
1774; Spanish inscriptions on walls; near El Morro (Jw- 


Gila Cliff Dwellings Natl. Mon. — prehistoric cave 


dwell- 


ings; reached by trail; between Silver City ^ ^ 
Gran Quivira National Monument — ruins of 

tury Spanish mission; Indian Pueblo house moun i 
southeast of Mountainair; east of symbol (10). 
Grave of Billy the Kid — notorious outlaw killed m 1 > 

burled in cemetery near old Fort Sumner (15)- • 
•Numbers in parenthescjs are keyed to map. 


174 


New Mexico Facf Summary 



Hot Springs— hot, medici- 
nal waters in Truth or 
Consequences (formerly 
Hot Springs) (20). 

Navajo Indian Reservation 
—largest in U. S. (10 
million acres) ; extends in- 
to Arizona, Colorado, and 
Utah (5). 

Perpetual Ice Caves — 
southwest of Grants; 
crevices of volcanic sink- 
hole packed with blue- 
colored ice (14). 

Santa Fe— first permanent 
Spanish settlement of 
southwest; Palace of 
Governors, adobe fortress 
built in 1610; museums; 

San Miguel, one of oldest 
missions in U.S.; State 
Capitol (see Santa Fe) 

( 8 ). 

Taos— famous artists’ col- 
ony; old mission at Ran- 
chos de Taos, four miles 
south (4). 

Taos Pueblo — Indian com- 
munity north of Taos 
where ancient Indian cere- 
monies and ways of life 
are still carried on (4). 

White Sands National Mon- 
ument-southwest of 
Alamogordo; gleaming 
white crystal sands piled 
into large dunes (22). 

national forests* 

Apache — 1,009,553 acres in 
state; 707,991 acres in 
Arizona; hdqrs., Spring- 
erville, Ariz. (17). 

Carson — 1,226,094 acres; 

hdqrs., Taos (3). 

Cibola— 2,275,282 acres; hdqrs., Albuquerque (16). 
Coronado— 128,323 acres in state; 1,371,265 acres in 
Arizona; hdqrs., Tucson, Ariz. (24). 

Gila — 2,458,505 acres; hdqrs.. Silver City (18). 

Lincoln — 1,444,316 acres; hdqrs., Alamogordo (21). 
Santa Fe — 1,369,938 acres; hdqrs., Santa Fe (10). 

national park* 

Carlsbad Caverns— 45,847 acres; largest underground 
caverns yet discovered; many stalactites hang from 
ceilings; tinted stalagmites rise from floors; marble- 
lined pools (23). 

STATE PARKS* 

Blue Water — southwest of Grants; dam and lake; water 
sports; recreation area; north of symbol (14). 
Bottomless Lakes — 10 miles southeast of Roswell; scenic 
chain of lakes — deepest, 190 feet (19). 

City of Rocks — southeast of Silver City; natural park 
with rock formations; southwest of symbol (20). 
Conchas Dam — 31 miles northwest of Tucumcari; water 
sports o n lake formed by impounded waters (11). 
•Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


Hyde — Indian pueblos; in 2 parts; one in Santa Fe along 
Santa Fe River; the other, 8 miles northeast (9). 

Kit Carson Memorial — home and grave of famous fron- 
tier scout at Taos; near symbol (4). 

THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1536 — Cabeza de Vaca wanders into 
New Mexico from Texas. 

1539 — Franciscan friar, Marcos de 
Niza, explores New Mexico. 

1540 — Coronado begins his exploration 
and conquest of New Mexico. 

1590 — First attempt (unauthorized) by 
the Spaniard Caspar de Sosa to 
colonize New Mexico. 

1598 — ^Juan de Onate claims New Mexico for Spain; 
founds first Spanish settlement and church in state. 

1609 — Pedro de Peralta, governor of New Mexico, 
founds Santa Fe, first permanent Spanish settle- 
ment in the Southwest; moves capital there. 

1680 — Pueblo Indians revolt; all Spanish settlers killed 
or driven from New Me.xico. 

1 692-96 — Gov. Diego de Vargas reconquers New Mexico. 



175 




New Mexico 

1706 — Francisco Cuervo y Valdfe founds Albuquerque. 

1721 — First public schools established by royal decree. 

1739 — Paul and Pierre Mallet, French fur traders, reach 
Santa Fe. 

1 776 — Friars Escalante and Dominguez open first leg of 
Old Spanish Trail from Santa Fe to Los Angeles. 

1787 — Pedro Vial opens road San Antonio to Santa Fe. 

1792 — Vial breaks trail between Santa Fe and St. Louis, 
making first complete journey over Santa Fe Trail. 

1 800 — Santa Rita copper deposit found near Silver City 

1803 — Louisiana Purchase extends U. S. to New Mexico. 

1807 — Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike enters region; arrested by 
Spanish; returned to Louisiana. 

1 821 — Mexico wins its independence; makes New Mexico 
a Mexican province. 

1 822 — William Becknell brings first wagon load of goods 
over Santa Fe Trail from St. Louis to Santa Fe. 

1824— New Mexico becomes a Mexican territory, July 6. 

1 828 — Mexico ratifies treaty to fix U. S.-Mexican border. 

1 833 — First gold lode west of Mississippi R. discovered 
at Sierra del Oro (now the Ortiz mine). 

1846 — U. S. declares war on Mexico; wins battle at Bra- 
zito. Gen. Stephen Watts Kearny occupies Santa 
Fe; builds Fort Marcy, first U. S. fort in New 
Mexico. Charles Bent named first civil governor. 
Col. Alexander Doniphan defeats Navajos. 

1848 — By Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Mexico cedes 
New Mexico and Upper California to U. S. 

1849 — Stage line, Santa Fe-Independence, Mo., begins. 

1 850— Territory of New Mexico created; capital, Santa 
Fe; James C. Calhoun first governor, 1851. 

1 851 —First English-language school founded at Santa Fe. 

1 853 — Gadsden Purchase adds Gila River area to Terri- 
tory of New Mexico. 

1 857 — Butterfield Stage Route establishes overland mail 
service from New Mexico to Pacific coast. 


Fact Summary 

1 861 — New Colorado Territory cuts size of New Mexico. 

1862 — Confederates occupy Santa Fe; Union victoiy in 
Apache Canyon ends Confederate eontrol in state. 

1 863 — Territory of Arizona created; reduces New Mexico 
to its present boundaries. 

1864 — Col. Kit Carson defeats Navajo Indians. 

1 876 — Cattlemen and rival political factions battle in 
“Lincoln County War.” 

1881 — Billy the Kid, notorious “badman,” killed. 

1 886 — Geronimo, Indian chief, surrenders to Gen. Nelson 
A. Miles, thus ending Apache raids. 

1888— Discovery of artesian water begins irrigation and 
farming of Pecos Valley. 

1 889 — University of New Mexico created; opens 1892 . 

1 892— Territorial capitol at Santa Fe burns, rebuilt, 1900. 

1 909 — First oil in state discovered near Dayton. 

1912 — New Mexico becomes 47th state, Jan. 6; capital, 
Santa Fe; first governor, William C. McDonald. 

1916 — Raid on Columbus by Pancho Villa, Mexican 
bandit, leads to U. S. punitive e.xpedition under 
Gen. John J. Pershing; raids end, 1917; Elephant 
Butte Dam on Rio Grande completed. 

1922 — Large oil fields discovered in San Juan County. 

1930 — Carlsbad Caverns National Park created. 

1933 — U. S. and Me.xico agree to plan for controlling 
flood waters of Rio Grande. 

1940 — Coronado quartocentennial (400th) is celebrated. 
Conchas Dam on Canadian River completed. 

1 945 — First atomic bomb is tested at White Sands. 

1 949 — Los Alamos, atomic research center, becomes o 
county of state, June 30. 

1950— Hot Springs renamed Truth or Consequences. 

1951 — Public school teachers in religious garb barren. 

1953 — Federal government aids in severe ^ - 

seum of International Folk Art opens at Santa 

1954 — Dust storm damage is extensive. 


ONE OF THE WORLD’S LARGEST OPEN-PIT COPPER MINES 



In open-pit mining, miners can work in fresh air and sunshine shows a portion of the Chino open-pit mine, which is jutj. 

as they remove the copper ore with power shovels. This view Santa Rita, N.M. This mine is the largest proaucei 

176 


I 



NEW MEXICO 


COUNTIES 


Bernalillo 145,673 

C3 

Catron 

3,533 

A4 

Chaves 

40,605 

E5 

CoKax 

16,761 

E2 

Curry 

23,351 

F4 

De Baca 

3,464 

E 4 

Dona Ana 

39,557 

C 6 

Eddy 

40,640 

E 6 

Grant 

21,649 

A 5 

Guadalupe 

6,772 

E4 

Harding 

3,013 

F 3 

Hidalgo 

5,095 

A 7 

Lea 

30,717 

F 6 

Lincoln 

7,409 

D 5 

Los Alamos 

10,476 

C 3 

Luna 

8,753 

B 6 

McKinley 

27,451 

A 3 

Mora 

8,720 

E 3 

Otero 

14,909 

D 6 

Quay 

13,971 

F 3 

Rio Arriba 

24,997 

B 2 

Roosevelt 

16,409 

F4 

San Juan 

18,292 

A 2 

San Miguel 

26,512 

D 3 

Sandoval 

12,438 

C 3 

Santa Fe 

38,153 

C 3 

Sierra 

7,186 

B 5 

Socorro 

9,670 

C 5 

Taos 

17,146 

D 2 

Torrance 

8,012 

D 4 

Union 

7,372 

F2 

Valencia 

22,481 

A4 


CITIES AND TOWNS 


Abbott 

9 

E 2 

Abeytas 

125 

C4 

Abiquiu 

680 

C 2 

Abo 

50 

C4 

Acme 


E 5 

Acoma 


B 4 

Acomita 

375 

B 3 

Adams 

Diggings 

4 

A4 

Alton 

15 

B 6 

Agua Fria 

27 

D 2 

Akela 

40 

B 6 

Alameda 

1,792 

C 3 

Alamogordo 

6,783 

C 6 

Albert 

35 

F 3 

Albuquerque 

96,815 

C 3 

Alcalde 

290 

C 2 

Algodones 

250 

C 3 

Alma 

50 

A5 

Alto 

50 

D 5 

Amalia 

158 

D 2 

Amistad 

33 

F 3 

Anapra 


C7 

Ancho 

100 

D 5 

Animas 

99 

A 7 

Anthony 

800 

C 6 

Anton Chico 

600 

D 3 

Apache Creek 85 

A5 

Arabela 

60 

D 5 

Aragon 

89 

A 5 

Arch 

35 

F4 

Arrey 

350 

B 6 

Arro 3'0 Hondo 500 

D 2 

Arroj'oseco 

400 

D 2 

Artesia 

8,244 

E 6 

Atarque 

100 

A 4 

Atoka 

64 

E 6 

Augustine 

11 

B 4 

Aztec 

885 

B 2 

Bard 

45 

F3 

Baj’ard 

2,119 

A 6 


Beaverhead 


A5 

Belen 

4,495 

C4 

Bell Ranch 

20 

E3 

Bell view 

150 

F4 

Bent 

250 

D 5 

Berino 

300 

C 6 

Bernalillo 

1,922 

C 3 

Bernardo 

30 

C4 

Bibo 

50 

B 3 

Bingham 

7 

C5 

Blanco 

135 

B 2 

Bloomfield 

500 

A2 

Bluewater 

350 

A3 

Bluit 

335 

F5 

Boaz 

30 

F5 

Bosque 

400 

C4 

BriUiant 

225 

E2 

Broadview 

80 

F4 

Buchanan 


E4 

Buckeye 

227 

F 6 

Buckhorn 

500 

A5 

Buena Vista 265 

D 3 

Bueyeros 

38 

F 3 

Caballo 


B 6 

Cabezon 

76 

B 3 

Cambray 

8 

B 6 

Cameron 

18 

F4 

Canjilon 

900 

C2 

Canoncito 

375 

C3 

Canones 

140 

C2 

Capitan 

575 

D 5 

Caprock 

12 

F5 

Capulin 

200 

F 2 

Carlsbad 

17,975 

E 6 

Carrizozo 

1,389 

D 5 

Carson 

25 

D 2 

Carthage 

134 

C5 

Casa Blanca 493 

B 4 

Causey 

50 

F5 

CeboUa 

1,000 

C2 

Cedar Crest 1,000 

C3 

Cedar Hill 

130 

B2 

Cedarvale 

50 

D4 

Central 

1,511 

A 6 

Cerrillos 

817 

D 3 

Cerro 

600 

D 2 

Chacon 

85 

D 2 

Chama 

1,300 

C2 

Chamberino 1,000 

C 6 

Chamisal 

500 

D 2 

ChapeUe 

25 

D 3 

Chaperito 

125 

E3 

Chico 

6 

E 2 

Chilili 

558 

C4 

Chimayo 

1,550 

D 3 

Chloride 

56 

B 5 

Cienega 

2 

D 6 

Cimarron 

855 

E 2 

Clapham 


F2 

Claunch 

116 

C4 

Clayton 

3,515 

F 2 

Cleveland 

700 

D 2 

Cliff 

250 

A 6 

Closson 


A 3 

Cloudcroft 

251 

D 6 

Cloverdale 

60 

AT 

Clovis 

17,318 

F4 

Cochiti 

250 

C 3 

Colfax 

13 

E2 

Colmor 

80 

E2 

Colonies 

150 

E3 

Columbus 

251 

B 7 

Conchas Dam 100 

E3 

Contreras 


C4 

Coolidge 

8 

A3 

Cooper 

6 

F 6 

Cordova 

585 

D 2 

Corona 

530 

D 4 


Correo 

8 

B 4 

CostiUa 

300 

D 2 

Cowles 

200 

D 3 

Coyote 

393 

C2 

Coyote Canyon 38 

A 3 

Crossroads 

60 

F 5 

Crownpoint 

125 

A3 

Crystal 

125 

A2 

Cuba 

850 

B2 

Cubero 

605 

B 3 

Cuchillo 

105 

B 5 

Cuervo 

100 

E 3 

Cundiyo 

160 

D 3 

Cunico 

60 

E 2 

Cutter 

55 

B 5 

Dahlia 

100 

D 3 

Datil 

80 

B 4 

Dawson 

1,206 

E 2 

Dayton 


E 6 

Delphos 

2 

F4 

Doming 

5,672 

B 6 

Derry 

300 

B 6 

Des Moines 

282 

F 2 

Dexter 

784 

E 5 

Dilia 

250 

D 3 

Dixon 

1,250 

D 2 

Domingo 

120 

C 3 

Dona Ana 

400 

C 6 

Dora 

120 

F 5 

Dulce 

500 

B2 

Dunlap 

90 

E 4 

Duoro 


D 4 

Duran 

300 

D 4 

Dusty 

15 

B 5 

Dwyer 

150 

B 6 

Eagle Nest 

200 

D 2 

E. Vaughn 

1,800 

D4 

Edgewood 

45 

C3 

El Morro 

300 

A3 

El Paso Gap 

12 

E 6 

El Porvenir 

350 

D 3 

El Prado 

13 

D 2 

El Pueblo 

175 

D 3 

El Rito 

1,200 

C2 

El Vado Dam 18 

C 2 

Elephant Butte 



150 

B 5 

Elida 

430 

F 5 

Elizabethtown 

D 2 

Elk 

35 

D 6 

Elkins 

26 

E5 

Embudo 


C2 

Encino 

408 

D 4 

Endee 

50 

F 3 

Engle 

65 

B 5 

Ensenada 

400 

C2 

Escabosa 

86 

C4 

Espanola 

1,446 

C 3 

Espuella 

50 

E 6 

Estancia 

916 

D 4 

Eunice 

2,352 

F 6 

Fairacres 

350 

C 6 

Farley 

111 

E 2 

Farmington 

3,637 

A 2 

Fa^Tvood 

61 

B 6 

Fence Lake 

250 

A4 

Field 

300 

B 4 

Fierro 

500 

A 6 

Fillmore 

25 

C 6 

Flora Vista 

150 

A2 

Florida 

15 

B 6 

Florida 

350 

C 4 

Floyd 

50 

F4 

Fljdng H 

55 

E5 

Folsom 

206 

F 2 

Forrest 

130 

F4 

Fort Bayard 

483 

A6 

Fort Stanton 

500 

D 5 


Fort Sumner 



1,982 

E 4 

Fort Wingate 250 

A 3 

Frazier 

12 

E 5 

French 

lO 

E 2 

Frisco 


A 5 

Fruitland 

200 

A2 

Gage 

100 

A6 

Galisteo 

150 

D 3 

Gallegos 

143 

F 3 

Gallina 

31 

C2 

Gallup 

9,133 

•A3 

Gamerco 

200 

A 3 

Gardiner 

50 

E 2 

Garfield 

300 

B 6 

Garita 

200 

E 3 

Gila 

700 

A 6 

Gilman 

119 

C 3 

Gladiola 

99 

F 5 

Gladstone 

61 

F2 

Glencoe 

200 

D 5 

Glenrio 

60 

F3 

Glenwood 

300 

A 5 

Glorieta 

500 

D 3 

Golden 

75 

C 3 

Governador 

45 

B 2 

Grady 

130 

P4 

Gran Quivira 50 

D 4 

Grants 

2,251 

B 3 

Green Tree 

363 

D 5 

Greens Gap 

25 

A4 

Grenville 

102 

F 2 

Grier 

200 

F4 

Guadalupita 475 

D 2 

Guy 

26 

F2 

Hachita 

200 

AT 

Hagerman 

1,024 

E 5 

Hanover 

1,200 

A 6 

Hatch 

1,064 

B 6 

Hayden 

42 

F 3 

Heck Canyon 

D 2 

Hernandez 

400 

C 2 

Hickman 

17 

B4 

High Rolls 

175 

D 5 

HiU 

100 

C 6 

Hillsboro 

300 

B 6 

Hilton Lodge 2 

D 3 

Hobbs 

13,875 

F 6 

HoUene 

20 

F4 

Hollywood 

99 

D 5 

Holman 

18 

D 2 

Hondo 

250 

D 5 

Hope 

186 

E 6 

Horse Springs 100 

A 5 

Hot Springs (Truth 

or Consequences) 



4,563 

B 5 

House 

295 

F 4 

Humble City 42 

F 6 

Hurley 

2,079 

A 6 

Bfeld 


D 3 

Ima 

4 

E4 

lone 

3 

F 3 

Isleta 

1,400 

C4 

Jal 

2,047 

F 6 

Jarales 

1,199 

C4 

Jemez Pueblo 878 

C 3 

Jemez Springs 135 

C3 

JicariUa 

20 

D 5 

Jordan 

93 

F 4 

Kelly 

55 

B 4 

Kenna 

100 

F 5 

Kingston 

50 

B 6 

Kirtland 

317 

A 2 

Knowles 

10 

F 6 

Koehler 

385 

E2 

La Cueva 

11 

D3 

La Jara 

2,500 

B2 


ri77] 






















NEW MEXICO — Continued 


La Lande 

35 

E 4 

Mora 

1,750 

D 3 

La Liendre 

12 

E 3 

Moriarty 

210 

D4 

La Luz 

200 

C 6 

Moses 

70 

F 2 

La Madera 

423 

C 2 

Mosquero 

583 

F 3 

La Mesa 

650 

C 6 

Mount Dora 

100 

F2 

La Puente 

300 

C 2 

Mountain Park 


La Union 

475 

C 7 


60 

D 6 

La Ventana 

6 

B 3 

Mountainair 1,418 

C4 

Laguna 

3,004 

B 3 

Mijle Creek 

16 

A5 

Lajoya 

63 

C4 

Nambe 

500 

D 3 

Lake Arthur 

380 

E 5 

Nara Visa 

350 

F 3 

Lake Valley 

9 

B 6 

New Laguna 

150 

B 3 

Lakewood 

33 

E 6 

Newcomb 

200 

A 2 

Lamy 

105 

D 3 

Newkirk 

250 

E 3 

Laplata 

162 

A2 

Nogal 

25 

D 5 

Las Cruces 12,325 

C 6 

Nolan 

11 

E 2 

Las Padillas 

487 

C 3 

Norton 

7 

F4 

Las Palomas 

60 

B 5 

Obar 

5 

F 3 

Las Tablas 

100 

C 2 

Ocate 

105 

E2 

Las Vegas (City) 


Oil Center 

70 

F 6 


7,494 

D 3 

Ojo Caliente 

282 

D 2 

Las Vegas (Town) 


•Ojo Feliz 

365 

E 2 


6,269 

D 3 

Ojo Sarco 

150 

D 2 

Ledoux 

800 

D 3 

Old Albuquerque 


Lemitar 

500 

B 4 


1,242 

C 3 

Levy 

15 

E 2 

Old Tapicitoes 

C 2 

Leyba 


D 3 

Olive 

12 

E 5 

Lincoln 

80 

D 5 

Omega 

30 

A4 

Lindrith 

300 

C 2 

Onava 


D3 

Lingo 

20 

F 5 

Optimo 


E 3 

Llano 

550 

D 2 

Organ 

50 

C 6 

Loco Hills 

300 

F 6 

Orogrande 

45 

D 6 

Logan 

500 

F 3 

Oscura 

50 

C5 

Lon 


D 4 

Otis 

150 

E 6 

Lordsburg 

3,525 

A 6 

Paguate 

500 

B3 

Los Alamos 

9,934 

C 3 

Palma 


D 4 

Los Griegos 

3,025 

C 3 

Park View 

300 

C2 

Los Lunas 

889 

C 4 

Pasamonte 

12 

F 2 

Lourdes 


D 3 

Pastura 

120 

E4 

Loving 

1,487 

E 6 

Pecos 

1,241 

D3 

Lovington 

3,134 

F 6 

Pedernal 

30 

D4 

Lucy 

10 

D 4 

Penablanca 

350 

C 3 

Lumberton 


C 2 

Penasoo 

700 

D 2 

Luna 

300 

A5 

Penistaja 


B 3 

Lyden 


C 2 

Pep 

30 

F 5 

Madrid 

477 

C 3 

Peralta 

300 

C4 

Maes 

50 

E 3 

Perea 

15 

A 3 

Magdalena 

1,297 

B 4 

Petaca 

204 

C 2 

Malaga 

250 

E 6 

Picacho 

175 

D 5 

Mangas 

25 

A4 

Pie Town 

135 

A4 

Manuelito 

27 

A 3 

Pinehaven 

61 

A 3 

Manzano 

250 

C 4 

Pinon 

100 

D 6 

Marquez 

60 

B 3 

Pinos Altos 

250 

A 6 

Maxwell 

404 

E2 

Pintada 


D4 

Mayhill 

263 

D 6 

Placitas 

350 

C 3 

McAlister 


F 4 

Pleasanton 

48 

A5 

McDonald 

100 

F 5 

Pojoaque 

200 

C 3 

McGaffey 

50 

A3 

Polvadera 

148 

B 4 

McIntosh 

25 

D 4 

Ponderosa 

100 

C 3 

Melrose 

936 

F4 

Portales 

8,112 

F4 

Mentmore 

100 

A3 

Prewitt 

65 

B 3 

Mescalero 

1,170 

D 5 

Puerto de Luna 


Mesilla 

1,264 

C 6 


600 

E4 

Mesilla Park 


Quarai 

55 

C4 


2,000 

C 6 

Quay 

120 

F 4 

Mesquite 

400 

C 6 

Quemado 

400 

A4 

Mexican 



Questa 

1,400 

D 2 

Springs 

27 

A 3 

Radium 



Miami 

111 

E 2 

Springs 

28 

B 6 

Mills 

95 

E 2 

Ragland 

12 

F4 

Milnesand 

27 

F 5 

Rainsville 

350 

D 2 

Mimbres 

36 

B 6 

Ramah 

300 

A 3 

Mogollon 

26 

A5 

Ramon 


D4 

Monero 

207 

C 2 

Ranches of Taos 


Montezuma 1,200 

D 3 


1,386 

D 2 

Monticello 

400 

B 5 

Raton 

8,241 

E2 

Montoya 

75 

F 3 

Rayo 


C4 

Monument 

364 

F 6 

Red Hill 

300 

A4 


Red River 

150 

D 2 

Steins 

63 

A 6 

Redrock 

17 

A 6 

Stong 


D 2 

Regina 

100 

B 2 

Strauss 


C 7 

Rehoboth 

90 

A3 

Sugarite 

10 

E 2 

Rencona 

32 

D 3 

Sunshine Valley 


Reserve 

202 

A5 


20 

D2 

Ribera 

400 

D 3 

Tafoya 

325 

E2 

Ricardo 

25 

E 4 

Taiban 

227 

F4 

Rincon 

500 

C 6 

Tajique 

250 

C4 

Riverside 


C2 

Talpa 

21 

D 2 

Rociada 

40 

D 3 

Taos 

1,815 

D 2 

Rodarte 

750 

D 2 

Tapicitoes 

411 

B2 

Rodeo 

250 

A7 

Tatum 

688 

F 5 

Rodey 

250 

B 6 

Taylor Sprs. 

25 

E2 

Rogers 

71 

F 5 

Tecolotenos 

95 

D 3 

Romeroville 

18 

D 3 

Tererro 

40 

D 3 

Rosa 

100 

B 2 

Tesuque 

637 

C3 

Rosebud 


F 3 

Texico 

691 

F4 

Roswell 25,738 

E 5 

Thoreau 

150 

A3 

Rowe 

365 

D 3 

Three Rivers 350 

C5 

Roy 

1,074 

E3 

Tierra Amarilla 


Ruidoso 

806 

D 5 


800 

C2 

Rutheron 

25 

C 2 

Tijeras 

340 

C3 

Sabinoso 

125 

E 3 

Tinnie 

80 

D5 

Sacramento 

44 

D 6 

Toadlena 

■500 

A2 

Saint Vrain 

48 

F4 

Tohatchi 

350 

A 3 

Sais 


C 4 

Tolar 

46 

F4 

Salem 

350 

B 6 

Tome 

400 

C4 

San Acacia 

200 

B 4 

Torrance 

10 

D4 

San Antonio 

900 

B 5 

Torreon 

100 

C4 

San Cristobal 215 

D 2 

Trampas 


D 2 

San Felipe 

500 

C 3 

Trementina 


E 3 

San Fidel 

89 

B 3 

Tres Lagunas 14 

B 4 

San Ignacio 


D 4 

Tres Piedras 

75 

D 2 

San Ildefonzo 400 

C3 

Tres Ritos 

50 

D 2 

San Jon 

362 

F 3 

Truchas 

750 

D 2 

San Jose 

246 

D 3 

Trujillo 

500 

E 3 

San Juan 


B 6 

Truth or Con- 


San Juan Pueblo 


sequences 

4,563 

B 5 


1,200 

C2 

Tsaya 

SO 

A 2 

San Lorenzo 

350 

B 6 

Tucumcari 

8,419 

F 3 

San Marcial 

157 

C 5 

Tularosa 

1,642 

C 5 

San Mateo 

150 

B 3 

Turley 


B 2 

San Miguel 

300 

C 6 

Two Wells 

61 

A 3 

San Patricio 

300 

D 5 

Tyrone 

32 

A 6 

San Rafael 

500 

A 3 

Ute Park 


D 2 

San Ysidro 

360 

C 3 

Vadito 

500 

D 2 

Sandia Park 

100 

C 3 

Vado 

350 

C 6 

Sandoval 


C 3 

Valdez 

360 

D 2 

Santa Clara 

635 

C 3 

Valencia 

818 

C4 

Santa Cruz 

387 

D 3 

Vallecitos 

400 

C 2 

SANTA FE 



Valley Ranch 42 

D 3 

27,998 

C 3 

Valmora 

100 

D 3 

Santa Rita 

2,135 

B 6 

Van Houten 

485 

E2 

Santa Rosa 

2,199 

E 4 

Vanadium 

450 

A 6 

Sapello 

80 

D 3 

Vaughn 

1,356 

D 4 

Scholle 

47 

C4 

Veguita 

21 

C 4 

Seboyeta 

456 

B 3 

Velarde 

600 

C 2 

Sedan 

100 

F 2 

Vermejo 



Sena 

190 

D 3 

Park 

300 

D 2 

Seneca 

20 

F 2 

Villanueva 

543 

D 3 

Separ 

50 

A 6 

Virden 

146 

A 6 

Serafina 

100 

D 3 

Wagon Mound 


Servilleta 

15 

D 2 


1,120 

E 2 

Sherman 

47 

B 6 

Waterflow 

150 

A 2 

Shiprock 

250 

A2 

Watrous 

250 

D 3 

Shoemaker 

200 

E 3 

Weed 

100 

D 6 

Silver City 

7,022 

A 6 

White Oaks 

61 

D 5 

Skarda 

25 

D 2 

White Signal 

23 

A 6 

Socorro 

4,334 

C4 

Whitewater 

40 

A 6 

Soham 

250 

D 3 

Willard 

296 

D 4 

Solano 

40 

E 3 

Wilna 

8 

A 6 

Springer 

1,558 

E 2 

Winston 

ISO 

B 5 

Spur Lake 

3 

A 5 

Witt 

12 

D 4 

Stanley 

75 

D 3 

Yeso 

500 

E 4 

State College 


Youngsville 

120 

C 2 


1,200 

C 6 

Zamora 


C 3 

Stead 

11 

F2 

Zuni 

2,563 

A 3 


1 180 1 



- 181 NEW MEXICO 


NEW MEXICO’S CAPITOL IN TERRITORIAL ARCHITECTURE 



Behind the tower is the old Capitol, built in 1900 and remodeled tower has a glassed observation room and behind it are legis- 
in 1953 in an architectural style native to the state. The lative chambers. On the far right is the governor’s office. 


an old Mexican settlement and a modern city. Once a 
stopover on the Santa Fe Trail, today it is a health 
resort and shipping point for sheep and cattle (see 
Far West). North\ve.st of Santa Fe is Los Alamos, 
“capital of the Atomic Age.” Here the first atomic 
bomb was made during World War II. It is an atomic 
energy research laboratory. At Albuquerque is Sandia 
Laboratory for guided missile e.xperiments. 

In southeast New Mexico are Roswell, seat of New 
Mexico Military Institute and an oil-refining and 
meat-packing center; Carlsbad, tourist gateway to 
Carlsbad Caverns National Park and important for 
potash and oil; and Hobbs, the “oil capital of New 
Mexico” (see National Parks; Cave). Farther north is 
Clovis, a livestock and railroad center. 

Still the Home of Indian Tribes 

New Mexico was inhabited long before the day of 
Columbus, as the ancient pueblo ruins and cliff dwell- 
ings testify (see Chff Dwellers). The many ruins 
and remains of ancient peoples are of great archae- 
ologic importance. Several of them are national monu- 
ments including the prehistoric pueblo, or village, 
ruins of Tabira (the so-called Gran Quivha), the Gila 
Cliff Dwellings, and El Morro (the Inscription Rock 
on which Spanish records of 1605 are legible). 

The peaceful Pueblo Indians dwelt and farmed here 
when the Spaniards came (see Pueblo Indians ; Indians). 
The Pueblos needed no lessons in industry from white 
men. They still retain their farming ways, communal 
village life, tribal customs, and picturesque costumes. 

Their once-troublesome neighbors, the Navajos, now 
live on a reseiwation, extending from Arizona into 
New Me.\ico. Here thej" till the soil and carry on prim- 
itive industries, including the weaving of the famous 
Navajo blankets. IMore warlike were their kinsmen, 
the fierce Apaches. Their raids forced the Pueblos to 
build dwellings in rocky places, hard to approach and 
easy to defend. General Nelson A. Miles finallj' sub- 
dued the Apaches in 1886. Them chief, Geronimo, was 
imprisoned at Fort Sill in the Oklahoma country. 


Two Apache tribes, the Jicarillas and Mescaleros, are 
now on reservations in New Mexico. 

New Mexico’s History of Early Exploration 

Earl 5 ’' in the 16th century the Spaniards were at- 
tracted to the land north of Mexico by tales of cities 
of fabulous wealth. Cabeza de Vaca was the first 
white man to see New Mexico. He reached the Gulf 
of California in 1536 and told of the rich cities he had 
heard about from Indians. Marcos de Niza unsuc- 
cessfully sought these cities in 1539. Coronado, who 
followed him the next year, failed to find gold but 
conquered New Mexico (see Coronado). 

The first colonizer of New Mexico was a wealthy 
Mexican, Juan de Onate, who came with 400 colonists 
in 1598. In 1609 Santa Fe was founded and made 
capital of the province. The Pueblo Indians long re- 
sisted the Spaniards. Twelve years later, however, 
the Mexican viceroy re-established his authority. 

In 1846, during the Mexican War, Gen. Stephen W. 
Kearny seized the province for the United States (see 
Me.xican War). New hlexico (then including Arizona) 
was ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Guada- 
lupe-Hidalgo in 1848, and in 1850 the Territory of New 
Me.xico was created. The present southern boundary 
was established b 3 ’' the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. 

In 1861 a northeast section of New Mexico Terri- 
toiy was anne.xed bj' the new Colorado Territory. New 
Mexico Territoiy was again cut when the Territorj’^ of 
Arizona was created in 1863. During the Civil War 
Santa Fe, in 1862, was occupied successive!}' by Con- 
federate and Federal forces. In 1863, after the Con- 
federates had been forced back into Texas, Union 
troops compelled the Navajos to accept life within a 
reservation. The Apaches proved more troublesome 
and broke out in many raids. The last was in 1885-86, 
when capture of Chief Geronimo ended their war mak- 
ing. After many attempts New Me.xico was admitted 
to the Union in 1912. (See also chronolog}' in New 
ilexico Fact Summar}'; United States, sections “Rocky 
Mountains” and “Western Basins and Plateaus.”) 





NEW ORLEANS 


The QUEEN CITY of the GULF 


N ew ORLEANS, La. When the United States 
bought Louisiana in 1803, President Thomas Jef- 
ferson made a prediction about the little French set- 
tlement on the lower Mississippi. He said that New 
Orleans would grow into a great metropolis. The city 

has more than done so. It is 

one of the world’s great ship- facts about 
ping centers. Its port is sec- Population (1950 cen: 
ond m the United States m Area-363.5 sq. mi. ( 
value of goods handled. Man- Geographic Locatioi 
ufactures run into millions Mint) — 29° 57' 46" N., 

of dollars a year. And its Climate— ilfean temt 

jealously-guarded Old World highest monthly, 82.7° 

color and charm make it a 55.1° (Jan.). A/mn rain/ 

favorite for tourists and con- ithly.Trs'inche^^O 

ventions m keeping with its -d.,,* 

Port and Shipping— 1 

claim to be “America’s Most front, about 130 whar\ 

Interesting City.’’ space. Annual shippinc 

The city owes much to its exports and impo 

fortunate geographical posi- “TmmSS 

tion. It is the gateway to the west Pass, 107 miles vij 

Mississippi Valley, the rich- Intracoastal Waterway 

est river valley in the world. Pontchartrain. 60 miles 

The markets of Latin Amer- 
ica lie just across the Gulf of Me.xico, and the Panama 
Canal provides a handy waterway to the trading cen- 
ters of the Orient. Its port also handles giant quanti- 
ties of goods shipped to or from European nations. 

The original settlement was built along the eastern 
bank of the Mississippi in a great U-shaped bend in 
the river, 110 miles from its mouth, hlany streets 
followed the curve of the river, giving New Orleans 
the name, “the Crescent City.’’ Much of the city lies 


FACTS ABOUT NEW ORLEANS 

Population (1950 census) — 570,445. 

Area — 363.5 sq. mi. (Parish of Orleans). 

Geographic Location (Old United States 
Mint)— 29° 57' 46" N., 90° 3' 28" W. 

Climate — Mean lemperalures: annual, 69.7°; 
highest monthly, 82.7° (Aug.); lowest monthly, 
55.1° (Jan.). Mean rainfall: annual, 60.46 inches; 
highest monthly, 6.70 inches (July); lowest 
monthly, 3.48 inches (Oct.). 

Port and Shipping — ^About 61 miles of water 
front, about 130 wharves, 11 miles of berthing 
space. Annual shipping — total about 30 million 
tons; exports and imports about 8 million tons. 
Distance to Gulf of Mexico from Canal Street by 
way of Mississippi River — 110 miles xda South- 
west Pass, 107 miles via South Pass; by way of 
Intracoastal Waterway — 70 miles via Lake 
Pontchartrain. 60 miles \na Vickery Canal. 


below the river level; but many miles of great levees 
or dikes keep out the waters. 

An Outstanding Port 

The city has two outlets to the gulf. One follows 
the Mississippi, crossing its delta through Southwest 

Pass or South Pass. The 

NEW ORLEANS Other passage is the Intra- 

gyQ coastal AVaterway. One route 

-arish of Orleans). this waterway is by way 

(Old United States of the Inner Harbor haviga- 
90° 3' 28" W. tion (or Industrial) Lanai, 

iratures: annual, 69.7°; completed in 1923, to laket 
Aug.); lowest monthly, Pontchartrain and Borgne. 
ill: annual, 60.46 inches; Another route passes part 
inches (July); lowest through the canal and 

., , , then follows Vickery Canal, 

bout 61 miles of water , a -vt a 

:s, 11 miles of berthing The Port of Lew Orl . 

—total about 30 million is operated the Board 
ts about 8 million tons. of Port Commissioners. It 

from Canal Street by attained a new height of ini- 
r — HO miles \ua South- , . )\VnM 

South Pass; by way of portance in the second orld 

— 70 miles via Lake War as a point 01 einbarKH- 

via Vickery Canal. tion for men and war mat^ 

rials. During the war years 

thousands of vessels cleared the port annually ant 
carried more than 20 million tons of cargo. 

Moi’e than 11 miles of wharves, warehouses, i® 
huge steel transit sheds provide facilities for handling 
the flood of products that passes through New Or- 
leans each year. The city is one of the 
gr-eatest markets for cotton, sugar, grains, and bur- 
lap. It also handles great quantities of molasses, 
bananas, and coffee. In addition, it is the shipping 


ON THE BUSY WHARVES OF NEW ORLEANS 




183 


NEW ORLEANS 


GLIMPSES OF NEW ORLEANS, NEW AND OLD 



The upper picture shows some of the 
buildings along Canal Street, the axis of 
the city. This street runs north and 
south and divides the city sharply into 
two parts — the French quarter to the east 
and the modern portion to the west. You 
can judge the street’s tremendous width 
by noticing that even with four car tracks, 
it has ample roadways for automobiles. 

The lower picture shows a characteristic 
patio in the older section of the city, now 
used as a public restaurant. 

and selling center for Louisiana’s 
petroleum, rice, and lumber. Great 
drj’ docks are available to service 
and repair ships. 

To stimulate import trade New 
Orleans established a free port zone 
in 1946. Here importers are per- 
mitted to store cargo duty free. No 
tariff is paid unless the goods are 
later sold in the United States. In- 
ternational House, established in 
1944, is a meeting place and busi- 
ness exchange for foreign visitors. 

The International Mart, opened in 
1948, is used to exhibit and market 
foreign products. It is the first of 
its kind in the world. 

New Orleans is connected vdth the interior of the 
country by a fan-shaped network of nine railroads. 
The Public Belt Railroad, o\vned by the cit}’', con- 
nects all rail lines with the docks. It also utilizes the 
S13,000,000 Huey P. Long Bridge across the iilissis- 
sippi. Coastwise steamers link New Orleans with 
other seaports in the United States. River barge 
lines operate on regular schedules between the city 
and points on 13,000 miles of inland waterways. 
Modern airports make New Orleans a transit center 
between the United States and Latin America. It is 
as close to Guatemala City as it is to Chicago. 


In and around N ew’Orlean s 
is one of the South’s great 
industrial areas. About 800 
plants turn out hundreds of 
different products from tin 
cans to hosierj’. Sugar-cane 
refining and shipbuilding 
are leading industries. Wall- 
board, made from sugar-cane 
refuse, is an unusual New 
Orleans product. The city 
is a leader in the production 
of men’s wash suits, cotton- 
seed products, industrial al- 
cohol, and burlap and cotton 
bags. New’ Orleans is noted as 
the southern center for the 
production of fine furniture, 
both modem and period. 

A City of Contrasts 
New Orleans is a city of 
striking contrasts. The old 





and new’ sections lie roughly on either side of Canal 
Street, a broad thoroughfare running north from the 
river. 

The modem section, largely to the w’est of Canal 
Street, has towering skyscrapers, broad palm-bordered 
streets, and extensive, well-kept parks. East of Canal 
Street lies old New Orleans. Here live American-bom 
descendants of the French and Spanish (Creoles), w’ho 
still cling to the speech and customs of their forefathers. 

This old French quarter, or Yimx Carre, (“Old 
Square” in French), is really a city in itself. It occupies 
a small, quiet section, hemmed in by the busy modem 






hi 




metropolis. Dark, ' 
narrow streets, many 
paved with flagstones, 
separate crowded i 
rows of distinctive 
old buildings erected ^ 
more than a century 

ings^ are patterned 

Heavy iron-bound 

doors covered with | p.p 

clinging vines of roses IjS-p P 

and ivy open abrupt- iVil . 

ly on the uneven side- This warelTouse (upperpSui^‘01 

walks. Behind these n^uch of the cotton traffic in New 
s. ijenuiu inese serves as a foreign trade zone (fr. 

great gates are fine unportant mahogany distributing pi 
old courtyards or pa- South America into the sta 

tios that usually have crumbling walks, fountains, 
statues, and bright green tropical plants. Overhead 
are picturesque balconies with railings of finely 
wrought iron. (Iron was useful as well as ornamental 
because it could withstand the dampness of the 
olimate and the attack of termites.) The gabled roofs 
and red-brick chimneys of the old mansions add to 
the Old World atmosphere of the district. 

The old “commons,” or Place d’Ar?nes, in the Vieux 
Carr4 was the setting of nearly every important event 
in the history of Louisiana. Later the commons 
was renamed Jackson Square. It is a modern park 
with colorful flower beds, white cement walks, and 
neatly trimmed shrubbery. The historic old build- 
ings surrounding the square still stand. Here are 
the Pontalba Buildings, America’s first apartments; 
St. Louis Cathedral, built in 1794; and the Cabildo" 
the Spanish courthouse where Louisiana was trans- 
ferred from Spain to France and then to the United 
States. The last is now a museum. Another point of 



sr 


largesTS“the woridthanffies 
Orleans. Part of this huge structure 
imoortant POrt). The lower picture shows an 

and ^W‘but*ng plant. The mill saws logs from Central 

d South America into the stacked piles of lumber you see here. 


interest to tourists is 
the old French Mar- 
ket, built in 1791. It 
is still in use although 
modernized to some 
extent. 

The Old M’orld her- 
itage of the Latin 
Quarter is celebrated 
each year in the 
Alardi Gras, famous 
throughout the world. 
It is a great fun festi- 
val of private balls, 
street pageants, and 
pubhc masking. The 
season comes to a 
climax the daj' be- 
fore Lent on "Let 
Tuesday” (“Mardi 
gras” in French). 

New Orleans is 
both a summer and 


DOXrll U 

winter resort. Golf, baseball, and fishing are popuhr 
the year round. The highlight of the winter season is 
the Carnival of Sports, which features the Sugar Bow 
football game on New Year’s Day. , 

The city is the seat of Tulane University “ 
branch for women, Newcomb Alemorial College. 1 ^ 
Louisiana State University medical center, the Be 
gado Trade School for boys, and the Rabouin tec 
nical school for girls are also here. The Catholic sclioo 
system consists of Loyola University and more t mn 
50 other schools and convents. Dillard Universi ) 
and Xavier University are for Negroes. 

City Park contains the Delgado Museum of 1 1 
Arts and the ancient “dueling oaks” under w’hic n 
fairs of honor were once settled. A short drive 
one to the Bayou Teche country of the Acadians, a 
of Longfellow’s ‘Evangeline’; Bayou I^^rabaria, pie ' 
esque haunt of the pirates Jean and Pierre Lan • 
and Chalmette, where the battle of New Orleans 
fought in January 1815. An interesting point abou 


185 


battle is that it occurred 15 days after Great Britain 
and the United States had made peace. 

The Story of New Orleans’ Growth 

New Orleans was founded in 1718 by Jean Baptiste 
Lemoyne, Sieur de Bienville. In 1722 it was made the 
capital of the great Louisiana territory and became 
the industrial and poUtical center of the French 
colony. In 1762 dtiring the Seven Years’ War, France 
ceded her territories west of the Mississippi, in- 
cluding New Orleans, to her ally Spain. The city re- 
mained under Spanish rule for 40 years. During this 
time, in 1788, a terrible fire destro 3 ^ed a large portion 
of the city. But New Orleans quicMy took on a new 
and greater growth. In 1800 Napoleon forced 
Spain by a secret treaty to restore Louisiana to 
France. 

Soon after France took formal possession in 1802, 
the United States bought the territory (see Louis- 
iana; Louisiana Purchase). At that time the cit 5 ’’s 
population was less than 10,000, mostly French 
Creoles and their slaves. Meanwhile the growth of 
flatboat commerce on the Mississippi was making 
New Orleans an important trade center. The pros- 
perity of the city was assured in 1812 when the 
first steamboat arrived from Pittsburgh. New 
Orleans sensed as the capital of Louisiana at various 
times until the constitution of 1879 estabhshed 
Baton Rouge as the peimanent state capital. 

In the Civil War New Orleans was an 
important federal strategic point after 
its capture in 1862. But the war para- 
lyzed the city’s commerce. It was not 
until the ’70’s that the city regained 
its former place as a commercial center. 

Epidemics of yellow fever, long the 
scourge of New Orleans (1878-1906), 
were ended when the United States 
iUarine Hospital Service took charge 
and abolished the breeding places of the 
mosquito which carried the plague. Simi- 
larly in 1914 the United States Health 
Service destroyed many imsanitary struc- 
tures in its campaign to rid the city 
of rats, the carriers of bubonic plague. 

In 1927 New Orleans, to save itself 
from a Mississippi flood, diverted the 
Water uj^on two i)arishes to the south- 
east of the city. Through taxes it pro- 
ricled new homes for the people thus 
driven from their land. To prevent a 
repetition of this flood United States 
Annj' Engineers built the Bonnet Cane 
Spillway about 35 miles upstream. This 
huge structure removes the flood crests from the river 
before they reach the city. 

A commission consisting of a majer and seven 
coiiimissionei's governs New Orleans. The conmiis- 
sioners also administer the departments of public fi- 
nance, safet}', utilities, streets, sanitation, public 
buildings, and institutions and public health. 


NEW SOUTH WALES 

New south wales, Austeaua. The oldest and 
most populous British colony in Australia is now 
an original state of the Australian Commonwealth. 
It has an area of 309,432 square miles — about twice 
the size of California — with a population of 2,984,838 
(1947 census). Aluch of the land is devoted to 
sheepn and cattle-raising, since little of it is suffi- 
ciently watered for farming, ■i^^leat is the chief crop 
grown, and wool is the chief export. The coal fields 
are the chief source of mineral w’ealth. In the pro- 
duction of coal, as well as of silver-lead ore, New- 
South Wales leads the states of the Australian Com- 
monwealth. Silver, gold, tin, zinc, and other minerals 
are also mined. 

There are forests of eucaljqrtus and other trees, 
and timber is an important export. New South Wains 
on account of its harbors and resources has the 
largest trade of any of the Australian states. The 
state government owns many public utilities, and 
provides old-age and widow-s’ pensions and special 
relief for poor families. The school sj’stem is headed 
by the University of Sydney. The chief cities are 
Sydnej’ (capital), Newcastle, and Broken Hill. 

New South Wales shares the characteristic for- 
mation of eastern Australia — that of a narrow- 
coastal plain, backed by the Great Dividing Range 
of mountains about 100 miles inland. The rapidly 
changing levels give the state a great diversity of 


A GLIMPSE OF THE “BLUE MOUNTAINS” 



This beautiful valley is typical of the scenery to be found in the great mountain 
range which skirts the whole eastern coast of Australia and forms the backbone 
of new South Wales. These mountains are rich in mineral wealth. 


climate, from Sjriney’s mean temperature of 63° at 
the seacoast to inland temperatures ranging as high 
as 130°. The difference betw^een average summer 
and winter temperatures at Sj^dney is 17°. Rainfall 
varies from 64 inches a j-ear in one district in the 
south to 32.5 inches on the table-lands and 10 inches 
in the w-cst. (See Australia.) 




Here isa nerve center in a modern newspaper. The world’s news flows to a telegraph editor in the “slot” of a U-shaped 
desk. He judges the stories for news value and passes them to copy readers “on the rim” of the desk for editing. 
After a few minutes of swift work, the copy readers send each story to be set in type, as shown on the next page. 


TyTEWSPAPERS. The daily paper brings the news 
of the whole world to our doors every morning. A 
fresh edition may arrive at the corner newsstand every 
hour. The latest events appear in print and picture 
within minutes after they occur. But we are so ac- 
customed to all this speed that we seldom stop to 
wonder how the work is done. Suppose we take a trip 
through a modern newspaper plant to see how the 
world’s news is brought to us. 

A good place to start is the editorial department. 
Here every device of modern communication is at 
work bringing in news; and the newspaper staff works 
as swiftly and efficiently as the machines. Reporters 
and photographers arrive on the run. Typewriters 
click at high speed. Telephones ring. Teletype ma- 
chines print news stories from all over the world. 
Editors and copy readers work swiftly over copy. 
Bo3’s and in many offices, girls — dash here and there, 
taking copy to the typesetters. But there is no con- 
fusion. Everybody in the room, from managing editor 
to copy boy, knows his job and works like a smooth- 
running cog in a high-speed machine. 

Handling Last-Minute News 

In one part of the room, we may see a last-minute 
story being made ready for the edition. It may be a 
fire, an accident, or a crime. TiTiatever it is, reporters 
on the spot telephone in the news as they get it to 
a “rewrite” man. He has a telephone receiver clamped 
to his ear, and he writes the news as it comes, a few 
lines at a time on separate sheets of paper. A boy 
rushes each sheet of copy to the city editor; the 
editor examines it quickly and passes it to the copy 
desk. Here a copy reader revises or rewrites parte 
of the story, writes a headline, and calls a copy boy. 


The boy sends the story through a pneumatic tube 
to the composing room. 

Swift Work in the Mechanical Departments 

Here each story is made ready for printing with the 
same swift efficiency. Copy cutters divide each sheet 
of copy into two or more “takes,” and apportion the 
“takes” among the operators of linotype machine? 
(see Linotype). Nearly as fast as the words came from 
the typewriter, these machines cast them into hn(S 
of type. Proofreaders check proofs for accuracy, an 
the type is rushed to the forms. These are large meta 
frames, each one the size of a page. Make-up m® 
arrange the type in the forms to make pages. 

Meanwhile, the engraving department has been pr®" 
paring engravings or “cuts” from last-minute pbo o- 
graphs. Twenty minutes after a cameraman 


his pictures are developed, and prints are given 


picture editor. He marks the size of the cut he van - 
Then the engravers make a half-tone from^ the pi^^ 
in less than half an hour (see Photoengrawng). 
minute the cut is ready, the make-up man sets i 
place in the proper form. . , , 

At length the clocks throughout the plant pom 
“deadline” — the last minute when new stories wn 
received for the edition. Compositors rush the 
stories into type; make-up men lock the last forms a 
send them to the stereotypers. In a matter 
these workers prepare curved printing plates from 
tyqie forms, as shown on the next page. Than 'S 
speed in all these operations, the deadline 
usually only about half an hour before the time 
presses must start printing. _ _ 

As soon as the last printing plate is in P 
press, the foreman gives a- signal. Imme la 














188 


NEWSPAPERS 

the huge mass of delicate machinery starts. At one 
end we see an enormous roll of white paper — ^five miles 
of it. At lightning speed the paper is fed into the 
press. And far too fast for the eye to count them — 
300,000 an hour in the most modern plants with a 
battery of presses — our completed newspapers, cut 
and folded, just as they come to us, leap forth at the 
other end. (See Printing.) 

Endless belts whirl the papers out to the distribut- 
ing and mailing rooms. Chugging automobiles are 
piled liigh and rush at breakneck speed to delivery 
stations throughout the city. Other automobiles 
dash to make fast mail trains for distant points, while 
dozens of newsboys seize their quotas and hurry to 
the street to shout the news of some great man’s 
death, an important political development, or a ter- 
rible tragedy half an hour after it has happened. 

Still more astonisliing to the uninitiated is the 
device by which news that is received within the last 
few minutes before press time is printed in the form 
of brief bulletins on the first page. This device 
is called the “fudge-box.” A space of any desired 
size, usually two columns wide, is left blank on the 
stereotype plate. Exactly corresponding to this blank 
space on another cylinder is an arrangement into 
which type can quickly be fitted and clamped in place. 
Suppose a baseball game is in progress. A reporter 
in the press box beside a telegraph operator or a 
telephone reports each play as it is made. Another 
man in the fudge room of the newspaper office repeats 
the plays to the operator of the fudge linot 3 q)e, so that 
each play is recorded on the metal slugs even before 
the applause in the grandstand has died down. Per- 
haps 30 seconds before the giant press is started, the 
type thus set is rushed to the special fudge cylinder 
and clamped directly in place without the necessity 
of casting a plate from it. Thus it often happens that 
the newsboys are shouting the result of a ball game on 
the streets before half the crowd has left the park. 

Vast Expenses of a Great Newspaper 

Such speed is possible only because a modern metro- 
politan newspaper is one of the most efficiently 
organized industries in the world. Besides profes- 
sional newspaper men — editors, copy readers, and 
reporters — masters of at least half a dozen highly 
skilled crafts are required in its production. The 
amount of money represented by a newspaper plant 
and the cost of production are enormous. The few 
cents which you pay for your copy does not pay for 
the white paper alone. 

Three mechanical factors have made their influence 
most keenly felt in producing the modern newspaper. 
They are: (1) the development of the printing press; 
(2) the invention of the linotype, the monotype, and 
allied devices; and (3) the invention of the telephone, 
the telegraph, and wireless telegraphy. The first two 
of these factors made great speed of production and 
enormous volume of product possible. The third 
annihilated time and distance and made it possible to 
assemble the news of the world overnight. 


Although there are many newspapers in Europe and 
elsewhere which “ cover” the news of the world coni' 
prehensively, the dailies of the great cities of the 
United States undoubtedly offer the most highly 
developed examples of modern journalism. This is 
due not only to the completeness of their mechanical 
equipment, but also to their enterprise, engendered by 
keen competition, which causes them to go to any 
expense to score a “ beat ” or “scoop ” on their rivals. 


How New Our Newspapers Are 
Nearly all the great strides in newspaper-making 
have come in the last hundred years. It was not such 
a far cry from the Acta Diurna (“Daily Events”) of 
ancient Rome — short bulletins of battles, fires, elec- 
tions, etc., compiled by government officials and 
posted up in public places — to the official Nolide 
Scriite which the government of Venice issued in the 
16th century. This was a hand-written bulletin, and 
the written journal persisted long after the use of 
printing began, largely because government censors 
kept a close watch on printed newspapers. About the 
same time private presses in other cities of Europe 
began issuing news-letters from time to time reporting 
the most remarkable events of the time. In 1615 the 
news-letter developed into the first regular weekly 
newspaper, the German Frankfurter Journal. The 
first regular newspaper in England was the IFeeW 
Newes, started in London in 1622. The freedom of 
the press from censorship before printing came first 
in England in 1695, and marked a great forward step 
in the history of newspapers. Boston was the home 
of the first American newspaper. Public Occurrences 
(1690), which was speedily suppressed by the governor 
of Massachusetts. Next came the News-Letter (1<0 ) 
and the Gazette (1719), also published in Boston. In 
1729 Benjamin Franklin started the weekly Pcnnsr 
vania Gazette at Philadelphia, later merged vuth lO 
North American, wliich wms for a century and a ha 
one of the leading papers of the United States. 

The First Daiiy Newspapers 
The first daily newspaper in America, the Anienjen 
Daily Advertiser, was started in Pliiladelphia in ‘J- 
Next came the New York Daily Advertiser, m t • 
During the Revolutionary War period, more than 
papers appeared more or less regularly in Li 

tions. The New York Evening Post, founded in_ 
by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and associa > 
was edited by William Cullen Bryant „ 

years, from 1829 to 1878. Carl Schurz held the sam 
post for five years. . , r 

The early newspapers set forth cliiefly P. j 
other opinions of the editors and their friends, 
r>Qrf.T7- nr* fT>o77' finonPJf>) hflckens. Editors depsnii 


party, or their financial backers, 
largely upon subscribers to send news 


Editors — , 
The New 1 orK 
to 


Sun, founded in 1833, was the first 
gather news systematically. James Gordon fio 
developed that policy as editor of the AlewYor' 
aid, started in 1835. For many years the Hem 
one of the world’s best known newspapers, ^ ‘„(t 

edition produced in the French capital, h® 



- 189 


stressed foreign news, and introduced financial, dra- 
matic, musical, club, and society columns into the 
pages of his daily paper. 

Development of the telegraph and the railroad more 
than doubled the circulation of American newspapers 
between 1840 and 1850. As the frontier advanced in 
the west, papers sprang up in new settlements. Some 
of them continue today. The Detroit Free Press was 
launched in 1835; the Chicago Tribune in 1847; in St. 
Louis, the Post-Dispatch started in 1851 and the 
Globe-Democrat in 1852. 

A Million Copies a Day 

In 1875, an American newspaper vdth a sale of 
50,000 was remarkable. In recent years, however, one 
New York newspaper has sold over 2,000,000 copies 
daily and more than 4,000,000 on Sunday. Two Clii- 
cago newspapers have each sold more than 1,000,000 
copies of their Sunday editions. The average daily 
circulation of newspapers in the United States ex- 
ceeds 50,000,000 and that of Sunday papers exceeds 
40,000,000. Weekly papers circulate over 15,000,000. 

The record number of 2,494 daily and 16,152 weekly 
publications in the United States has fallen to 1,800 
dailies and 10,000 weeklies. Many of these are printed 
in foreign languages, especially in the great cities 
which have a large foreign population. 

Advertising is the life-blood of a newspaper, and 
since advertising rates are based on circulation, there 
is a constant battle for circulation. In this struggle 
many papers have been absorbed by stronger rivals. 
Newspaper circulation is limited largely to certain 
areas, and the fewer the papers in each area, the 
better chance each has for more sales. 

Importance of Advertising 

Income of American newspapers for a typical year 
has exceeded 81,000,000,000. Almost three-fourths of 

■ this amount comes from advertising ; and the remainder 
from circulation. Newspapers have large well organ- 
ized advertising departments, which are ever alert to 

• seU advertising space. Batteries of telephone operators 
accept “ads” by telephone, and sometimes even solicit 
•' advertising by wire. Large newspapers also maintain 
advertising staffs in many of the chief cities of the 
' country and in the principal capitals of Europe. 

■ Almost any advertising was accepted by early news- 
? papers. Now reputable papers guard their advertising 
/ columns. Doubtful advertising is investigated and 

false or misleading “ads” are rejected. Many news- 
{ papers refuse to accept certain classes of “ads.” 

; _ Newspaper advertising, lik e circulation, has ter- 

ritorial limits. Department store advertising is an 
important source of income in large cities, as are the 
small “classified advertising colmnns,” such as the 
“help -wanted,” and “real estate,” “ads,” but these 
f' have purely a local field. National advertising of prod- 
ucts sold aU over the country appears often in many 
j papers at the same time and is of growing importance 
in the newspaper field. (See Advertising.) 

Many newspapers maintain extensive “promotional 
;; staffs” for the benefit of advertisers. Experts study a 


NEWSPAPERS 

product and the prospects for its sale, and ad-vise 
and sometimes even plan a campaign by which the 
public is to be told of the product. 

How the “Chains” Work 

The large capital needed for newspapers has brought 
the “chain” newspaper. More than 50 “chains” have 
controlled over 300 papers at one time. AU papers of 
a chain use the same feature articles, such as brief 
articles on health, short stories, answers to questions, 
and humorous articles; and they also use the same 
cartoons, special foreign articles, and the ser-vices of 
one of the great news-gathering organizations, such 
as the Associated Press, United Press, or International 
News Service. Each one prints the city and state news 
in its territorj’’, as weU as local advertising. National 
advertising often is placed ■\vith a chain for insertion 
in several or all the papers it controls. 

Einancing of newspapers by issues of stock and 
bonds is replacing indi-vddual o-wnership by one man 
or one family. Criticism is raised whenever large 
commercial interests secure financial control of a 
paper; there is the fear that they may seek to influence 
public opinion unduly through propaganda, or par- 
tisan statements, published in the papers. The term 
“subsidized press” has been applied to papers so con- 
trolled. A paper also is said to be subsidized if it 
permits advertisers to dictate its editorial policies. 

The Problem of Propaganda 

To indicate their good faith, many newspapers state 
on the editorial page their “platforms,” that is, the 
chief principles they advocate; and also place “by- 
lines” stating the names of -writers over aU articles 
which advance the interests of a particular cause. 
Some newspapers try to present both sides of con- 
troversial subjects, by printing articles supplied by 
advocates of the opposing -views. Nearly all open 
their columns to letters representing all shades of 
opinion. Nearly all subscribe to the principle that 
news should be reported fairly and accurately, with- 
out “editorializing” in the news columns. 

White paper is such an important item -with the 
present tremendous circulations that some papers now 
o-wn forests, paper mills, short railroad lines, and 
steamships, which produce and transport their paper. 

In New York and Chicago, some papers in order to 
save time in distribution, have installed branch print- 
ing plants in distant neighborhoods or in suburbs. 
Matrices or plates are rushed from the main office to 
these plants, where the papers are printed and quickly 
put on the streets. 

Recent Rise of the “Tabloids” 

The “tabloid” or “picture-paper,” usually about 
half the size of a regular newspaper, tries to tell most 
of the news -ndth pictures. The first successful tabloid 
in America, started in New York in 1919, was pat- 
terned after the prosperous London Mirror. The pop- 
ularity of “pietiu-e-papers” soon influenced even more 
conservative newspapers to print more pictures. 

AliUions of newspaper readers, old and young, 
eagerly foUow “feature” material, such as fiction in 


190 


NEWSPAPERS 

the form of short stories or serials, columns of house- 
hold advice, fashions, chatter about persons and 
events, humor, personal opinion, and the popular 
“funnies” or comic strips. Most of these are sold by 
syndicates to many newspapers, which publish them 
on the same day, and so they are called “syndicated 
features.” Famous writers and artists can thus be 
paid large salaries. Notable persons frequently con- 
tribute to this important phase of present-day jour- 
nalism. Former President Coolidge, for example, rvrote 
a series of short daily articles for publication in scores 
of newspapers. 

Comic Strips and Cartoons 

Artists of wide reputation draw daily comic strips 
and cartoons. The joys and the griefs, the pranks and 
the adventures of famous line-and-color figures, such 
as R. F. Outcault’s “Buster Brovm,” “Bud” Fisher’s 
“Mutt and Jeff,” George Herriman’s “Krazy Kat,” 
Sidney Smith’s “Andy Gump,” and many others have 
delighted readers of all ages. Some editors believe 
that the “features” have the greatest drawing power 
both to secure and to hold readers. 

Successful papers now provide many special ser- 
vices for readers as well as for advertisers. An informa- 
tion department may give out data of almost any 
sort, from information concerning schools, vacation 
resorts, ocean or railroad travel, to the latest reports 
concerning the condition of automobile roads. Many 
have a department to advise small investors; some 
maintain income tax bureaus in proper season to help 
the taxpayer make out his return. 

The importance of the newspaper has been recog- 
nized universally. Indeed, it was called by Macaulay 
“the Fourth Estate” — more important, as Edmund 
Burke once exclaimed, pointing to the reporters’ 
gallery in the English House of Commons, than the 
original “three estates,” the clergy, the nobles, and 
the freemen. The press is usually held to be the most 
effective single factor in shaping pubhc opinion. 

Value of Newspaper Reading 

Teachers of history and sociology emphasize the 
value of the regular reading of newspapers by stu- 
dents. They point out the importance of current news 
articles as helps in the study of the social, economic, 
and political trends of the day. Controversy has arisen 
regarding the good or the harm that is done by the 
printing of so-caUed “sensational” news stories, espe- 
cially those that give details of crime. Editors differ 
widely in the extent to which they present crime news 
and in the way they handle such material. Some 
students of society hold that crime news should be 
almost entirely omitted, believing such publicity tends 
to increase crime. Most editors believe that it should 
receive adequate attention, so that the public may be 
stirred to rebel against the causes of crime or its toler- 
ation by corrupt officials. 

High schools, colleges, and universities now offer 
courses, either in special departments or in schools of 
journalism, to train writers and editors. Many of 
these have experienced newspaper men in charge. 


The college-trained man and woman are sought, not 
only for reportorial and other editorial positions, but 
also for the business and advertising departments. 
They are now generally preferred to the unschooled 
“rough-and-ready” newspaper type of earlier days. 

Newspaper Work as a Career 
Journalism as a career has been the subject of 
much debate. Newspaper w'ork undoubtedly has a 
lure that brings to classes in journalism many who 
are not suited to the work. Many students look upon 
newspaper work as a stepping-stone to other careers. 
Many authors and playwrights have started with 
newspapers; but it is equally true that many more 
have come from far different walks of life— from the 
law office, the store, the doctor’s office, the scientist's 
laboratory, and the ship at sea. Many successful 
writers never were inside a newspaper office. 

Newspaper salaries are not large, except for so-called 
“stars,” editors, and executives. The man or woman 
assigned to Washington as special correspondent has 
about reached the top in the profession, yet the sal- 
aries of these special correspondents often do not 
compare with salaries of leaders in many husm® 
fields. The foreign correspondent ranks about with 
the Washington reporters in importance and in salarj’. 
Any such post requires first a thorough knowledge of 
what constitutes news, with an ability to write accu- 
rately, clearly, simply, and tersely. But tact, diplo- 
macy, and an ability to keep on favorable terms even 
with those hostile to his paper are just as important. 
This ability is not a “gift” as is commonly believed. 
It may be developed, if one has a liking for writing, 
after stern self-disciplining in the use of the right wot 
and the laws of effective writing. (See Writing.) 

An increasing number of women are finding su^ea 
in newspaper work. In addition to reportorial wor 
many have specialized in writing articles or columns 
on fashion, society, and on household or art 
The modern American newspaper is divided ni 
five departments. They are the editorial, circula ion, 
business, advertising, and mechanical. The 
executives are the publisher, who is usually the p 
prietor and editor-in-chief; the business manager, 
managing editor and the advertising manager, n 
department cliief is responsible for the 
orderly working of his department, and the 
of aU the departments must dovetail together 
clocklike precision. 

News Gathering and Editing 
The editorial staff is headed by the managing e i ^ 
who is in direct charge of gathering, editing, 
fishing the news. Cooperating immediately wi i 
managing editor are the city editor, 
editor, the news editor, and the make-up editor, 
reporters, divided into “general assignment 
those who cover certain “runs” such as the ^ 
City Hall, police station, etc., work directly u ^ 
the city editor and his assistant. Everj'thing wt 
for the newspaper, including telegraph and loca ' 
financial news, “feature” articles, musical an 




Newspapers and news-gathering agencies send reporters and photographers all over the world to “cover” events. 1. Here 
we see photographers taking pictures of the “Big Three” at the Tehran conference in November 1943. 2. The corre- 
spondent and photographer sitting before their tent on Guadalcanal Island risked their lives to get eyewitness war news. 
3. Reports flash to the newspaper office on this automatic teletype printer, and pictures are also transmitted by wire or 
radio. 4. An hour or two after the story “breaks,” the newsboy is crying its headlines. 


191 




NEWSPAPERS 


- 192 


matic items, and correspondence, must go through the 
hands of sub-editors, or copy readers, who prepare the 
copy for the printer, correct it, “trim” it to allotted 
space, eliminate mistakes, and write the headlines. 

The telegraph editor has charge of editing all news 
that comes into the office over the wires. On a few of 
the largest newspapers a foreign editor is in charge of 
his own paper’s foreign service and all foreign news 
gathered by other agencies. Several copy readers 
usually assist the telegraph editor, who is known com- 
monly as “head of the telegraph desk.” The makeup 
editor supervises the arrangement of type in forms in 
the composing room. With the managing editor, the 
news editor, and the city editor, he determines in what 
column and on what page each important article is to 
appear, and helps to decide what to “play up” and to 
“play down.” Frequently news stories are given 
prominence rather because they conform to the polit- 
ical or business policy of a newspaper than because 
of their intrinsic importance or interest. Sporting 
news is gathered by the sporting editor and his assist- 
ants, who are usually recognized experts in various 
fines of sport. In like manner musical, dramatic, and 
financial news is written by men or women who make 
a specialty of these lines. 

Cooperative News Bureaus 

In the larger cities the newspapers usually form a 
cooperative bureau to cover all routine news. This 
is mimeographed and sent to all newspaper offices 
simultaneously through pneumatic tubes. So thor- 
oughly organized is the business of gathering news 
that scarcely anything of importance can happen in 
a large city without the newspapers becoming aware 
of it. Trained reporters develop an uncanny “nose 
for news” which enables them to ferret out informa- 
tion despite the most strenuous efforts to conceal 
facts; and frequently this quality, together with a 
broad acquaintance, enables them to score “scoops,” 
or exclusive stories. To achieve this the good reporter 
will perform prodigies of labor, sometimes at the risk 
of life and limb. 

Most large American newspapers maintain a staff in 
Washington, sometimes as many as half a dozen of 
their best reporters. This is a coveted post; but the 
position the reporter prizes most is that of foreign 
correspondent. Some American newspapers have men 
stationed in all the important capitals of Europe, 
South and Central America, and Asia. Some have a 
dozen or more such bureaus, each with a “star” re- 
porter in charge of a staff. Smaller papers obtain 
their national and foreign news almost entirely from 
the great news-gathering agencies. 

In the United States are three such agencies with 
reporters stationed all over the world. The greatest 
is the Associated Press, a nonprofit cooperative 
association supported by the dues of the members. It 
began in 1848 with six newspapers; today it includes 
about 1,400. It has about 285,000 miles of telegraph 
wire in the United States. Large “A.P.” offices 
receive more than 100,000 words daily. The United 


Press, formed in 1907, and the International News 
Service (1909) are commercial enterprises. (All these 
agencies also send news to papers in foreign lands.) 

The British news agency is Reuter’s. It began as a 
telegraph service for market data, but in 1858 became 
a general news agency in London and soon reached 
throughout the world. Because it was controlled by 
persons who were not primarily newspaper men, Eeu- 
ter’s was charged with coloring or suppressing news 
for political and financial reasons. During the second 
World War, however, its ownership was voluntarily 
turned over to an association of British newspapers. 

Other Sources of News Material 

An enormous amount of “copy” is sent out by news- 
paper syndicates. These supply a wide variety of ma- 
terial which small newspapers could not afford to pre- 
pare individually, such as cartoons, comic strips, fic- 
tion, household and fashion articles, and other “fea- 
tures.” In recent years the syndicated “column” of 
news comment has sprung up to meet the increased 
interest in world affairs. Each columnist interprets 
the news according to his own views, and some have 
considerable influence on public opinion. 

Another source of new^s is publicity material. This 
is information sent free by most large corporations 
and organizations. Even universities and government 
agencies issue “press releases” about their activities. 
Surveys have shown that as many as half the article 
in some issues of newspapers have been built on pu 
licity material. This often presents valuable infor- 
mation, but much of it is biased and VTitten to pro- 
mote special interests. 

No other news field, perhaps, has developed so rap- 
idly in recent years as that of pictures. Photograp 
syndicates have multiplied, and even small newspape 
have established photographic departments. ®’'- 
papers equip their reporters vith cameras. ^ 
transmission bj' radio and wire enables 
newspapers to print a picture of an event on t ® 
day that it took place in Europe j 

Telephotography). The photoengraving depar 
has therefore gained in importance, and .g. 

and color presses are now indispensable to large 
papers {see Photoengraving and Photolithogiap })■ 

The Library or “Morgue” 

A little-known but valuable source of ma 
the newspaper’s library or “morgue.” _ Ongma 
was a file of material for obituary articks, 
growm into a great reference library. Eaci . 
tides are clipped from newspapers and 
and filed in the library as background matenu 
future articles. Some of the larger 
millions of clippings, several thousand 
hundreds of reference books, and huge stacks 
volumes of the newspapers. jjg,v 

To save library space, many newspaper 
“micro-filmed.” By this process, a 
photographed on a film about an inch js 

— ^no larger than many postage stamps. 
read in a viewing device called a “projector. 



193 


NEWTON 


rhe MAN WHO DISCOVERED the LAWS 
that Rule the Universe 


•' TVTEWTON, Sir Isaac (1642-1727). For ages the laws 
' of nature were hidden from human knowledge and 
‘ understanding, but in the 16th and 17th centuries they 
- gradually began to come to light. Last of a great 
f line of forerunners of the 
” dawn, Galileo died in 
January 1642. That same 
i year saw the birth of 
'■ one greater than he, 

'■ destined to shed the full 
i light of day on the work 
: of earlier men — Isaac 
j Newton, who was bom 
; on Dec. 25 (old style), 
i 1642, at Woolsthorpe, 

; England. 

To realize what New- 
I ton’s discoveries mean 
to the world, let us look 
a little way into the 
minds of men of several 
centuries ago. In those 
days, of course, men 
recognized a certain 
order underneath na- 
ture’s apparent confu- 
sion — such as the fact 
that the sun always rises 
j in the east and sets in the 
, west; that summer and 
' vanter, day and night, 
follow one another; that 
objects always fall to the 
I ground when released in mid-air. But people merely 
accepted these happenings in nature without being 
able to explain them. 

Few in those days thought to find answers to na^ 
ture’s riddles by observation or experiment. At be.st, 
all that could be classified as “natural science’’ was a 
collection of far-fetched 
explanations and guesses. 

, The English Royal Society 
; had what was called a 
“mermaid’s bone” and a 
^ “unicorn’s horn,” not to 
\ mention a stag beetle 
' whose horns, worn in a 
ring, were said to be good 
for rheiunatism. Natimal 
science, as we know it 
teday, had no place in a 
“liberal education” for the reason that as yet it 
Scarcely existed. The nature of light, of heat, of 
sound, and of electricity were unknown; chemistry 
Was still befogged with alchemy, and astronomy with 
astrology. The farthest outposts of scientific knowl- 
edge in the inorganic world were the discoveries of 


Galileo and Kepler in astronomy, mechanics, and op- 
tics {see Astronomy; Galileo; Kepler). 

Such was the intellectual world into which Newton 
was born. He was the son of a gentleman farmer, 

who, dying before his 
only son’s birth, left his 
wddow in very moderate 
circumstances. 

More Interested in 
Living Science 

At school young Isaac, 
according to his own 
later accounts, was but 
an idler until he was 
aroused by the desire 
to outstrip a young 
bully who stood above 
him in his classes. The 
classical Greek and Latin 
education of the times 
must, indeed, have been 
deadly dull to a mind 
like Newton’s, all alive 
wdth curiosity about the 
universe of nature. Not 
being able to find out 
what he wanted to know 
in school, the boy 
“tinkered around” with 
tools, makingnowawind- 
mill, now a water clock, 
and now a carriage to 
be propelled by the occu- 
pant — not to speak of sundials and even doll furniture 
for little girl friends. 

One science, to be sure — the science of mathe- 
matics — did form a part of "every gentleman’s educa- 
tion,” and in this Newton was a discoverer almost as 
soon as he was a graduate. He developed the new 

method of calculus (or, as 
he called it, “fluxions”) in 
the year of his graduation 
from Trinity College, 
Cambridge University 
(1665). The method was 
invaluable to science, and 
many years later it en- 
abled Newton to prove 
the law of gravitation. He 
had conceived the theoiy 
while still a young man. 
The “apple story” of how he happened to get the idea 
is told elsewhere (see Gravitation). As a serious test of 
his theory he calculated the orbit of the moon, and 
the motion as he calculated it agreed “pretty nearly” 
with the knoum facts. But “to a mind like New- 
ton’s ‘pretty nearljr* is as bad as ‘not at all,’ ” 



THE HUMILITY OF TRUE GREATNESS 
Though Newton's contributions to science were among 
the greatest ever made by any one man, he had the modesty 
of true genius. “If I have seen farther, it is by standing 
on the shoulders of giants,’’ he wrote in reply to one who 
complimented him on his researches. And shortly before 
his death he wrote, "I seem to have been only a boy 
playing on the seashore and diverting myself in now and 
then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than 
ordirmry, whilst the great Ocean of Truth lay all undis- 
covered before me,’’ 



NEWTON 


194 


and so gravitation was laid aside for the time being. 

Now began the series of careful, logically conducted 
experiments on light and color, which were to lead to 
the first of his great discoveries in natural science. 
By 1669, the year in which he was appointed professor 
of mathematics in Cambridge University, Newton had 
demonstrated the compound character of light and the 
fact that color resides not in the object but in the 
light itself. These discoveries were not made public, 
however, until 1672, when Newton reported them to 
the Royal Society. His studies of light also led him 
to the invention of the reflecting telescope, 

Newton’s Theory of Light 

Newton explained light by the ‘ ‘ corpuscular” theory 
— that is, that it was caused by a stream of minute 
particles or “corpuscles,” given off at a high velocity 
by a luminous body. Scientists later adopted the 
“undulatory wave” theory (see Light). But since 
then the discovery of radium and the manifestations 
of radioactivity have proved the existence of minute 
particles moving with the high speeds needed for 
Newton’s corpuscular theory, and now we are not so 
sure that Newton was wholly wrong on this point. 
(See Radiation.) 

Just when Newton began to study again the prob- 
lem of gravitation is not known, but in 1684 the 
astronomer Edmund Halley stumbled upon the fact 
that the quiet Cambridge scholar had worked out in 
solitude the principles of the theory. At Halley’s 
urgent desire, Newton set them forth in the great work 
generally called the ‘Principia’ (Philosophiae Natur- 
alis Principia Mathematica or 'Mathematical Princi- 
ples of Natural Philosophy’). It is said that there 
were not 12 men in Europe capable of understanding 
this book at its publication in 1687, It has been 
called the greatest single contribution to science ever 
made by any one man. It established the ideas of 
“mass” and “force,” the principles of the mechanics 
of the heavenly bodies, and the science of theoretical 
mechanics as it exists today. 

A Great, Gentle, Modest Soul 

Far from seeking recognition for his work, Newton 
shrank from publicity to a degree that is almost un- 
known today. Controversy was distasteful to him, 
and the dispute with the German scientist G. W. 
Leibnitz over the calculus (which the two men seem 
to have invented independently) was the exception to 
a rule deliberately adopted and closely adhered to. 
But when James II interfered illegally with the uni- 
versities, Newton took an active part in defending the 
University of Cambridge. Later he was elected to a 
seat in the Convention Parliament which seated Wil- 
liam and Mary on the throne in place of James II. 
His friend Charles Montague, chancellor of the 
exchequer, then appointed him to a position in the 
mint, in 1696, and in 1699 he was made its head. 

Now we may see our philosopher enjoying a modest 
yet ample fortune — “three lackeys to his coach and 
as many servants indoors.” A charming and devoted 
niece kept his estabfishment running smoothly, and 


his income permitted him to dispense his bounty 
generously to needy men of science and members ol 
his own family. In 1703 he was elected president of 
the Royal Society, “the highest honor in science to 
which an Englishman could aspire.” Knighthood 
at the hand of good Queen Anne followed in 1705, with 
the prefix “ Sir ” to his name. So peace and prosperity 
W’ere Newton’s lot until his death in 1727. His ashes 
lie today among the great in Westminster Abbey. 

A well-known story — which, however, is not cer- 
tainly true — tells how one day Newton’s bttle dug 
Diamond, while alone in his master’s study, over- 
turned a candle which set fire to the great scientist's 
papers, and destroyed the work of years. “Ah! 
Diamond, Diamond! Thou little knowest the mis- 
chief thou hast wrought!” is said to have been 
Newton’s only comment. 'WTiether true or not, 
the story illustrates the serenity of Newton’s temper. 
New YEAR’S DAY. When we celebrate the first 
day of the new year, we are following a custom that 
dates back to the very dawn of civilization; for nearly 
all peoples have observed a new year’s celebration, 
though the time has varied widely — sometimes as 
early as the autumnal equinox (about September 21), 
sometimes as late as Midsummer’s Day (June 22). 

If we could travel around the world on a mapc 
carpet and peep at the new year celebrations in the 
various countries, what a wonderful variety of cus- 
toms we should find 1 If you were in China you MS . 
think that the Chinese were celebrating all tnejr 
holidays for the year at once, for they close 
shops for several days while they make merry m 
fea.sts and fireworks and the general exchange o 
gifts and good wishes. In preparation every £ 
must have been paid, every house swept and clean , 
and each person furnished with holiday clothes an 
supply of preserved fruits, candies, and omamen 
packages of tea to give to his acquaintances 

The Japanese New Year festival is perhaps ev 
gayer. No matter how poor he may be, 
provides himself with shining neW clothes and a 
three days off from work to visit his friends or en 
tain them at his home. Every gatepost is uaMU 
with dark green pines and feathery light J 
boos, while over the doorways hang vivid red lo 
and crabs, and scarlet tangerine-like fruits, s) 
bob’ cal of long life and happiness. The stree s 
thronged with happy children playing ^uttledoie 
shuttlecock the whole day long, and everyone e 
with joy, bowing and wishing the compliments o 


season even to perfect strangers. . . 

Throughout the rest of the Orient, too, the ope 
of their New Year is celebrated with elabora e 
tivals that correspond to the Christmas 
of Western countries. In some European nations > 

especially France and Scotland, New Year s Uey 
more important holiday than Christmas. I 
were a French peasant child you might 
sabot (wooden shoe) on the hearth for a gift at 
mas, but grown-ups in France exchange gifts a 



New Year festival. They also have family parties and 
exchange visits. 

Scotland celebrates New Year’s Eve with a hearti- 
ness nowhere surpassed. The tradition that to be 
“first-foot” in a house brings luck for the whole year 
sends midnight revelers into the streets of Scottish 
cities on New Year’s Eve. Each one carries cakes and 
spiced ale to insure his host a bounteous year. 

Some cities have special customs. Leningrad (Rus- 
sia) once welcomed the new year with one hundred 
cannon shots fired at midnight. Some Scandinavian 
cities also welcome the new year with the noise of fire- 
arms; and the Yuletide celebration continues until 
Twelfth Night (12 days after Christmas), as in Italy. 

In America the observance of New Year’s Day is 
as varied as the character of the people. Each com- 


5 NEW YORK 

munity has New Year’s Eve “watch night” service in 
the churches, dancing and theater parties, and gay 
street revelers. New Year’s Day is a time for general 
entertaining and visiting. But people have dropped 
the old custom of keeping open house and making 
New Year’s calls. 

March 25 was the usual date for beginning the 
new year in most Christian countries in the Middle 
Ages, and England retained this date until 1751. 
In those countries which still use the Julian cal- 
endar New Year now comes on January 13 of our 
reckoning (see Calendar). The Jewish New Year, Rosh 
Hashana, is called the "feast of the trumpets.” It 
occurs in September or October and lasts 48 hours. 
The official Chinese New Year now coincides with 
that of the West. 


WEALTH and POWER of the “EMPIRE STATE” 








MMk 




The Hudson River Presents a Scenic View from Battle Monument at West Point 


|sT EW YORK. George Washington, traveling with 
Gov. George Clinton through New York, re- 
marked that this new state might become the “seat 
of empire.” AVhether the state’s popular name came 
from this comment is not known, but for many yearn 
New York has been called the “Empire State.” 

The state richly deseiwes this title. Although only 
29th among the states in area, New York State is first 
in population. It has nearly 15 million residents, 
about 10 per cent of all the people in the United 
States. It also ranks first among the states in manu- 
facturing, construction, and wholesale and retail trade. 

The People of New York 

New York is predominantly an urban state, with 
about four out of five of all its residents living in 
cities and towns. New York City alone has nearly 8 
million people, or about one-half of the state’s entire 


population. This city, together with the two Long 
Island counties of Nassau and Suffolk, and West- 
chester County to the city’s north, have about two 
thirds of all the people in New York State. 

The population upstate is about 5,500,000. These 
people reside in cities and towns chiefly along or near 
the Hudson River and the route of the Erie Division 
of the New York State Barge Canal. Those in rural 
areas cultivate farms located principally in river val- 
leys or gently rolling country. 

For many years New York City has been the chief 
gateway for immigrants entering the United States. 
As a result New York State has a much larger foreign- 
born population than any other state. Its older stock 
includes such names as the Dutch Van Rensselaers, 
Roosevelts, Schuylers, and Stuyx'esants, German 
Astors, English Clintons, Scottish Livingstons, and 



NEW YORK 


SCALE OF MII;ES 
O io’ 20 .30 40 so 


THE VAST FUNNEL FROM LAKES TO OCEAN 

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French De Lanceys. Old fam- T,**® shape and location of 
•iv j . '^. . , New York state help explain 

llies and new immigrants have its leading rank in the nation. 

worked together to make New hi'le^unLi! ^ith^fts mouth 
York a great state. toward the north and the 

° west, and its spout dipping 

How Location, and into the Atlantic Ocean at 

Transportation Helped thrfuSef, ra“^iadI.‘^Wgl- 

New York State may be com- ""ays, and waterways carry 
pared to a gigantic tilted fun- goodsfSuded^ep?oducts 
nel. The spout is New York ‘go“ds,‘and «l‘’o’wn‘ou"tpu?.'‘ 
City and its surrounding area. 

To the northward, the spout gradually widens between 
Connecticut on the east and New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
vania on the southwest. The funnel then broadens 
tremendously. The east side borders on Massachu- 
setts, Vermont, and Lake Champlain; the south side 
is Pennsylvania’s northern boundary. The mouth of 
the funnel, from northeast to southwest, is bounded 
by the St. Lawrence River, Lake Ontario, the Niagara 
PLiver, and Lake Erie. 

The foundation of New York’s prosperity was the 
Hudson River and the route along which the Erie 
Canal was built. As early as 1609 the English ex- 
plorer, Henry Hudson, discovered that the river later 
named for him was navigable for 150 miles. In the 
Half Moon he sailed up the river to a point above 
the site of the present city of Albany, where the 
Mohawk River enters the Hudson. 

Several waterfalls along its course made the Mo- 
hawk unnavigable. But its valley lay in a low gap 
across the Appalachian highlands and connected over 
a flat divide with an easily traveled route to the 
eastern end of Lake Erie. From there the Great Lakes 
gave access to the vast heart of the continent. 

Throughout colonial times, the warlike Iroquois 
Indians held the region and were hostile to the col- 


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onists. But this obstacle was overcome when the Fed- 
eral government was formed, and New York then 
sessed the best route between the Atlantic and the 
interior. Along this route the people of New Yoa 
developed the Hudson River-Erie Canal watemny. 
Later they built great liighways and main-line rail- 
roads to the West. Cities and farming areas sprang 
up to take advantage of the transportation facilities. 

Today about 80 per cent of the residents of i eir 
York State live in the counties crossed by or bor er 
ing on the Erie Canal-Hudson River route, 
the five counties making up New York City. 0 ^ 
counties with sizable populations are on Long Islan . 
on or near the Pennsjdvania border, and along eas cr 
Lake Ontario and the St. Law'rence River. 

In 1782 New York withdrew its claim to land 
of the Alleghenies and gave it to the Federal 
ment. But as the nation grew. New York lost a 
by its act, because the rich states formed fro® 
territory produced a brisk trade that contribu 
greatly to the Empire State’s prosperity. 

Natural Beauty of the State 
New York State is noted for its beautiful 
tains, lakes, and rivers. These scenic areas 
formed during the Ice Age, when all the state 

Continued on 



New York Fact Summary 


NEW YORK (N.Y.): Named for Duke 
of York, later James II of Eng- 
land. “York” derived from Middle 
English Everwik, also Yerk. 
Nickname: “Empire State,” from its 
great size and wealth, its important 
geographic position, and its variety 
of peoples. 

seal: Sun rising behind mountains, ship and sloop on 
Hudson River; all upon shield held by Liberty and 
Justice; spreading eagle above shield, motto below. 

^ollo: Excelsior (Ever Upward). 

-lag: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

^lower (imofficial): Rose. Bird (unofficial): Bluebird. 
Tree (unofficial): Sugar maple. Song: None official. 

fHE GOVERNMENT 

Zapital: Albany (since 1797). 

lepreseniation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 43. Elec- 
toral votes, 45. 

State Legislature: Senators, 56; term, 

2 years. Assemblymen, 150; term, 

2 years. Convenes Wednesday after 
first Monday in January every 
year. No limit to regular or special session. 

Constitution: Adopted 1894. Proposed amendment must 
be (a) passed by majority vote of legislature at 2 
sessions (2d session following general election) and 
(b) ratified by a majority voting on amendment at a 
popular election. 

Governor: Term 4 years. May succeed himself. 

Other Executive Officers: Lieutenant governor, attorney 
general, comptroller, all elected; terms, 4 years. Sec- 
retary of state appointed by governor (with senate 
approval); term, same as governor. 

Judiciary: Court of appeals — 7 judges, elected at large; 
term, 14 years. Supreme court — 10 districts; justices 
elected; term, 14 years. County courts — 1 in each 
county, except Greater New York; judges elected ; term, 
6 years; in courts of Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens, 
Richmond counties, judges elected; term, 14 years. 

Counfy: 62 counties; government by board of supervisors, 
county-manager, or county-executive form. 

Municipal: Mayor and council most common; some cities 
have commission or council-manager forms. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 1 year; 
in county, 4 months; in district, 30 days. Literacy test 
required for first voting only. 



transportation and communication 

Transportation: Railroads, 7,500 miles. First railroad, 
Mohawk and Hudson (Albany to Schenectady), 1831. 
Rural roads, 79,500 miles. Airports, 243. 
Communication: Periodicals, 1,799. Newspapers, 705. 
First newspaper, the Gazelle, New York City, 1725. 
Radio stations (AM and FM), 145; first station, WJX, 
New York City, licensed Oct. 13, 1921. Television 
stations, 17; first stations, WNBT and WCBS-TV 
(as WCBW), New York City, both began operation 
July 1, 1941 . Telephones, 6,499,100. Post offices, 1,905. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 14,830,192 (rank among 48 
states — 1st); urban, 85.5%; rural, 14.5%. Density: 
309.3 persons per square mile (rank — 5th state). 

Extent: Area, 49,576 square mUes, including 1,632 square 
miles of water surface (29th state in size; 26th if 
Great Lakes area of 3,627 square miles is added). 

Elevation: Highest, Mount Marcy, 5,344 feet, near Keene 
Valley; lowest, sea level. 

Temperature (°F.): Average — annual, 47°; winter, 24°; 
spring, 44°; summer, 68°; fall, 50°. Lowest recorded, 
—52° (Stillwater Reservoir, Herkimer County, Feb. 9, 
1934); highest recorded, 108° (Troy, July 22, 1926). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 39; winter, 8; 
spring, 10; summer, 11; fall, 10. Varies from about 28 
in n.e. and n.w. corners to about 48 in s.e. 

Natural Features: HiUy countryside; Adirondack Moun- 
tains in north, Catskills in south. Lake Champlain 
forms part of border on east; Erie and Ontario on 
northwest. Interior lakes: Canandaigua, Cayuga, 
Chautauqua, George, Oneida, Seneca. Principal rivers: 
Hudson, Mohawk; Niagara and St. Lawrence form 
parts of boundaries on the west and northwest. 

Land Use: Cropland, 23%; nonforested pasture, 15%; 
forest, 36%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, waste- 
land, cities, etc.), 26%. 


CROPS PASTURE FOREST OTHER 



Natural Resources: Agricullural — fertile soil for dairying, 
fruit growing, truck crops and general farming. Jn- 
dusirial— sites for manufacturing cities; water power; 
iron ore, stone, sand and gravel, petroleum. Com- 
mercial — geographic position; New York City harbor. 


OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 
What the People Do to Earn o Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Emploj'ed 

Manufacturing 

1,773,867 

29.7 

Wholesale and retail trade 

Professional services (medical, legal. 

1,240,961 

20.9 

educational, etc.) 

Transportation, communication, 

566,650 

9.5 

and other public utilities 

Personal services (hotel, domestic. 

522,237 

8.8 

laundering, etc.) 

387,106 

6.5 

Finance, insurance, and real estate. 

336,789 

5.7 

Construction 

310,355 

5.2 

Government 

270,532 

4.6 

Business and repair services 

179,631 

3.0 

Agriculture, forestry, and fishery. . 
Amusement, recreation, and related 

176,148 

3.0 

services 

76,315 

1.3 

Mining 

9,455 

0.2 

Workers not accounted for 

94,215 

1.6 

Total employed 

5,944,261 

100.0 




197 





New York Fact Summary 



Wha^ the People Produce 


A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 1st) 
Value added bj"- manufacture* (1952), 813,101,875,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Apparel and Rel.ated Products 
W omen’s and misses’ outerwear; 
men’s and boys’ suits and coats; 
women’s, children’s underwear 

82,009,113,000 

1 

Printing .and Publishing 

Periodicals; newspapers; commer- 
cial printing; books 

1,127,727,000 

1 

Food and Kin-dred Products .... 
Bakery' goods; beverages; grain- 
miU products; confectioneries 

977,329,000 

2 

Machinery (except Electrical) 
Industrial machinery; office, serv- 
ice, and household machines 

678,701,000 

4 

Chemicals and Allied Products 
I ndustrial chemicals; drugs, soap 

596,038,000 

2 


•For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 13th) 
Total cash income (1952), 8947,325,000 


Products 

Amount Produced 
(10-Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

Statesf 

Milk 

3,688,000,000 qts. 

1 

3 

Hay' 

5,864,000 tons 

2 

3 

Eggs 

174,000,000 doz. 

3 

10 

Truck crops 

1,146,000 tons 

4 

2 

Cattle 

353,633,000 lbs. 

5 

18 

Potatoes 

32.145,000 bu. 

6 

4 

Corn 

24.787,000 bu. 

7 

25 


♦Rank in dollar value tRank in units produced 



C. Fish (Rank among states — 7th) 


(Marine waters and coastal rivers, 1950), catch, 
142,341,000 lbs.— value, 815,502,000; (Great Lakes, 
1950), catch, 574,000 lbs. — value, 8123,000 
D. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 

Annual value (1951), 8188,256,000 
Rank among states — 17th 


Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced 

Value 


3.650.000 tons 

13.863.000 bbls. 

15.559.000 tons 

21.009.000 tons 

4.254.000 bbls. 

3.519.000 tons 

839,819,000 

34.687.000 

24.326.000 

19.285.000 

17.990.000 

16.553.000 



Sand and gravel. . 

Salt, common.... 


E. Trade 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 


843,560,734,000 

1 


14,626,526,000 

1 

Serx-ice 

2,354,160,000 

1 


PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Albany— Capitol; state bldgs.; Philip Schuyler Manaoi 
of Revolutionary War general (1762) (see Albany) (39). 
Ausable Chasm — Rainbow Falls at end of rocky gorge (2). 
Bennington Battlefield — near Hoosick Falls; park noirai 
site of Revolutionary War battle of Aug. 16, 1777 (27). 
Bowne House — built at Plushing (N. Y. C.) in 1655; Quak- 
er House dedicated to the freedom of worship (56). 
Buffalo — monument to President McKinley in Niagara 
Square; Peace Bridge to Canada (see Buffalo) (14). 
Cooperstown — ^James Fenimore Cooper’s grave; Hall 
of Life Masks; Baseball’s Hall of Fame (37). 
Corning — Glass Center contains original imperfect 200- 
inch disk made for Mt. Palomar (Calif.) telescope (31). 
Forest Hills — home of International Tennis Matches (56). 
Fort Crailo — old fort in Rensselaer (1642); here Britkli 
army surgeon supposedly wrote “Yankee Doodle” (40). 
Fort Ticonderoga — historic colonial fort (1755) (6). 
Fort William Henry — at Lake George; restored French 
and Indian War fort (1755); northeast of (25). 
Guy Park — Amsterdam home of Guy' Johnson, Indian 
agent; now Indian and colonial museum (24). 
Herkimer Home — near Fort Plain; homestead of Gen, 
Nicholas Herkimer, Revolutionary War leader (22). 
Home, Sweet Home — East Hampton birthplace of Jota 
Howard Payne, writer of song of the same name (60). 
Howe Caverns — series of underground caves (3S). 
Hyde Park — home of Pres. F. D. Roosevelt and 
bilt Mansion (1898), both national historic site (» • 
Ithaca — Renwick Wildwood, bird haven; Cornell U. (3 )■ 
John Burroughs’ “Ancestral Home" — at Roxbury, 
home of the great American naturalist (41). 
Johnson Hall — scene of Indian councils; Johnstown ( 4 ■ 
Kingston — first state capitol (1777), now a museum ( )• 
Lake Placid — winter-summer sports area in Adironoac , 
nearby is John Brown’s Farm and Grave (5). 
Mormon Monument— nr. Palmyra; where Joseph 
dug up gold plates, somce for Book of 
Newburgh — Hasbrouck House, George Washmg “ 
headquarters, 1782-83; historic relics (48). , 

New York City — Radio City', Empire State aM 
Nations buildings, Lever House, Federal Bu ■ 
morial Natl. Historic Site, Castle Clinton und a a 
Liberty national monuments (see New York Li y ) 
Niagara Falls — famous falls (see Niagara Falls) • 
Old Stone Fort- Revolutionary War fort; museum W- 

Oyster Bay— Pres. T. Roosevelt’s grave and home, ^ s 

more Hill"; Roosevelt Memorial Park on shore 
Philipse Manor HaU— Yonkers; contains colonmi 
ture and paintings of the U.S. presidents ( )- . 

Remington Art Memorial — Ogdensburg; P®’”.*, 
Frederic Remington and other noted artists ( )• 
Rochester — many fine museums (see Rochester) 
SagHarbor — whalingport of 1800’s ; ^haling muse 
Saint Paul’s Church Natl. Historic Site — Moun 
associated w'ith Zenger’s freedom of the press ‘ 
Saranac Lake — pleasant resort city; Memoria 

where Robert Louis Stevenson lived 188^88 I - ^ 

Saratoga Springs — great spa (see Saratoga “P*^* f Minof 
Steuben Memorial Park — ^near Remsen; replica o 
Baron von Steuben, drillmaster of the Revo u^ ^ 
Sy'racuse — museum (salt industry') (see „ (53). 

Tarrytown — made famous by' Washington Irv ' 
Walt Whitman Birthplace — cottage nr. m 9). 

West Point — U.S. Military Academy on the HU . 
White Plains National Battlefield Site Revo 
War battle fought here in 1776 (53). 

^Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


New York Fact Summary 



P E;N"H 


STATE PARKS AND RESERVATIONS*! 

Allegany Region— in southwestern part of state. 

Allegany Park — ^hiking and ski trails, wooded areas (29). 
Lake Erie Park — excellent sandy beach (28). 

Central New York Region — extending from north to 
south across the middle of the state. 

Battle Island Park — features 18-hole golf course (12). 
Chenango Valley Park — variety of recreation (35). 
Gilbert Lake Park — ^lying high in Laurens Hills (36). 
Green Lakes Park — clear, blue-green lakes (19). 

Selkirk Shores Park — several camping units (8). 

Verona Beach Park — bathing beach on Oneida L. (20). 
Finger Lakes Region — surrounds six lakes, Canan- 
daigua, Cayuga, Keuka, Owasco, Seneca, Skaneateles. 
Cayuga Lake Park — sandy beach, shelter pavilion (17). 
Fair Haven Beach Park — camp sites, beach (11). 
Taughannoek Falls Park — 215-ft. falls (33). 

Watkins Glen Park — 200-ft. cliffs tower above stream 
which cascades over 19 waterfalls (32). 

Genesee Region — comprising Genesee Valley and touch- 
ing the shores of Lake Ontario. 

Hamlin Beach Park — bathing beach on L. Ontario (10). 
Lelchworth Park — Genesee R. gorge known as “Grand 
Canyon of East”; museum of Indian history (30). 
Long Island Region — stretching n.e. into the Atlantic. 
Jones Beach Park — 2-mile-long ocean beach; features 
boardwalks, refreshment pavilions, bathhouses (57). 
Other parks in this region are Belmont Lake (58); 
Bethpage (58); Fire Island (59); Heckscher (59); 
^Hither Hills (61); Sunken Meadow (58). 
NiagaraFrontier Region — extending along Niagara River, 
the boundary between United States and Canada. 
Beaver Island Park — ^beach, lighted boardwalk (13). 
Fort Niagara Park — old French fort (1725) (9). 
Niagara Reservation — magnificent falls; scenic drives 
through wooded Goat Island; thrilling Cave-of-the- 
Winds trip up to the emtain of the falls’ spray (13). 

Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 

Tl here are 83 state parks and reservations in Kew York; 40 are given 
here. 


Whirl-pool Park — on point commanding breathtaking 
view of Niagara Canyon and powerful eddy below (9). 
Palisades Region — known as Palisades Interstate Park, 
along west bank of Hudson River in New Jersey and 
up into New York. 

Bear Mountain Park — well-equipped winter-summer 
sports area; 5 museums along nature trail (51). 
Harriman Section — 35 lakes, large game preserve (51). 
Tollman Mountain Park — variety of recreation (52). 
Taconic Region — extends along east banks of Hudson R. 
Ogden Mills and Ruth Livingston Mills Memorial Park 
— old home completely furnished, now a museum (45). 
Other outstanding parks in the region are Baird (47); 
Fahnestock (50); Lake Taghkanic (42); Norrie (45). 
Thousand Islands Region — along L. Ontario and St. 
LawTence R. includes 13 parks — bathing, boating (3). 

NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK* 

Saratoga — 2,208 acres; site of British General Burgojme’s 
defeat by American General Gates on Oct. 17, 1777, 
date of the turning point of the Revolution (26). 

STATE FORESTS* 

Forest Preserves — Adirondack, 2,186,175 acres (7); Cats- 
kill, 234,414 acres (43); recreational forest parks. 

State Forests! — scattered throughout southern part of 
state and throughout Black River and St. Lawrence 
watersheds; units total 550,427 acres. 

JThe state forest units arc scattered so are not located on the map. 


199 



New York Fact Summary 


EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 4,197; sec- 
ondary, 992. Compulsory school age, 

7 through 15. The University of the 
State of New York, a comprehensive 
educational organization, supervises 
all schools, institutions, and libraries 
incorporated within the state. The 
Board of Regents of the University, 
composed of 13 members elected by joint ballot of the 
2 houses of legislature, acts as legislative policy maker 
of State Department of Education. State commissioner 
of education, appointed by state regents, is executive 
director of state education department. Common 
school districts elect 1 to 3 trustees who serve 1 to 3 
years. City, village, union free, and central rural 
boards elected except in cities where appointed by 
mayor. City and village supts. appointed by boards. 

Private and Parochial Schools: 1,450. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges, 94; 
junior colleges, 19; community colleges, 10. 

State-supported schools include the Veterinary Col- 
lege, College of Agriculture, College of Home Eco- 
nomics, and School of Industrial and Labor Relations, 
at Cornell Univ., Ithaca; College of Forestry and 
College of Medicine at Syracuse Univ., Syracuse; Col- 
lege of Ceramics, at Alfred Univ., Alfred; Maritime 
College, Fort Schuyler; College of Medicine, N.Y.C.; 
Harpur College, Endicott; 11 state teachers colleges; 
6 state agricultural and technical institutes. 

These state-supported higher institutions comprise 
the State University of New York, governed by a 
board of 16 trustees, appointed by the governor with 
the approval of the senate. 

Special State Schools: For the blind — N. Y. State 
School, Batavia; Lavelle School and N. Y. Institute, 
both in New York City. For the deaf — Lexington 
School and St. Joseph’s School in New York City; St. 
Mary’s School, Buffalo; School for the Deaf, Rochester; 
Central N. Y. School, Rome; N. Y. School for the 
Deaf, White Plains. For Indians — 6 schools in state. 

Libraries: City, village, school district, and town reg- 
istered public libraries, including branches, 849; county 
library systems, 5 (serving 9 counties); 1 regional 
library service center serves 3 counties. State Educa- 
tion Department responsible for aid in developing 
library service. Public library service headed by state 
librarian and director of Library Extension Division. 
School library supervision is under Division of Ele- 
mentary and Secondary Education. 

Noted special libraries; Grosvenor Library, Buffalo; 
American Merchant Marine Library Assn., Pierpont 
Morgan Library, New York Historical Society, New 
York Society Library, New York City Library (Refer- 
ence Department), all in New York City. 

Outstanding Museums: New York State Museum, Al- 
bany; Albright Art Gallery, Buffalo; American Muse- 
um of Natural History, Brooklyn Institute of Arts and 
Sciences, The Frick Collection, Metropolitan Museum 
of Art, Museum of the City of New York, Museum of 
Modern Art, New York Zoological Park, Whitney Mu- 
seum of American Art, New York Historical Society, 
and Federal Hall Memorial, all in New York City; 
Museum of Arts and Sciences and George Eastman 
House Museum of Photography, both in Rochester; 
Fenimore House and Farmers Museum, Coopers- 
town; Fort Ticonderoga Museum, Ticonderoga; Fort 
William Henry, Lake George. 



CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

Elmira Reformatory and Reception Center (for boys), 
both at Elmira; Westfield State Farm (reformatory for 
women) and Westfield State Farm (prison for women), 
both at Bedford Hills; New York State Vocational In- 
stitution (for boys). West Coxsackie; Woodburne Cor- 
rectional Institution, Woodburne; 2 state hospitals 
for the criminal insane at Dannemora and Beacon 
(Matteawan, State Hospital); 2 state institutions lor 
defective delinquents — Albion State Training School 
(for women), Albion, and Institution for Male Defective 
Delinquents, Napanoch; 7 state prisons— at Attica, 
Auburn, Dannemora (Clinton Prison), Comstock 
(Great Meadow Prison), Green Haven, Ossining {Sing 
Sing Prison), and Wallkill. 


LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

New York City (7,891,957): Boroughs: Kings (Brook- 
lyn) (2,738,175); Manhattan (1,960,101); Queens 
(1,550,849); Bronx (1,451,277); Richmond (191,555). 
First city in the United States in population, world 
commerce, wholesale and retail trade, and manufac- 
turing; clothing, printing and publishing, chemicab, 
and cosmetics. , . 

Buffalo (580,132): Great Lakes port on Lake Erie;* 
mills and grain elevators; steelworks and rollmg 
Rochester (332,488): Lake Ontario port; manu actmes, 
cameras, optical goods, precision instruments, clo mg. 
Syracuse (220,583): manufacturing center; typewiW, 
air-conditioning, electronic, and electrical equip* ■ 
Yonkers (152,798) : residential suburb of N.Y.O.; texuies, 
machinery, needlework, metal products. 

Albany (134,995): state capital; inland port on tiua-o 
River; paper products; meat packing; locomo i • 
Utica (101,531): Mohawk Valley milling center; coho 
and rayon textiles; knit goods; tools and nrear • 
Schenectady (91,785): "electrical city”; electrical^ 
nets, research laboratories; diesel, steam loco 

Niagara Falls (90,872) : large tourist business; fall k 

ply power for paper, aircraft, graphite, chemica P 
Binghamton (80,674): photographic supplies, a 
training equipment, shoes, furniture. „„Tii,d- 

Troy (72,311) : N. Y. State Barge Canal <*™mus on M 
son River; industrial city; men’s clothmg, a ^ 
Mount Vernon (71,899): residential suburb oi 
petroleum distribution; electrical devices, g 

New Rochelle (59,725) : wealthy residential sunu ^ 

Elmira (49,716) : dairy, industrial center; tpes. 

Jamestown (43,354): furniture, metal produevs, 

THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1524 — Giovanni da Verrazano, Flor- 
entine navigator in French hire, 
may have sailed along New 
York coast and into Hudson B. 

1609— Samuel de Champlain, French 
explorer from Quebec, enters 
what is now New York State 
near lake now named for him. 



XI IttKe UUW * . 

Henry Hudson, sailing for Dutch in 


the Kaf/ 


613- 


Moon, explores river now bearing his 
-Adriaen Block, Dutch explorer, esta , 

post on Manhattan Island; builds h or , 

614-Dutch build Fort Nassau on Cast e ism 

Van Rensselaer Island) south of Albany- ^ 
stroyed by flood, 1617; Fort pj. given 

521— Dutch West India Company •’ a. 

right to trade and plant colonies in 


200 


New York Fact Summary 


1 624 — ^About 30 families of Dutch and Walloons (French 
Protestant refugees) come to New Netherland, 
form first permanent Dutch settlement in North 
America at Fort Orange. 

1625 — Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam established 
on Manhattan Island. 

1626— Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island from In- 
dians for about S24 worth of trinkets. 

1629— Dutch West India Company establishes patroon 
system (granting of estates to individuals) to 
encourage settlement of New Netherland. 

1630 — Patroonship of Rensselaerswyck established at 
Fort Orange; lasts into 19th century. 

1638 — Dutch establish first school in region at New 
Amsterdam. 

1640 — English settlers found Southold and Southampton. 

1647 — Peter Stuyvesant arrives in New Amsterdam May 
11 to become director general of New Netherland. 

1653 — New Amsterdam granted burgher (borough) gov- 
ernment; is earliest city government in U. S. 

1662 — Royal charter by king of England gives Connecti- 
cut colony rights to territorj' north of line running 
west from Long Island; precipitates long border 
dispute; settled by adjudication, 1826. 

1664 — ^English capture New Netherland; Charles II gives 
colony to duke of York; city and colony renamed 
New York; Beverwyck renamed Albany; Dutch 
settlers retain their lands and many privileges. 

1673 — ^Dutch temporarily recapture colony during war 
with England; colony restored to English by 
Treaty of Westminster, 1674. 

1678 — ^Ren6 Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, builds 
storehouse at Niagara. 

1681 — ^Pennsylvania section of Province of New York 
granted to William Penn. 

1683 — New York divided into 12 counties. Representa- 
tives of colony draw up Charter of Liberties and 
Privileges granting freedom of religion to Chris- 
tians and giving all freeholders right to vote. 

1686 — Colonial Governor Dongan grants New York City 
and Albany city charters, July 22. 

1689 — Jacob Leisler, a German immigrant, leads insur- 
rection against England; he surrenders and is 
hanged for treason, 1691. 

1690 — French and Indians destroy Schenectady in King 
William’s War. 

1693 — ^William Bradford sets up first printing press in 
the colony at New York City. 

1725 — William Bradford publishes the Gazette at New 
York City, first newspaper in the colony. 

1726 — French build fort at Niagara; build fort at Crown 
Point, 1731. 

1735 — ^John Peter Zenger, printer of New York Weekly 
J ournal, acquitted of libel charge in opposing the 
governor; decision promotes freedom of the press. 

1741 — King grants Vermont to governor of New Hamp*- 
shire, precipitating long dispute over status of area. 

1754 — Albany Congress of provincial representatives 
called by British government to make treaty with 
Indians and to secure their support in war against 
France. King’s College chartered by George II; 
reopened, 1784, as Columbia University. 

1755 — British fail to captme French forts at Niagara and 
Crown Point in French and Indian War. 

1756 — French capture Oswego and Fort Stanwnx at site 
of Rome. 

1757 — French capture Fort William Henry on Lake 
George; Indians harass frontier settlements. 


1759 — British capture aU French posts in New York. 

1760 — ^French surrender at Montreal and Indian treaty 
at Detroit, 1761, mark end of French and Indian 
wars in New York. 

1765— Colonial Congress (Stamp Act Congress) meets in 
New York. Sons of Liberty organized. 

1768 — Sir Wilham Johnson negotiates treaty with Iro- 
quois at Fort Stanwix; they become British allies. 

1770 — Sons of Liberty clash with British troops in battle 
of Golden Hill in New York City. New York 
Supreme Court claims Vermont as possession of 
New York; Vermonters rebel against New York 
authorities, fighting them imtil 1775; Vermont 
sets itself up as separate state, 1777. 

1775 — Ethan Allen captures Fort Ticonderoga from the 
British, May 10; Seth Warner captures Crown 
Point, May 11. 

1776 — Provincial Congress of New York approves Decla- 
ration of Independence, July 9. British defeat 
Americans at battle of Valcour Island, October 11, 
gaining control of Lake Champlain; Howe drives 
Washington from Long Island and Manhattan; 
captures Fort Washington after battle of White 
Plains, October 28. Nathan Hale captured by 
British on Long Island, hanged as a spy. 

1777 — First state constitution adopted at Kingston, 
April 20; George Clinton, first governor, July 30; 
first House of Assembly meets at Kingston, Sep- 
tember 10. British plan to seize New York State 
thwarted by American defense of Fort Stanwix 
(Schuyler) and Oriskany; Burgoyne captures 
Ticonderoga, July 6, but is cut off and surrenders 
at Saratoga, October 17; Sir Henry Clinton de- 
stroys Kingston but retreats after Burgoyne’s 
surrender. 

1778 — New York signs Articles of Confederation, Feb- 
ruary 6. 

1781 — ^Defeat of British, Loyalists, and Indians at battle 
of Johnstown, October 25 marks end of Revolu- 
tionary War in New York; Washington makes his 
headquarters at Newburgh. 

1783 — British evacuate New York City. 

1784 — Bank of New York established. University of 
State of New York established to supervise institu- 
tions of higher education within state under Board 
of Regents. 

1786 — By Hartford Treaty, Massachusetts receives right 
of first purchase from Indians (pre-emptions) of 
lands in western New York. New York, however, 
wins jurisdiction over region. 

1788 — ^New York is 11th state to ratify U. S. Constitu- 
tion, July 26; document is ratified despite opposi- 
tion of many of state’s citizens. 

1789 — Washington takes presidential oath in New York 
City, then capital of United States; capital moved 
to Philadelphia, 1790. Tammany Society formed. 
New York and Pennsylvania accept 42d parallel 
as their common boundary west of Delaware 
River. Military Tract east of Seneca Lake 
assigned for settlement to Revolutionary War 
veterans. 

1790 — Duncan Phyfe opens his famous cabinetmaking 
shop in New York City. 

1791 — State buys land in Delaware, Susquehanna, and 
Champlain valleys in the Macomb Purchase; re- 
sells land to settlers. 

1792 — Stock brokers of New York City agree to form 
New York Stock Exchange. 


201 



New York Fact Summary 


1797 — State capital moved, New York City to Albany. 

1801 — State public-school system organized. 

1 802 — U. S. Military Academy opened at West Point. 

1805 — Albany-Schenectady Turnpike completed. 

1806 — First orphan’s home in U. S. opened in New York 
City. 

1 807 — Robert Fulton’s steamboat, Clermont, makes first 
trip. New York to Albany; time: 32 hours. John 
Brinckerhoff builds nail factory at Troy. 

1812 — Americans fight British along New York-Cana- 
dian border in War of 1812; British burn Lewiston, 
Black Rock, and Buffalo, 1813; British turned 
back after defeat on Lake Champlain, 1814. 

1816 — Bellevue Hospital, one of oldest hospitals in U. S. 
opened in New York City. 

1817 — Building of Erie Canal starts; completed, 1825; 
funnels trade with Great Lakes and the West 
through New York rather than New England. 

1826 — Cotton mill at Troy is first in state to produce 
finished cotton goods. First railroad in state, 
Mohawk and Hudson, is chartered; begins run- 
ning between Albany and Schenectady, 1831. 

1827 — New York abolishes slavery. 

1 836 — Long Island Railroad begins operations. 

1837 — Martin Van Buren, born 1782 at IHnderhook, 
becomes 8th president of U. S. 

1 839 — Abner Doubleday, tradition says, invents baseball 
at Cooperstown. Antirent agitation breaks out; 
farmers protest payments to landlords under 
leasehold system; such rents prohibited after 1846. 

1848 — First convention of leaders of American woman 
suffrage movement held at Seneca Falls. 

1850 — Millard Fillmore, born 1800 in Cayuga Co., 
become 13th president of U.S. 

1 853 — New York Central Railroad Company chartered. 

1 858 — First cablegram received in New York City from 
London. 

1 859 — Peter Cooper establishes Cooper Union to provide 
free schooling for working men and women. 

1 863 — Riots in New York City against draft cause tem- 
porary suspension of draft. 

1874 — First summer class held at Lake Chautauqua in 
beginning of Chautauqua Movement. Compulsory 
education law enacted. 

1879 — First hydroelectric plant built at Niagara Falls. 

1883 — Metropolitan Opera opened in New York City. 
Brooklyn Bridge completed. 

1884 — State Dairy Commission organized; becomes De- 
partment of Agriculture, 1893. 

1886 — Statue of Liberty, gift of France, dedicated on 
Bedloe’s Island in New York Harbor. 

1 892 — EUis Island becomes main U.S. immigration center. 


1894 — Present state constitution adopted, 

1898 — Charter of Greater New York goes into effect, 
forming present New York City. 

1900 — Construction of New York subway begins, 

1 901 — President William McKinley assassinated at Pan- 
American Exposition at Buffalo; Theodore Roose- 
velt, born 1858 in New York City, succeeds him; 
is 26th president of U.S. 

1913 — ^Woolworth Building, then highest building in 
world, is completed in New York City. 

1918 — New York Barge Canal opened. 

1921 — ^The Port of New York Authority established bv 
treaty between New York and New Jersey. 

1 922 — Radio station WEAF in New York City is first 
radio station to have commercial sponsorship oi 
programs. State establishes children’s courts. 

1927 — State government reorganized. Holland Tunnel 
opened between New York City and New Jersey. 

1931 — Empire State Building completed, highest in 
world. George Washington Bridge opened. 

1 932 — Winter Olympic Games held at Lake Placid. 

1933 — Franklin D. Roosevelt, born 1882 near Hyae 
Park, becomes 32d president of United States, 

1936 — Triborough Bridge completed. 

1 939— La Guardia Field, New York City’s airport, opens. 


New York World’s Fair opens. 

1 945 — Ives-Quinn Anti-Discrimination Bill becomes law. 

1946— United Nations meets at Lake Success, its tem- 
porary headquarters. John D Rockefeller, r.i 
gives land in New York City to United 

for permanent site; buildings completed, 19oZ. 

1947— James V. Forrestal, born at Beacon, becomes lirsi 

U.S. secretary of defense. . 

1948 — Idlewild International Airport opens. 

and racial discrimination in admission to 
York colleges banned. . 

1950— New York City threatened by drought, expen- 
ments in artificial rainmaking. Nuclear reac 
of Brookhaven National Laboratory, at Up o 

Long Island, begins operation. 

1952 — Record state budget passed, over 1 bilhon 
Keel laid for 60,000-ton Saratoga, sister smp 
supercarrier Forrestal, in Brooklyn Niwy 

1953— President Eisenhower authorizes New ItorK o 

Power Authority as U. S. agent in St. J; ^ 
power project with Canada. New York i j 
brates its 300th anniversary. „„iple(l. 

1954 — Sections of New York State Thruway co P 
Congress authorizes United States to join 

in St. Lawrence Seaway navigation P ^ 
Niagara Remedial Works Project tor 
at falls, begun. 


COUNTIES 
Albany 239,386 
. Allegany 43,784 
Bronx 1,451,277 
Broome 184,698 
Cattaraugus 

77,901 
Cayuga 70,136 
Chautauqua 

135,189 
Chemung 86,827 
- Chenango 39,138 
Clinton 53,622 
Columbia 43,182 


INDEX TO THE MAP OF NEW YORK 



Cortland 

37,158 

H 5 

Livingston 40,257 

E 5 

Oswego 

77,181 

H 4 

M 5 

Delaware 

44,420 

K 6 

Madison 

46,214 

J 5 

Otsego 

50,763 

K 5 

D 6 

Dutchess 

136,781 

N 7 

1 Monroe 

487,632 

E 4 

Putnam 

20,307 

D 1 

C 2 

Erie 

899,238 

C 5 

1 Montgomery 


Queens 1,550,849 

D 2 

J 6 

Essex 

35,086 

N 2 


59,594 

M 5 

Rensselaer 132,607 

O 5 


Franklin 

44,830 

M 1 

Nassau 

672,765 

D 2 

Richmond 191,555 

O 3 

C 6 

Fulton 

51,021 

M 4 

New York 


Rockland 

89,276 

C 1 

G 4 

Genesee 

47,584 

D 4 


1,960,101 

02 

Saint -Lawrence 



Greene 

28,745 

M 6 

Niagara 

189,992 

04 


98,897 

K2 

B 6 

Hamilton 

4,105 

L 3 

Oneida 

222,855 

J4 

Saratoga 

74,869 

N 4 

G 6 

Herkimer 

61,407 

L4 

1 Onondaga 341,719 

H 5 

Schenectady 


J 6 

Jefferson 

85,521 

J 2 

Ontario 

60,172 

P 5 


142,497 

M 5 

N 1 

IGngs 2,738,175 

C 3 

Orange 

152,255 

C 1 

Schoharie 

22,703 

M 5 

N 6 

1 Lewis 

22,521 

K 3 

Orleans 

29,832 

D 4 

Schuyler 

14,182 

G 6 


202 


CITIES AND TOWNS 


Accord 
Adams 

Adams Center 
Addison 
Adirondack 
Alton 
Akron 
ALBANY 
Albion 
Alden 
Alder Creek 
Alexander 
Alexandria Bay 
Allred 
Allegany 
Allentown 
Almond 
Alpine 
Altamont 
Altmar 
Alton 
Altona 
Amagansett 
Amber 
Amenla 
Ames 
Amityville 
Amsterdam 
An cram 
Andes 
Andover 
Angelica 
Angola 

Annandale-on- 
Hudson 
Antwerp 
Apalachln 
Appleton 
Apulia Station 
Arcade 
Ardsley 
Argyle 
Arkport 
Arkvllle 
Arlington 
Asharoken 
Ashland 
Ashokan 
Ashwood 
Athens 
Athol 
Atlanta 
Atlantic Beach 
Attica 

Au Sable Forks 

Auburn 

Aurora 

Averill Park 

Avoca 

Avon 

Babylon 

Bainbridge 

Baldwin 

Baldwlnsvllle 

Baliston Spa 

Bangor 

Barker 

Barnes Comers 

Bamcveld 

Barre Center 

Barryville 

Basom 

Batavia 

Bath 

Baxter Estates 

Bay Shore 

Bayport 

Bayvllle 

Beach Ridge 

Beacon 

Beaver Dams 

Beaver Falls 

Beaver River 

Bedlord Hills 

Bellast 

Belle Terre 

Bellerose 

Belleville 

Bellmore 

Bel4)ort 

Belmont 

Bemus Point 

Benson Mines 

Bergen 

Berkslilre 

Berlin 

Berne 

Bernhards Bay 
Bethel 
Big Flats 
Big Indian 
Big Moose 
Binghamton 
Black River 
Blasdell 
Bliss 

Bjoomlngburg 
Bloomingdale 
BloomY-llle 
Blue Mountain 
^ Lake 
Bolivar 

Bolton Landing 

Bombay 

BoonviUe 

Boston 

BouckYdiie 

Branchport 

Brant 

Brant Lake 

Brasher Fails 

Breakabeen 


500 
1.762 
850 
1,920 
150 
875 
2,481 
134,995 
4.850 
1,252 
50 
304 
1,688 
2.053 
1,738 
500 
' 659 
194 
1,127 M 5 


IS 

Breesport 


500 

G 6 

Brentwood 


2,803 

E 2 

M 7 

Brewerton 


800 

H 4 

.1 3 

Brewster 


1.810 

D 1 

H 3 

BriarcUff Manor 

2,494 *D 1 

6 

Brldgehampton 


G2 

N 3 

Bridgeport 


1.800 

J 4 

J 6 

Bridgewater 


309 

E 5 

(M 

Brier Hill 


200 

J 1 

N 5 

Brightwaters 


2,336 

♦E 2 

1) 4 

Broadalbln 


1,400 

M 4 

C 5 

Brockport 


4,748 

D 4 

K 4 

Brocton 


1.380 

B 6 

D 5 

Bronx. The 

1,451.277 

D 2 

J 2 

BronxvUle 


6.778 

J 1 

E 6 

Brookfield 


40Q 

K 5 

C 6 

Brooklyn 

2,738,175 

C 2 

K6 

Brooktondale 


* 300 

H 6 

E 6 

Brookvllle 


337 ^D 2 

G 6 

Brown ville 


1,013 

H 3 


299 

350 
500 

1,000 

130 

1,300 

193 

6,164 

32,240 

200 

430 

1,351 

928 

1,936 

405 

846 

900 

100 

220 

1,818 

1,744 

351 
701 
600 

5,374 


J 3 
G 4 
N 1 
G 2 
H 5 
N 7 
L 5 
E 3 
M 5 
N 6 
L 6 
E 6 
E 6 
C 5 

N 6 
J 2 
H 6 
C 4 
H 5 
D 5 
H 1 
O 4 
E 6 
L 6 
N7 


116 *E 2 
275 M 6 
M 7 


110 

1,545 

60 

500 

2,000 

2.676 

1,643 

36,722 

711 


952 
2,412 
6,015 
1,505 
22.000 
4,495 
4,937 
300 
523 
105 
331 
350 
550 
80 
17,799 
5,416 
862 *D 2 
9,665 E 2 
1,463 
1,981 
500 
14,012 
230 
618 
20 


D 4 
N 6 
N4 
F 5 
D 3 
D 5 
N2 
G 5 
G 5 
K4 
O 5 
F6 
E 5 
D 2 
J6 
B 3 
H4 
N 5 
M 1 
C 4 
J 3 
K4 
D 4 
L7 
D 4 
D 6 
F 6 


E 2 
B 2 
C 4 
N 7 
F 6 
K 3 
L 3 
D 1 
750 D 6 
120 *E 2 
1,134 A 2 


305 
12,000 
1,449 
1,211 
424 
400 
786 
350 
900 


H 3 
B 2 
F 2 
E 6 
B 6 
L 2 
E4 
H 6 
O 5 


225 M 5 
764 J 4 


500 

523 


L 7 
G 6 


175 M 6 
105 L 3 


80,674 
1,062 
3,127 
678 
263 


J 6 
J 3 
C 5 
D 6 
L7 


476 M 2 
350 L 6 


275 M 3 
1,490 D 6 


1,200 

500 

2,329 

1,500 

195 

1,000 

500 

200 

800 

165 


N 3 
M 1 
K 4 
C 5 
J 5 
F 5 
B 5 
N 3 
LI 
M 5 


Bnishton 
Buchanan 
Buffalo 
Burdett 
Burke 
Burlington Flats 
Burt 
Bustl 
Byron 
CadySdlle 
Cairo 
Caledonia 
Callicoon 
Calllcoon Center 
Cambridge 
Camden 
Cameron 
Camlllus 
Campbell 
Campbell Hall 
Canhan 
Canajoharie 
Canandaigua 
Canascraga 
Canastota 
Candor 
Caneadea' 
Canlsteo 
Canton 
Cape Vincent 
Carlisle 
Carlton 
Carmel 
Caroga Lake 
Caroline 
Carthage 
Cassadaga 
Castile 
Castleton-on- 
Hudson 
Castorland 
Cato 
CataklU 
Cattaraugus 
Cayuga 

Cayuga Heights 

Cazenovla 

Cedarhurst 

Cedarvllle 

Celoron 

Center Moriches 
Central Bridge 
Central Square 
Central Valley 
Centre Island 
Ceres 
Chadwicks 
Chafee 
Champlain 
Charlotte ville 
Chase Mills 
Chateaugay 
Chatham 
Chatham Center 
Chaumont 
Chautauqua 
Chazy 

Cheektowaga 
Chemung 
Chenango Bridge 

Chenango Forks 

Chepachet 

Cherry Crebk 

Cherr>’ Valley 

Chester 

Chestertown 

Chichester 

Chlldwold 

Chlttenango 

ChurchvUle 

Churubusco 

Cicero 

Clnclnnatus 

Clarence 

Clarkson 

Clarksville 

Claverack 

Clayton 

Clay\dlle 

Clermont 

Cleveland 

Clifton Springs 

Clinton 

Clinton Comers 

CUntondale 

Clyde 

Clymer 

Coblesklll 

Cochecton 

Coeymans 

Cohocton 

Cohoes 

Cold Brook 

Cold Spring 


516 
1,820 
580,132 
432 


L 1 
D 1 
B 5 
G 6 


316 M 1 
185 K6 


300 

210 

300 

697 


C4 
B 6 
D 4 
N 1 


600 M 6 
1.683 E 6 
800 
405 
1,692 
2,407 
200 
1.225 
600 
251 


2,761 

8,332 

693 

4,458 

802 

400 

2,625 

4,379 

812 

200 

250 

1,526 

325 

35 

4.420 

676 

1,072 


K 7 
L 7 
04 
J 4 
F 6 
H 4 
F 6 
C 1 
O 6 
L 5 
F 5 
E 6 
J 4 
H 6 
D 6 
E6 
K 1 
H 2 
L5 
D 4 
D 1 
L4 
H 6 
J 3 
B 6 
D 5 


N 5 
J3 
G4 
N 6 
C6 
G5 


1,751 
308 
431 
5.392 
1,190 
534 
1,131 *G6 
1,946 J 5 
6.051 
149 
1,555 
1,761 
600 
665 
1,300 

199 
350 

2,500 
350 
1,605 

200 
250 

1.234 
2,304 
378 
513 
500 
600 
20.000 
400 


B 3 
E 5 
B 6 
F 2 
M 5 
H 4 
C 1 
B 2 
D 6 
K4 
C 5 
N 1 
L5 
K 1 
N 1 
N 6 
N 6 
H 2 
A 6 
N 1 
C 5 
G 6 


2,600 

400 

84 

631 

760 

1,215 

350 


J 6 
J 6 
K 5 
B 6 
L5 
B 1 
N 3 


225 M 6 
200 L 2 
- - J 4 


1,307 
755 
200 
1,000 
900 
1.018 
382 
600 
500 
1.981 
719 
600 
555 
1,838 
1.630 
300 
800 M 
2,492 G 4 
500 
3.208 
150 
1,250 
943 
21,272 
342 
1,788 


E4 
N 1 
H 4 
H 5 
C 5 
E 4 
M 5 
N 6 
H2 
K5 
N 6 
J 4 
F4 
K4 
N 


A 6 
L6 
K7 
N 6 
F 5 
N 5 
L4 
C 1 


*No room on map for name. 


NEW YORK 


Cold Spring 
Harbor 

1,600 

E 2 

Esperance 

Essex 

322 

625 

M 5 
O 2 

Head of the 
Harbor 

334 

•E2 

Coiden 

700 

C 5 

Evans 


B 6 

Hector 

65 

G 5 

Collins 

500 

C6 

Evans Mills 

618 

J 2 

Helena 


L 1 

Collins Center 

450 

C 6 

Fablus 

369 

J 5 

Hemlock 

400 

E 6 

Colonie 

2,068 

♦N 5 

Fair Haven 

628 

G 4 

Hempstead 

29,135 

A 2 

Colton 

250 

L 1 

Fairport 

5,267 

F 4 

Henderson 

260 

H 3 

Comstock 

2,250 

04 

Falconer 

3.292 

B 6 

Henrietta 


E 4 

Conesus 

200 

E 5 

Farmlngdale 

4,492 

D 2 

Herkimer 

9,400 

L 4 

Conewango 


C 6 

Faraham 

396 

B 5 

Hermitage 

100 

D 6 

Connelly 

350 

M 7 

Faust 


M 2 

Hermon 

647 

K2 

Constable 

200 

M 1 

Fayetteville 

2,624 

J 4 

Herrings 

192 

J 2 

Constableville 

378 

J 3 

Felts Mills 

300 

J 3 

Heuvelton 

712 

K 1 

Oonstantia- . 

1,260 

H 4 

Ferawood 

200 

H 4 

Hewlett Bay Park 


Cooks Falls 

200 

K 7 

Fillmore 

527 

D 6 


466 

♦D 2 

Coopers Plains 

304 

F 6 

Findley Lake 

600 

A 6 

Hewlett Harbor 

411 

♦D 2 

Cooperstown 

2,727 

L5 

Fine 

350 

K2 

Hewlett Neck 

369 

♦D 2 

Copake 

600 

N 6 

Fishers Island 

536 

G 1 

Hicksvllle 

13,000 

B 2 

Copake Falls 


N 6 

Flshkill 

841 

N 7 

High Falls 

1,000 

M 7 

Copenhagen 

690 

J 3 

FIshs Eddy 

300 

K 7 

Highland 

3,035 

M 7 

Corfu 

542 

D 5 

Flelschmanns 

469 

L6 

Highland Falls 

3,930 

C 1 

Corinth 

3,161 

N4 

Floral Park 

14,582 

A2 

Hillbum 

1.212 

C 2 

Coming 

17,684 

F 6 

Florence 

75 

J4 

Hillsdale 

400 

O 6 

Cornwall 

2,211 

C 1 

Florida 

1,376 

B 1 

Hilton 

1,036 

E 4 

Cornwall on 


Flower HIU 

1.948 

♦D 2 

Himrod 

225 

G 5 

the Hudson 

2,200 

Cl 

Fly Creek 

350 

K 5 

Hinckley 

198 

K4 

Cortland 

18,152 

H 5 

Fonda 

1,026 

M 5 

Hinsdale 

350 

D 6 

Cove Neck 

200 

*D 2 

Forestport 

730 

K4 

Hobart 

618 

L6 

CowlesvUIe 

232 

D 5 

Forestville 

786 

B 6 

Hogansburg 

300 

L 1 

Coxsackle 

2,722 

N 6 

Fort Ann 

463 

N 4 

Holcomb 

313 

F5 

Cranberry Lake 

232 

L 2 

Fort Covington 

891 

M 1 

Holland 

980 

C 5 

Crogban 

772 

K 3 

Fort Edward 

3,797 

04 

Holland Patent 

400 

K4 

Croton Falls 

1,000 

D 1 

Fort Jackson 

138 

L 1 

Holley 

1,551 

D 4 

Croton-on- 

Hudson 

4,837 

C 1 

Fort Johnson 
Fort Plain 

930 

2,935 

M 5 
L 5 

Homer 

Honeoye 

3,244 

200 

H 5 
F 5 

Crown Point 
Cuba 

800 

1,783 

N 3 
D 6 

Fort Tlcon- 
deroga 

46 

O 3 

Honeoye Falls 
Hoosick Falls 

1,460 

4,297 

F 5 
O 5 

Cutchogue 

1.500 

F2 

Frankfort 

3,844 

K 4 

Hopkinton 

300 

L 1 

Cuylcr^lle 

350 

E 6 

Franklin 

558 

K 6 

Homell 

15.049 

E 6 

Dalton 

500 

E 5 

Franklinville 

2,092 

D 6 

Horseheads 

3,606 

G 6 

Danneraora 

4,122 

N 1 

Fredonia 

7.095 

B 6 

Houghton 

500 

D 6 

DansYille 

6,253 

E 5 

Freehold 

300 

N 6 

Howes Cave 


M 5 

Darien 

90 

D 6 

Freeport 

24,680 

B 3 

Hubbards ville 

300 

J 6 

Darien Center 

303 

D 6 

Free ville 

373 

H 5 

Hudson 

11,629 

N 6 

Davenport 

250 

L 6 

Frewsburg 

1,383 

B 6 

Hudson Falls 

7,236 

04 

Davton 

300 

C 6 

Friendship 

1,344 

D 6 

HughsonvUle 

250 

N 7 

De Kalb Junction 500 

K 2 

Fulton 

13,922 

H 4 

Hulberton 

500 

D 4 

De Peyster 

200 

K 1 

Fultonvilie 

840 

M 5 

Hume 

250 

D 5 

! De Ruyter 

561 

J 5 

GalncsYille 

314 

D 6 

Hunter 

526 

M 6 

! Deer River 

166 

J 3 

Galway 

188 

N4 

Huntington 

9,324 

E2 

1 Deerland 

40 

M 3 

Gansevoort 

300 

N 4 

Himtlngton Bay 

585 

•E2 

DeferJet 

616 

J2 

Garden City 

14,486 

B 2 

Hurleyvllle 

800 

L7 

Degrassc 

250 

L2 

Gardenville 

4.000 

C 5 

Hyde Park 

1,059 

N7 

Delanson 

430 

M 5 

Garrison 

1.600 

C 1 

Illon 

9,363 

K5 

Delevan 

611 

D 6 

Gasport 

880 

C4 

Indian Lake 

M 3 

Delhi 

2,223 

L6 

Geneseo 

2,838 

£ 5 

Inlet 

250 

L3 

Delmar 

N 6 

Geneva 

17,144 

G 5 

Interlaken 

770 

G5 

Demster 

200 

H 3 

Genoa 


G 5 

Inwood 

9.200 

A3 

DepauvlUe 

350 

H2 

Germantown 


N 6 

Ira 

100 

04 

Depew 

7,217 

C 6 

Gerry 

476 

B 6 

Irondequolt 

34.417 

E4 

Deposit 

2,016 

K6 

Ghent 

600 

N 6 

Irving 

350 

B 5 

Derby 

B 6 

GilbertsvlUe 

456 

K6 

Irvington 

3,657 

H 1 

Dering Harbor 

4 

•G 2 

Gilboa 

125 

M 6 

Ischua 

170 

D 6 

Dexter 

1,038 

H 2 

Glasco 

1,300 

M 6 

Island Park' 

2,031 

B 3 

Diamond Point 

278 

N 4 

Glen Cove 

16,130 

B 2 

Isllp 

5,254 

E 2 

1 Dickinson Center 200 

M 1 

Glen Park 

516 

J 3 

Ithaca 

29.267 

G 6 

Dobbs Ferry 

6,268 

H 1 

Glenfield 

450 

K3 

1 Jamaica 100,000 

D 2 

DolgevUIe 

3,204 

L4 

Glens Falls 

19,610 

N 4 

Jamestown 

43,354 

B 6 

Dover Plains 

800 

O 7 

GloversvlJle 

23.634 

M 4 

JamesvlUe 

1,200 

H 6 

Downsville 

720 

L 6 

Golden's Bridge 

800 

D 1 

Jasper 

600 

F 6 

Dresden 

373 

F 5 

Gorham 

650 

F 5 

Jay 

425 

N 2 

Dresden Station 

76 

O 3 

Goshen 

3,311 

B 1 

Jefferson 

300 

L 6 

Dryden 

976 

H 6 

Gouvemeur 

4,916 

K 2 

Jeffersonville 

450 

L7 

Duanesbuig 

287 

M 5 

Gowanda 

3,289 

B 6 

Jericho 

500 

B 2 

Dundee 

1,165 

F 6 

Grafton 

450 

N 6 

Johnsburg 

200 

M 3 

Dunkirk 

18,007 

B 5 

Grahamsvllle 

L 7 

Johnson City 

19,249 

J 6 

DurhamvlUe 

700 

J 4 

Grand Gorge 

600 

L 6 

JobnsonvlUe 

520 

O 5 

Eagle Bay 

160 

L3 

Grand Island 


B 5 

Johnstown 

10,923 

M 4 

Eagle Bridge 
EarlvlUe 

945 

O 5 

J 5 

Grand Vlew-on- 
Hudson 

302 

•C 2 

1 Jordan 

Kanona 

1,295 

400 

H 4 

F 6 

East Aurora 

5,962 

C 5 

Granville 

2,826 

O 4 

Katonah 


D 1 

East Bethany 

150 

D 6 

Great Bend 

500 

J 2 

Keene 

650 

N 2 

East Bloomfield 

425 

E 5 

Great Neck 

7,759 

A 2 

Keene Valley 

1,000 

N2 

East Branch 

East Durham 

300 

300 

K 7 
M 6 

Great Neck 
Estates 

2,464 

A 2 

Keesevllle 

Kendall 

1,977 

325 

O 2 

E 4 

East Greenbush 
East Hampton 

1,100 

1,737 

N 5 
G 2 

Great Neck 
Plaza 

4,246 

A 2 

Kenmore 

Kennedy 

20,066 

508 

C 5 

B 6 

East Hills 

2,547 

*D 2 

Great Valley 

4,016 

C 6 

Kensin^on 

978 ’ 

•D 2 

East IsUp 

2,834 

E 2 

Green Island 

N 5 

Kerhonkson 

1,000 

M 7 

East Meredith 

132 

L 6 

Greene 

1,628 

J 6 

Kill Buck 

304 

C 6 

East Moriches 

1.500 

F 2 

Greenport 

3,028 

F 1 

Klnderhook 

853 

N 6 

East Northport 

3.842 

E 2 

Greenville 

376 

N 6 

King Ferry 

400 

G 6 

East Otto 

742 

C 6 

Greenwich 

2,212 

O 4 

Kings Park 

10.960 

E 2 

East Pembroke 

650 

D 6 

Greenwood 

700 

E 6 

Kings Point 

2.445 *D 2 

East Randolph 

628 

C 6 

Greenwood Lake 

810 

B 1 

Kingston 

28,817 

M 7 

East Rochester 

7.022 

F4 

Groton 

2,150 

H 5 

Kirkwood 

343 

J 6 

East Rockaway 

7.970 

*D 2 

Groveland 

600 

E 5 

Knapp Creek 

215 

C 6 

East Springfield 

360 

L5 

Guilford 

557 

J 6 

Knowiesville 

300 

D 4 

East Syracuse 

4,766 

H 4 

Hadley 

500 

N 4 

Knoxboro 

315 

J 5 

East Williamson 

300 

F 4 

Hagaman 

1,114 

M 6 

La Fargevllle 

425 

J 2 

East Wllllston 

1.734 

•D 2 

Ha^e 

400 

N 3 

La Fayette 

260 

H 5 

East Worcester 

456 

L5 

Haltesboro 

268 

K 2 

Lackawanna 

27,658 

B 5 

East port 

600 

F2 

Hamburg 

6,938 

C 5 

Lacona 

540 

J 3 

Eaton 

250 

J 5 

Hamden 

250 

K6 

Lake Clear 

250 

M 2 

Ebenezer 

4,300 

C 5 

Hamilton 

3,607 

J 5 

I.,ake George 

1,006 

N 4 

Eden 

1.394 

C 5 

Hamlet 

100 

B 6 

Lake Huntington 

300 

L7 

Edmeston 

500 

K 6 

Hamlin 

400 

E4 

Lake Katrine 

750 

M 7 

Edwards 

684 

K2 

Hammond 

329 

J2 

Lake Luzerne 

750 

N 4 

Elba 

669 

D 4 

Hammondsport 

1,190 

F 6 

Lake Placid 

2,999 

N 2 

Elbrldge 

586 

•H 4 

Hampton 

150 

O 3 

Lake Pleasant 

200 

M 4 

Elizabethtown 

665 

N 2 

Hampton Bays 

1,269 

F 2 

Lake Success 

1,264 

A 2 

Ellenburg Center 

' 350 

N 1 

Hancock 

1.560 

K 7 

Lake View 

2,400 

B 5 

EUenburg Depot 

400 

N 1 

Hannawa Falls 

245 

L 1 

Lakeville 

384 

E 5 

EUenvUIe 

4,225 

M 7 

Hannibal 

501 

G 4 

Lakewood 

3,013 

B 6 

Elllcottvllle 

1.073 

C 6 

Harford 


H 6 

Lancaster 

8,665 

C 5 

Ellington 

925 

B 6 

Harpursville 

620 

J 6 

Larchmont 

6.330 

J 1 

Ellisburg 

285 

H 3 

Harrlman 

676 

C 1 

Lattlnglown 

745 •D 2 

Elmira 

49.716 

G 6 

Harrison 

868 

J 1 

Laurel Hollow 

169 *D 2 

Elmira Heights 

6,009 

G 6 

Harrisville 

K2 

Laurens 

261 

K 5 

Elroont 

21,125 

B 2 

Hartford 

150 

O 4 

Lawrence 

4,681 

A 3 

Elmsford 

3,147 

J 1 

Hart wick 

625 

K 5 

LavrrenccvlUe 

236 

L 1 

Elnora 

Endicott 

100 

20,050 

N 5 
H 6 ! 

Hastings on 
Hudson 

7,565 

J 1 

Le Roy 

Lebanon Springs 

4.721 

520 

E 5 

O C 

Ephratah 

250 

L4 j 

Hav’erstraw 

5,818 

C 1 

Lee Center 

K 4 

Erieville 

300 

J 5 1 

Hawthorne 


H 1 

Leeds 

750 

N 6 


12031 
























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NEW YORK — Continued 


Leicester 

364 

D 6 

Mumford 

687 

E4 

Leon 

740 

C 6 

Munnsvllle 

412 

J 4 

LeonardsviUe 

500 

K 5 

Munsey Park 

2,048 *V 2 

Levittown 

40,000 

B 2 

Muttontown 

382 *D 2 

Lewis 

350 

N 2 

Napanoch 

1,094 

M 7 

Lewiston 

1,626 

B 4 

Naples 

1,141 

F 5 

Lexington 

600 M 6 

Narrowsburg 

614 

L 7 

Liberty 

4,658 

L 7 

Nassau 

952 

N 6 

Lily Dale 

275 

B 6 

Natural Bridge 

GOO 

K 2 

Lima 

1,147 

E 5 

Natural Dam 

200 

J 2 

Limestone 

601 

C 6 

Nelllston 

693 

L 5 

Lincklaen 

110 

J 5 

Nelsonvllle 

522 

C 1 

Lindenhurst 

8,644 

E 2 

New Baltimore 

550 

N 6 

Llndley 

250 

F 6 

New Berlin 

1,178 

K 5 

Lisbon 

300 

K 1 

New Bremen 

ISO 

K 3 

Lisle 

221 

H 6 

New City 

962 

02 

Little Falls 

9.541 

L4 

New Hamburg 

350 

N 7 

Little Genesee 

300 

D 6 

New Hartford 

1,947 

K4 

Little Valley 

1,287 

C 6 

New Haven 

800 

H4 

Liverpool 

2.933 

H 4 

New Hyde Park 

7.349 

A 2 

Livingston Manor 

L 7 

New Lebanon 


0 6 

Llvlngstonville 

80 : 

M 6 

New Paltz 

2,285 

M 7 

Livonia 

837 

E 5 

New Rochelle 

69,725 

J 1 

Lloyd Harbor 

945 *D 2 

New Windsor 

2.754 

C 1 

Locke 

275 

H 5 

New Woodstock 

500 

J 5 

Lockport 

25,133 

C 4 

New York (5 



Lodi 

362 

G 5 

Boroughs) 7.891,957 

C 2 

Long Beach 

15,586 

B 3 

New York Mills 

3,366 

K 4 

Long Eddy 

350 

K 7 

Newark 

10,295 

G 4 

Long Lake 

1,000 

L 3 

Newark Valley 

1,027 

H 6 

Loon Lake 

100 

N 1 

Newburgh 

31,956 

C 1 

Lorraine 

250 

J 3 

Newcomb 

425 

M 3 

Lowville 

3,671 

J 3 

Newfane 

1,578 

04 

Lycoming 

200 

H 3 

Newfleld 

500 

G 6 

Lynbrook 

17,314 

A 3 

Newport 

752 

K4 

Lyndonville 

777 

D 4 

Newton Falls 

700 

K 2 

Lyon Mountain 

1,053 

N 1 

Niagara Falls 

90,872 

04 

Lyons 

4,217 

G 4 

Nichols 

578 

H6 

Lyons Falls 

864 

K 3 

Nlcholvllle 

300 

L 1 

Lysander 

250 

H 4 

Nineveh 

182. 

J 6 

Macedon 

614 

F 4 

Niobe 


B 6 

Machias 

850 

D 6 

NIssequoguc 

219 

*E 2 

Madison 

335 

J 5 

Norfolk 

1,252 

K 1 

Madrid 


K 1 

North Bangor 

500 

M 1 

Mahopac 


D 1 

North Bay 

500 

J 4 

Maine 

600 

H 6 

North Chiu 

1.000 

E 4 

Mallory 

150 

H 4 

North Collins 

1,325 

0 6 

Malone 

9,501 

M 1 

North Greek 

942 

M 3 

Malverne 

8,086 

A 2 

North Haven 

153 

*F 1 

Mamaroneck 

15.016 

J 1 

North Hills 

330 *D 2 

Manchester 

1,262 

F 5 

North Horncll 

605 

E 6 

Manhasset 

20.000 

B 2 

North Hudson 

250 

N 3 

Manhattan 1.960,101 

C2 

North Java 

500 

D5 

Manlius 

1,742 

J 5 

North Lawrence 

500 

L 1 

Manns ville 

378 

H 3 

North Pelham 

5,046 

H 1 

Manorhaven 

1,819 = 

•D 2 

North River 

253 

M 3 

Manorville 

900 

F 2 

; North Rose 

708 

G 4 

Marathon 

1,057 

J 6 

! North Syracuse 

3.356 

H4 

M arcellus 

1,382 

H 5 

North Tarrytown 8,740 

H 1 

Margaretvllle 

005 

L 6 

1 North Tonawanda 


Marllla 

350 

C 5 


24,731 

04 

Marlon 

800 

F 4 

Northport 

3,859 

E 2 

Marlboro 

1,709 

M 7 

Northville 

1,114 

M4 

Martinsburg 

343 

J 3 

Norwich 

8,816 

J 5 

Maryland 

300 

L 5 

Norwood 

1,995 

L 1 

MasonvlUe 

370 

K 6 : 

Number Four 

60 

K 3 

Massapeoua Park 2,334 *0 2 

Nunda 

1,224 

E 5 

Massena 

13,137 

L 1 

Nyack 

5,889 

C 2 

Matinecock 

507 

B 2 

Oakfteld 

1,781 

D 4 

Mattltuck 

1,089 

F 2 

Ocean Beach 

73 

E2 

Maybrook 

1,316 

B 1 

Oceanside 

15,000 

B 3 

Mayfield 

761 

M4 

.Odessa 

526 

G 6 

Mayvlile 

1,492 

A 6 

Ogdensburg 

16,166 

K 1 

McConnelisville 

300 

J 4 

Olcott 

875 

0 4 

MijDonough 

179 

J 5 

Old BrookviUe 

644 

*D 2 

McGraw 

1,197 

H 5 

Old Field 

238 

♦ E 2 

McKeever 

55 

K 3 

Old Forge 

900 

L3 

McLean 

250 

H 5 

Old Westbury 

1,160 

B 2 

Mechanicvllle 

7.385 

N 5 

Olean 

22,884 

D 6 

Mecklenburg 

300 

G 6 

Olmstedville 

300 

N 3 

Medina 

6,179 

D 4 

Oneida 

11,325 

J 4 

Menands 

2,453 ♦N 5 

Oneida Castle 

596 

*J 4 

Mendon 

327 

E 4 

Oneonta 

13,564 

IC 6 

Meridian 

334 

G 4 

Onovllle 

400 

B 6 

Merrill 

200 

N 1 

Ontario 

800 

F4 

Mexico 

1,398 

H4 

Orchard Park 

2,054 

C 5 

Middle Falls 

500 

0 4 

Orient 

500 

G 1 

Middle Granville 800 

0 4 

Oriskany 

1,346 

K 4 

MIddleburg 

1,298 

M 5 

Orlskany Falls 

893 

J 5 

MIddleport 

1,641 

C 4 

Orwell 

425 

J 3 

Middlesex 

300 

F 5 

Osceola 

241 

J 3 

Middletown 

22,586 

B 1 

Ossining 

16,098 

D 1 

Mlddlevllle 

647 

K4 

Oswegatchle 

500 

K2 

Milford 

502 

K 5 

Oswego 

22,647 

G 4 

Mill Neck 

505 

*D 2 

Otego 

699 

K 6 

h^lllbrook 

1,568 

N 7 

Otisco Lake 


H 5 

Mlllerton 

1,048 

0 7 

Otlsvllle 

911 

B 1 

Millport 

362 

G 6 

Otto 

350 

C 6 

Milton 


M 7 

Ovid 

646 

G 5 

Mineola 

14.831 

B 2 

Owasco 

300 

G 5 

Minerva 

364 

N 3 

Owego 

5,350 

H 6 

Mlnetto 


H 4 

Oxford 

1,811 

J 6 

Mlnevllle 

996 

0 2 

Oyster Bay 

6.215 

B 2 

Minoa 

1,008 

J 4 

Oyster Bay Cove 561 

*D 2 

Mohawk 

3,196 

L4 

Painted Post 

2,405 

F6 

Moira 

750 

M 1 

Palatine Bridge 

592 

*L 5 

Monroe 

1,753 

C 1 

Palenville 

350 

M 6 

Montauk 

700 

G 2 

Palmer 

800 

N 4 

Montgomery 

1,063 

B 1 

Palmyra 

3,034 

F4 

Montlcello 

4,223 

L7 

Panama 

456 

A 6 

Montour Falls 

1.457 

G 6 

Parish 

574 

H4 

Mooers 

496 

N 1 

Parishville 

450 

L 1 

Moravia 

1,480 

H 5 

Parksville 

400 

L 7 

Moriah 

700 

N 2 

Patchogue 

7,361 

E2 

Moriah Center 

400 

N 2 

Patterson 

400 

D 1 

Morley 

226 

K 1 

PattersonvlUe 

259 

M 5 

Morris 

641 

K 5 

Paul Smiths 

376 

M 2 

Morrisonvllle 

600 

N 1 

Pavilion 

615 

D 5 

Morristown 

546 

J 1 

Pawling 

1.430 

N 7 

Morris ville 

1,250 

J 5 

Peart River 


C 2 

Mount Klsco 

5,907 

D 1 

Peaslcc ville 

200 

N 1 

Mount Morris 

3,450 

E 5 

Peconic 

850 

F2 

Mount Upton 

400 

t KG 

PeekskiU 

17,731 

D 1 

Mount Vernon 

71,899 

H 1 

Pelham 

1,843 

♦H 1 

'‘Mountain Dale 

! 700 

' L7 

Pelham Manor 

6,306 

H 1 


Pendleton 


C 4 

Salisbury Center 

300 

L4 

Penfleld 

1,013 

F 4 

Sattaire 

21 

♦E 3 

Penn Yan 

5,481 

F 5 

Sanborn 

600 

C 4 

Pcnnellvllle 

250 

H 4 

Sand Lake 

1,300 

0 6 

Perklna\iUc 

421 

E 6 

Sands Point 

860 *D 2 

Pern' 

4.533 

d;5 

Sandusky 

275 

D 6 

Perrysburg 

361 

B 6 

Sandy Creek 

708 

H 3 

Peru 

1.000 

N 1 

Saranac 

760 

N 1 

Petersburg 

650 

0 6 

Saranac Lake 

6,913 

M 2 

Phelps 

1.650 

V 5 

Saratoga Springs 15,473 

N4 

Philadelphia 

870 

J 2 

Sardinia 

485 

C 6 

Phllmont 

1,792 

N 6 

Saugertles 

3.907 

M 6 

Phoenix 

1,917 

H 4 

Sauquolt. 

1.227 

K5 

Picrcefteld 

240 

L2 

Savannah 

582 

G 4 

Plcrmont 

1.897 

C 2 

Savona 

869 

F6 

Plerrenont Manor 200 

J 3 

Sayville 

4,261 

E 2 

Pike 

286 

D 6 

Scarsdalc 

13,156 

J 1 

Pine Bush 

1,100 

B 1 

Schaghticoke 

687 

N 5 

Fine Hill 

233 

M 6 

Schenectady 

91,785 

M 5 

Pine Island 

500 

B 1 

Schenevus 

568 

L 5 

Pine Plains 

698 

N 7 

Schoharie 

1,059 

M 6 

Pine Valley 

230 

G 6 

Schroon Lake 

575 

N 3 

Plseco 

105 

L4 

Schuyler Lake 

300 

L 5 

Plttsford 

1.668 

E 4 

Schuylervllle 

1,314 

N 4 

Plandome 

1.102 

♦D 2 

Sclo 

640 

E 6 

Plandome Heights 882 

♦D 2 

Scotia 

7,812 

N 5 

Plandome Manor 

323 

♦D 2 

Scottsville 

1,025 

E 4 

Plattsburgh 

17,738 

0 1 

Sea Breeze 

25 

F 4 

Plcasantvlllc 

4.801 

D 2 

Sea Cliff 

4.868 

B 2 

Plessls 


J 2 

Seneca Falls 

6.634 

G 5 

Poland 

511 

L4 

Sharon Springs 

361 

L 5 

Porapey 

225 

J 5 

Shelby 

200 

D 4 

Poolville 

200 

K 5 

Shelter Island Hts. 600 

G 1 

Poquott 

136 

•E 2 

Sherburne 

1,604 

K 6 

Port Byron 

1,013 

G 4 

Sheridan 

1,050 

B 5 

Port Chester 

23,970 

J 1 

Sherman 

861 

A 6 

Port Dickinson 

2,199 

♦J 6 

Sherrill 

2.236 

K 4 

Port Ewen 

1,885 

N 7 

Shoreham 

90 

•E 2 

Port Henry 

1,831 

0 2 

Shortsvllle 

1,314 

F 5 

Port Jefferson 

3,296 

E 2 

Shushan 

325 

0 4 

Port Jervis 

9,372 

A 1 

Sidney 

4,815 

K 6 

Port Kent 

175 

0 1 

Sidney Center 

400 

K 6 

Port Leyden 

841 

K 3 

Silver Creek 

3,068 

B 5 

Port Washington 15.000 

A 2 

Silver Springs 

830 

E 5 

Port Washington 



Slnclairvllle 

672 

B 6 

North 

650 

♦D 2 

Skaneateles 

2,331 

H 5 

Portagevlllc 

350 

D 5 

Skaneatelcs Falls 

690 

G 5 

Portland 

700 

B 6 

Slatervllle Springs 350 

H 6 

Port ville 

1,151 

D 6 

Sloan 

4,698 

C 6 

Potsdam 

7.491 

K 1 

Sloatsburg 

2,018 

C 2 

PotlcrsvUle 

400 

N 3 

Smlthtown 

1,424 

E 2 

Poughkeepsie 

41.023 

N 7 

Srolthvllle Flats 

200 

J 0 

Prattsburg 

653 

F 5 

Smyrna 

269 

J 5 

Pratts ville 


M 6 

Sodus 

1,688 

G 4 

Preble 

250 

H 5 

Sodus Point 

680 

G 4 

Preston Hollow 

200 

M 6 

Solvay 

7,868 

H 4 

Prospect 

318 

K 4 

Somerset 

249 

D 4 

Pulaski 

2.033 

H 3 

South Bethlehem 

300 

N 6 

Pulteney 


F 6 

South Colton 

500 

L 1 

Pultneyville 

225 

F 4 

South Columbia 

325 

L 5 

Pyrites 

240 

K 1 

South Corning 

880 

F 6 

Queens 1,550,849 

D 2 

South Dayton 

727 

C 6 

Quogue 

625 

F2 

South Fallsbiurg 

1,147 

L 7 

Randolph 

1.455 

C 6 

South Floral Park 672 “D 2 

Ransomville 

800 

C 4 

South Glens Falls _ . _ 


Raquette Lake 

200 

L 3 


3,645 

N 4 

Ravena 

2,006 

N 6 

South Lansing 

400 

H 5 

RaymondvlUc 

500 

L 1 

Soutli New Berlin _ _ 

K 5 

Red Creek 

617 

G 4 

South Nyack 

3,102 

•C 2 

Red Hook 

1.225 

N 7 

South Otsellc 

612 

J 5 

Redfield 

500 

J 3 

Southampton 

4,042 

G 2 

Redwood 

650 

J 2 

Southflelds 

500 

C 1 

Remsen 

483 

K 4 

Southold 

1,027 

F 2 

Rensselaer 

10,856 

N 6 

Sparrow Bush 

650 

A 1 

Rensselaer FaUs 

323 

K 1 

Speculator 

370 

M 3 

Retsof 

500 

E 6 

Spencer 

694 

H 6 

Rexvllle 


E 6 

Spencerport 

1,595 

E 4 

Rhlnebeck 

1,923 

N 7 

Spring Valley 

4,500 

C 2 

RhlnecIIff 

600 

N 7 

Sprlngvllle 

3,322 

C 5 

Rlchburg 

514 

D 6 

Springwater 

445 

E 5 

Richfield Springs 

1.534 

K 5 

Staatsburg 

500 

N 7 

Rlchford 

275 

H 6 

Stafford 

256 

D 5 

Richland 

450 

H 3 

Stamford 

1,162 

L 6 

Richmond 191,555 

C 3 

Stanard 

600 

E 6 

Richmondville 

709 

M 6 

Stanford ville 

500 

N 7 

RlchvIUe 

254 

K 2 

Stanley 

300 

F 6 

Riparius 

100 

M 3 

Star Lake 

700 

K 2 

Ripley 

1,229 

A 6 

Steamburg 

225 

C 6 

Rlverhead 

4.892 

F 2 

Stephentown 

250 

0 6 

Riverside 

818 

*F 6 

Stewart Manor 

1,879 'ji 

; Rochester 332.488 

E 4 

Stillwater 

1,276 

N 6 

1 Rock City Falls 

300 

M 4 

Stittville 

376 

K 4 

1 Rockville Centre 22,362 

B 2 

Stockton 

400 

B 6 

Rodman 

250 

J 3 

Stony Brook 


E 2 

Rome 

41.682 

J 4 

Stony Creek 

465 

M4 

Romulus 

250 

G 6 

Stony Point 

1,438 

C 1 

Ronkonkoma 

1,334 

E 2 

Stony Wold 

300 

M 2 

Roosevelt 

10,600 

B 2 

Stottvllle 

1.020 

N 6 

Roscoe 


L 7 

Stratford 

500 

L 4 

Rose 

400 

G 4 

Strykers ville 

400 

C 5 

Roseboom 

115 

L 5 

Suffern 

4,010 

C 2 

Rosendale 

883 

M 7 

Summitville 

300 

L 7 

Roseton 

350 

C 1 

Sworm ville 

300 

C 4 

Roslyn 

1,612 

B 2 

Sylvan Beach 

600 

J 4 

Roslyn Estates 

612 

♦B 2 

Svosset 

1,133 

B 2 

Roslyn Harbor 

402 

♦B 2 

Syracuse 220,583 

H 4 

Rossie 

160 

J 2 

Taberg 

500 

J 4 

Rotterdam Jet. 

850 

N 6 

Tannersvllle 

639 

M 6 

Round Lake 

876 

N 5 

Tarrytown 

8.851 

H 1 

Rouses Point 

2.001 

0 1 

The Glen 


N 3 

Roxbury 

600 

L6 

Thendara 

200 

K 3 

Rush 

500 

E 5 

Theresa 

925 

J 2 

Rush ford 

900 

D 6 

Thomaston 

2,045 

B 2 

Rushville 

465 

F 5 

Thousand Island 



Russell 

500 

K 2 

Park 

300 

J 2 

Russell Gardens 

912 

•D 2 

Three Mile Bay 

360 

H 2 

Rye 

11,721 

J 1 

Thurman 

112 

M3 

Sackets Harbor 

1.247 

H 3 

TIconderoga 

3,517 

N 3 

Saddle Rock 

33 *D 2 

Tivoli 

753 

N 6 

Sag Harbor 

2.373 

G 2 

Tonawanda 

14,617 

B 4 

Saint George 

4,900 

C 3 

Trenton 



Saint Jobnsvllle 

2.210 

L 5 

(Barneveld) 

331 

•K 4 

Saint Regis Falls 

850 

M 1 

Troupsburg 

250 

F 6 

Salamanca 

8,861 

C 6 

Troy 

72.311 

N 5 

Salem 

1,067 

0 4 

Trumansburg 

1.479 

G 6 


Truxton 

Tuckahoe 

Tally 

Tapper Lake 
Turin 

Tuxedo Park 
Unadllla 
Union Hill 
Union Springs 
Unlonville 
Upper Brookvllle 
Upper Jay 
Upper Nyack 
Utica 
Valatic 
Valhalla 
Valley Falls 
Valley Stream 
Van Etten 
Van Homesville 
Varysburg 
Vernon 
Versailles 
Vestal 
Victor 

Victory Mills 
Village of the 
Branch 
VoorheesviUe 
Waddington 
Wadhams 
Wading River 
Walden 
Walker 
Wallace 
Wallklll 
Walton 
Walworth 
WampsvlUe 
Wanakah _ 
Wapplngers Falls 

Warners 

Warrensburg 

Warsaw 

Warwick 

Washingtonville 

Waterford 

Waterloo 

Waterport 

Watertown 

Waterville 

Watcrvllet, 

Watkins Glen 

Waverly 

Wayland 

Wayne 

Webster 

Weedsport 

Wells 

Wells Bridge 
Wellsburg 
Wcllsvllle , 
West Albany 
West Amboy 
West Carthage 
West Chazy 


425 H5 
5,991 HI 
744 Ha 
5,441 M2 
273 K3 
Cl 

1,317 K6 
436 F4 
957 G5 
454 B1 
469 *02 
175 ls’2 
1,195 »C2 
101,531 K4 
1.225 N6 
J1 ' 
555 NS 
26.854 A 2 
504 G6 ' 
200 L5 ■; 
350 D5 
754 •J4 ' 
192 B6 

5.000 H6 • 
1,066 F5 

488 X4 : 

163 *£2 
895 M5 
819 K1 
175 N2 - 
700 F2 , 
4,559 B1 
250 E4 
300 E6 
1,145 M7 ^ 
3.947 K6 
500 F4 ' 
379 

C5 ,, 
3,490. N7 

500'H4 

2r.35S N3 . 
3,713 05 
2.674 Bj 
823 *B 1 . 
2.968 N5 
4,438 G5 
217 Dj 
34.350 J3 , 
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3.052 0 6;; 
6,037 Gf" 
1,834 E5 V 
195 15 
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638 05 
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4.000 M ■ 

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vest vunt/ 

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Yestbury 

Yesterlo 
Yesternvllle 
Yestflcid ^ ^ j, 

Yesthampton 
Yesthampton Deac ^ 

Yestons Mills 
Yestport ^ 
Yhailonsburg 
Yhtte Plains 
Yhltehall 
Yhitesboro 
Yhltesvllle 
Yhitney Point 
Yillard 
Yilllamson 
YUllamsto^ 
YllllanisvtUe 
Yllllston Parh 
Yillsboro 
YUmlngton 
Yilson 
Yilton 
YIndham 
YIndsor 
Ylngdale 
Yinthrop 
Yltherbee 
Yolcott 
Yolcottsvllie 
Yoodbourne 

Yoodgate 
Yoodhull 
Yoodmere 

Yoodrldge 

Yoodstock 
Yoodvllle 
Yorccster 
Yurtsboro 
Yyomlng 
'aphank 


832 K5 
7 112 B 2 - 
^’250 M5 ■ 
500 

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733 NS . 
200 03 ■ 

43,466 J> 
4,457 0 3 
3,902 KJ 
760 E6 ’ 
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600 OS 

1,620 Ij 
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4,649 OS 
7,605 B’ 
830 N; ■ 

600 NJ 

963 CJ . 
20“ ■■ 
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[2061 



VARIED BEAUTY OF MOUNTAIN, LAKE, AND RIVER 






.i*.' • 


'_W 
















/. 






r ' ., ♦ 




1. Bear Mountain Bridge crosses the Hudson River between rocky, wooded heights. In the foreground, on the east side, rises 
Anthony’s Nose. On the west shore are the slopes of Bear Mountain,' 2. A scene in the CatsMll Mountains, along the 
West Branch of the Delaware River, in the southeastern part of the state. 3. Lake Placid, in the northeast, lies in the 
beautiful Adirondack Mountains. 4. Portage Falls on the Genesee River, in western New York, drops 1 10 feet. S. The Inter- 
national Bridge between New York and Ontario, steps across some of the Thousand Islands in the St. Lawrence River. 


207 









NEW YORK 


208 


AT THE EASTERN TIP OF THE EMPIRE STATE 



At the very end of Long Island stands the black and white striped Montauk Point Lighthouse, 
built in 1796, The waves of the Atlantic have washed away more than half of the land that 
originally separated it from the ocean. Commercial hshermen go out for tuna and swordfish off 
the Point. The area hack of the lighthouse is a state park. 


South of Albany and ^1- 
of the Hudson River are tie 
Catsldll Mountains. Hb 
area has many lakes, tie 
shores of which are Heed 
with summer cottages and 
hotels. Here also is tie 
giant Ashokan Resenou- 
which supplies water to 
New York City. A liiet- 
way on the west bank of 
the Hudson offers many 
unusual scenic Hews, ard 
passes near the Umted 
States Military' Academy at 
West Point and througl 
Bear Mountain State Park. 
Across the river from upper 
New York City are the Pal- 
isades of the Hudson. These 
are towering columns oi 
black basalt (v'olcanicrock). 

Low-lying Long Islard, 
extending 110 miles, has 
many splendid beaches. 


the two westernmost counties was covered by deep 
glaciers, which lay over hills and valleys alike. 

The glaciers widened and deepened the valley's, 
rounded off the hills, changed the courses of many 
streams, and caiw'ed out the bottoms of numerous 
lakes that are scattered over the state’s area. The 
glacier action also helped make the many different 
soils found throughout the state. The land along the 
Atlantic coast subsided slightly', forming the excellent 
New York harbor and its islands, and the protected 
w'aterway of Long Island Sound, now' a fine ship chan- 
nel between New York City' and New England. 

The highest part of New York 
State is the Adirondack Mountain 
region in the north. From these 
moimtains, streams flow' east into 
Lake Champlain; south into the 
Hudson River and its east-flowing 
tributary', the Alohawk River; and 
north into the St. Law'rence Riv'cr. 

The Adirondack area is outstanding 
for its beautiful moimtains, valley's, 
rivei-s, and lakes. Located there 
Mount Marcy, 5,344 feet in eleva- 
tion, the highest peak in the state. 

Best known among the scores of 
lakes in this region are Lake Plac- 
id, a year-roimd resort and winter 
sports center, and Saranac Lake, a 
health resort noted for the treat- 
ment of tuberculosis. To the east 
of the Adirondacks is Lake Cham- 
plain; to the southeast is Lake 
George. Both lakes are popular for 
their summer vacation spots and 
for their historic sites. 


During the smnmer these beaches are crowded min 
swimmers. At the eastern end is Alontauk Pomk 
At Cohoes, a few miles north of Albany, is tie 
eastern terminus of the Erie Canal, The canal route 
extends westward to Oneida Lake, some 20 miles 
and from there to Buffalo. The route passes jm 
north of the beautiful Fmger Lakes. In the exfwioe 
western county' of the state is Lake Chautaugu- 
Both this lake and the Finger Lakes are popuiar 
summer resorts and camping areas. . 

The Finger Lakes are several long, narrow bodies oi 
water occupy'ing deep, picturesque valley's in wes eni 

THE ERIE CANAL AT LOCKPORT_ 



An oil tanker enters the first of two lock basins at Lockport, near ?‘^S^-°'naDsI- 
on the New York State Barge Canal, successor to the lustonc nn 


The ^ 








NEW YORK 


210 


CROTON RESERVOIR 


OF NEW 

Tiir - 


YORK CITY’S WATER SYSTEM 



world’s greatest water-supply systems. It collects water from three distant watersheds— Croton, 
Catskill, ajd Delaware. They are as far as 125 miles away. Shown here (right) is Croton Reservoir at low-water level. It 
IS formed by Croton Dam across the Croton River. When the reservoir is full, water overflows down Croton Dam spillway (left). 


New York. Before the Ice Age, the sites were broad 
valleys draining to the southward. The Ice Age 
glaciers deepened the valleys and at the same time 
pushed huge mounds (moraines) of gravel and debris 
ahead of the ice to the southward. When the ice re- 
treated the moraines were left and blocked the old 
drainage. Today the lakes drain to Lake Ontario. 
The most important of them are named Canandaigua, 
Keuka, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco, and Skaneateles. 

North of Buffalo are the famous Niagara Falls, a 
favorite spot for sight-seers from all over the world. 
In the area where the St. Lawrence River drains from 
Lake Ontario is the picturesque group of islets called 
the Thousand Islands. Some belong to New York and 
some to Ontario in Canada. 

Development of Inland Transportation 

Improvement of New York’s route to the west, 
which did so much for the state, began early in the 
19th century. The Hudson River was navigable as far 
as Albany; and in 1807 Fulton’s steamboat, the 


ASHOKAN RESERVOIR IN THE CATSKILLS 



Clermont, made its first trip. Steamboat traffic grew 
rapidly and dominated this portion of the route for 
many years. 

Between 1817 and 1825 New York added a west- 
ward link by building the Erie Canal from Troy on 
the Hudson through the Mohawk Valley, and then 
to the Niagara River above the falls. The canal 
made Buffalo the “great doorway of the Inland 
Seas” and gave New York a commanding position 
in handling freight and passenger traffic to and fr® 
the rapidly growing western states. (See also Canals). 

In 1831 the Mohawk and Hudson Ifeilroad was com- 
pleted between Albany and Schenectady. Various 
short lines completed the rail link with Buffalo in t e 
1840’s and were consolidated as the New York Centra 
in 1853. In 1851 the Erie reached Lake Erie at Dun- 
kirk. Meantime three rail coimections were esta 
lished between New York City and New Englan . 
The first ran by a roundabout route through wes rn 
New England. Another, the New York and Hare 
railroad was started no 
from New York Cit) 
1832 and reached a terminus 
opposite Albany 20 ynnf® 
later. A third line, built aloUo 
the east bank of the Hudson, 
made the connection first. 

Until this system was com- 
pleted, the Erie Canal did J 

enormous business. Hn 

a few years mismanagern® 

and railroad competi '<> 
virtually put the cana o 
business. In the first 
War it was used ■, 

lieve the overburdened « 

roads. In 1918 the 
were consolidated into a ^ 
tern caUed the 


Ashokan Reservoir created by Olive Bridge Dam is an important source of New York City’s Ofo+p Barae Canal. 1 
water supply. This basin and Schoharie Reservoir formed by Gilboa Dam hold water from ^ • 

At. ^ A *V> ^ it. 1. At •• _ . . ... . a aa.. ...... ..a ^ nVI XIHI 1111 


the Catskiil watershed. The city receives the water through the 92-inile Catskill Aqueduct, more 


1 

than 800 miles 10"= 



211 


NEW YORK 


" The old Erie Canal, entirely rebuilt and called the 
Erie Division, is the most important part of the sys- 
1 tern's network. It is about 340 miles long and con- 
fcl nects the Hudson River near Troy with the Niagara 
L' River at Tonawanda. The Champlain Canal branches 
I from the Erie at Waterford, near Troy, and extends 60 
1 miles north to Lake Champlain. The Oswego Canal is 
■ 24 miles long and joins Tliree River Point, on the Erie, 
■j with Lake Ontario. South of the Erie a 92-mile branch 
I goes to Lake Seneca and Cayuga. 

Ij Tlie channel of the canals is 12 feet deep and 75 
i to 200 feet vdde. There are 57 locks. Several million 
p tons of cargo move through the system every year. 
1 Leading cargoes are petroleum and its products, grain, 
1 pulpwood, paper products, and molasses. 

Congress in 1954 authorized the United States to 
join Canada in the St. Lawrence Seaway navigation 

1 project. Upon its completion, seagoing ships will be 

2 able to sail up the St. Lawrence River and through 
the Great Lakes. Buffalo, on Lake Erie, and Roches- 
ter, on Lake Ontario, will become seaports. Thus New 
York will have ports for ocean vessels both on its 
eastern and on its western borders. Canals and locks 

r will be built in the International Rapids below Og- 
; densburg. The Thousand Islands area will be dredged. 

After 1900 New York developed an extensive net- 
, ■ work of highways. Fine expressways lead out from New 
I; York City to Long Island, Connecticut, and toward 
1 Albany. In 1950 the New York State Thruway Au- 
; thority was created to build and operate a multilane 
, express highway from New York City across the state 
, to Pennsylvania by waj'' of Albany and Buffalo. 
J Branches will extend into New England. The total 
■: length null be 535 miles. This sj’-stem is one of the 
greatest public woj'ks ever attempted by the state. 
I New York is crisscrossed by a dense network of 
' railroads. Most of the nation’s most important rail- 
, roads enter the state. New York City is the main 


terminus of rail lines in the state and of important 
ones from Connecticut and New Jersey. 

Manufacturing, Cities, and Trade 

In manufacturing, New York State leads all states. 
More of its workers are employed in manufacturing 
than in any other occupation. The manufacture of 
men’s and w'omen’s clothing is the leading industry. 
Second in importance is publishing — newspapers, 
periodicals, and books. New York leads the nation 
both in publishing and in garment manufacture. The 
state is also an important producer of chemicals and of 
machinerj'^ of various types. Food products, such as 
bread and bakerj^ goods, stand high on the list of 
New York’s manufactures, since the state’s huge popu- 
lation demands large quantities of food. 

New York City is the greatest manufacturing city 
in the world. Its largest industry is the making of 
apparel {see Garment Industry). Printing and pub- 
lishing is the second most important industry. The 
city is the nation’s great financial and stock-trading 
center. It is the home office of many industries located 
outside the state (see New York City) 

Buffalo, the state’s second largest city, has grain 
elevators, flour mills, and diversified industries (see 
Buffalo). Rochester, a lake port and railroad center, 
produces a variety of products. It is noted for photo- 
graphic supplies (see Rochester). Syracuse also manu- 
factures many kinds of goods (see Syracuse). Yonkers, 
adjoining New Y ork City, is an industrial city and has 
shipyards (see Yonkers). 

Albany, the state capital and Hudson River port, 
also has manufactures (see Albany) Utica too is a 
manufacturing center (see Utica). Schenectady is 
noted for its electrical industries and locomotives 
(see Schenectady). Niagara Falls, with vast resources 
of hydroelectric power at hand, manufactures many 
chemicals and chemical products, including carbon, 
graphite, and aluminum (see Niagara Falls). 


j 


) 

( 

i 

( 

j 

I 


i 



The big Schoellkopf Station of 
the Niagara Mohawk Power Cor- 
poration at Niagara Falls, N. Y., 
develops 480,000 horsepower. 
Niagara Falls has a potential 
of 6,000,000 horsepower if all 
the water of the Niagara Rivet 
could be used. 


NEW YORK 


212 


In both wholesale and retail trade, New York State 
is first in the nation. Its wholesale trade is nearly 
three times as large in dollar volume as its retail trade. 

Still another important factor in the state's lead- 
ership is its importance in finance and corporation 
management. Apart from government agencies, New 
York City’s banks are the richest in the world. The 
New Y ork Stock Exchange leads in its field, and the 
city has many other important exchanges. In ad- 
dition, many companies which operate nation-wide or 
even world-wide businesses have their corporate head- 
quarters in New York City or elsewhere in the state. 
Thus New York shares in much of the profit that is 
obtained in other parts of the world. 

Minerals and Power 

New York is a leading state in the United States 
in both developed and undeveloped water power. The 
Niagara River is the state’s great source of hydro- 
electric power. Powerhouses at the city of Niagara 
Falls generate and transmit electricity to Buffalo 
and many other cities. The upper Hudson, the Black 
River, the Oswego, and the Mohawk and its tribu- 
taries also furnish electric power. 

In 1953 President Eisenhower authorized the New 
York State Power Authority to become the United 
States agent in constructing a hydroelectric power 
plant in the St. Lawrence River with Canada. It will 
be at Earnhardt Island in the International Rapids 
section between Massena and Cornwall, Ont. 

The state, however, depends heavily on coal, pe- 
troleum, and natural gas for much of its power, light, 
and heat. For industrial uses, the state gets huge 
quantities of bituminous coal from Pennsylvania; for 
heating, it gets anthracite from the same state. Its 
petroleum and natural gas 
come mainly from Pennsyl- 
vania, the Middle West, 
and Texas and Oklahoma. 

The most valuable minerals 
produced within the state 
are stone for making cement 
and building purposes, iron 
ore, petroleum, sand and 
gravel, and salt. 

An important problem 
throughout the state is wa- 
ter supply for the cities. 

New York City reaches to 
the Catskill Mountains and 
the Delaware River basin 
for its supply; and the im- 
pounding areas which sup- 
ply other communities 
crowd together [in many 
regions (see Aqueducts). 

New York’s 

Diversified Agriculture 

Agriculture in New York 
State has specialized in sup- 
plying fresh foods to people 
in the state’s large cities. 


New York City’s 8 million people and the 1}4 million 
people in other great cities provide an enormous 
market for such perishable foods as milk, fruit, and 
vegetables and for such bulk foods as potatoes. The 
state’s farmers use most of the available land to meet 
this demand. New York gets foodstuffs such as wheat 
and meat in large part from less crowded states. 

Only a small part of New York’s workers are em- 
ployed on farms, yet the state’s farm income rank 
fifth among all the states east of the Mississippi Eiver, 
The chief agricultural industry is dairying. More 
than 3)^ billion quarts of milk are produced each 
year. Most of the milk is sold to distributors or to 
creameries and cheese factories. In order to profide 
feed for stock. New York gives a greater acreage to 
hay than to any other crop. 

Truck crops are also an important source of farm 
income. The truck farms, located near the cities, 
supply fresh vegetables and fruit directly to city 
markets or to near-by canneries. Other leading farm 
products are eggs, cattle, potatoes, and corn. 

Orchards and vineyards flourish along the southern 
shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario and in the Finger 
Lakes region. In these areas lake winds modify t e 
extremes of summer and winter weather. Favora e 
climate and soil make it possible for the state to pro- 
duce large crops of apples, peaches, pears, and gra^s. 
Much of the grape crop is made into grape jure , 
wine, jelly, and jam. 

Beginnings of New York History 

Probably the first European to enter New lor ’ 
bor was Giovanni da Verrazano, an Italian naviga 
e.xploring in the service of France. He is ^ 
have sailed his ship La Dauphine past Sandy 


THE IMPOSING CAPITOL AT ALBA NY 

^ I _ ’ ' , I ■■■■ lu ii u I ' ii - i .II I I n ii r- — “ 



The State 


.j Capitol stands on the top of a hill overlooking the Hudson River. jgpj, 

the 33-story State Office Building. The Capitol was under construction from Parlian 

original designs were made by Thomas Fuller, the same architect who designeo me 
Buildings for Canada. The buildings show many resemblances. 



213 


-n 1524. The Frenchman Samuel de Champlain 
ijrobably was the first white man to set foot within 
:,:he limits of the state. He started south from Quebec 
3arly in 1609 and discovered the lake that is named 
lifter him. In September 1609, Henry Hudson, sent 
_'out by the Dutch East India Company to find a water 
'route across the continent to the Pacific, sailed far 
;_up the Hudson River (see Hudson, Henry). His 
“reports of the beauty and wealth of the country lured 
% few Dutch fur traders into the upper reaches of the 
‘river, and by 1614 they had constructed Fort Nassau 
'bn an island near the present city of Albany, as an 
■outpost for trade with 
-the Indians. In 1617 a 
-flood destroyed the fort. 

The First Colonists 
! In 1621 the Dutch 
2 started a West India 
■ Company, and in 1623 es- 
’I tablished the province of 
.'New Netherland. The 
first colonists were 30 
! families of Walloons, de- 
. scendants of Protestant 
• refugees from Belgium 
sent to the province by 
the West India Company 
;i& 1624. Some families 
traveled north along the 
; Hudson and buUt Fort 
f Orange on a site now em- 
: braced within the city of 
i Albany. Other families 
. established a trading 
post. New Amsterdam, 
on the southern tip of 
Manhattan Island. Afew 
settled on Long Island. 

In 1626 the company 
appointed Peter Minuit 
its first director general. 

He bought permission 
from the Manhattan tribe of the Wappinger Confeder- 
acy to use Manhattan Island and build a fort on the 
site later called the Battery. He paid for this in trin- 
kets worth about $24. The Indians did not think that 
they were selling the land but that they were granting 
permission to use it in common vdth themselves. 

In 1628 the incompetent Wouter van Twiller was 
made governor general. He was recalled in 1637, and 
was succeeded by William Kieft the next year. Kieft’s 
ten years of service were marked principally by strife 
and quarreling with the Indians, the English, and his 
own colonists. 

Features of the Patroon System 

Beginning in 1629, the Dutch West India Company 
conferred the title of patroon (patron) upon any one 
who would send to New Netherland a colony of 50 
hien and women over 15 years of age. The patroon, 
who became a member of the company, gave the 


NEW YORK 

money for transportation and supplies, and in return 
■was allowed to select a tract of land along the Hudson 
River — eight miles on both sides or 16 miles on one 
side and as far inland as he cared to go. This plan, 
kno-wn as the "patroon system,” was based on the 
feudal arrangement of a landed aristocracy. The 
patroons ruled their estates like lords, -with fuU 
governmental and judicial powers. Manhattan Island 
was excepted in these grants. Kiliaen van Rensselaer 
of Amsterdam obtained a tract about Fort Orange, 
which has since become a greater part of the present 
counties of Albany, Rensselaer, and Columbia. 

Michael Poauw secured 
from the Indians Staten 
Island and the land on 
which Jersey City and 
Bayonne now stand. 
End of Dutch Rule 

Both the company and 
the patroons ruled their 
holdings entirely for then- 
own profit, -with little re- 
gard for the welfare of 
the colonists. Thus they 
failed to establish the loy- 
alty and strength among 
their people which might 
have held the land for 
the Dutch against later 
English encroachment. 

In 1647 Kieft was re- 
placed by Peter Stuyve- 
sant, a picturesque char- 
acter ■with a wooden leg, 
which bore “witness to 
his ser^vdces in the Neth- • 
erlands West Indian 
wars. Stuyvesant con- 
quered the Swedish colo- 
nies on the Delaware, 
resisted the growing 
pressure from claims of 
the New England colonies and the jealous English 
government at home, and browbeat the Dutch settlers 
who clamored for greater self-government. He had a 
favorite expression: “We derive our authority from 
God and the Company and not from a few ignorant 
subjects.” New Netherland prospered under him. 

In 1664, during a w-ar between the English and the 
Dutch, the English captured New Netherland, and 
Charles 11 gave the colony to his brother, the Duke 
of York, afterwards King James II. Both the city 
and the province were renamed New York in honor 
of the Duke. Col. Richard NicoUs, who commanded 
the fleet that took the city, was made governor, and 
was followed by Francis Lovelace in 1668. New York 
was recaptured in 1673 by a Dutch fleet, but was 
returned to the English in 1674. 

Sir Edmund Andros was the first English governor 
after the war with Holland. Dissension “with New 


LIGHTS ON BUFFALO’S CITY HALL 



Floodlights St night show up the fine architectural details of Buffalo’s 
$7,000,000 City Hall on Ifiagara Square, the civic center of the city. 








NEW YORK 


214 


Jersey caused his recall, and in 1682 Thomas Dongan A colonial congress assembled in New York in October 
was made governor. In 1683 the “Charter of Liberties 1765, and the refusal of the assembly to votesuppfe 
and Privileges,” which granted freedom of religion to for the British troops caused the battle of (bldea 
aU Christians and suffrage to all freeholders, was Hill, on John Street in New York City, between tie 
drawn up by 17 representatives of the colony. This, Sons of Liberty and British soldiers on Jan. IS, 
the first bill of rights in America, was signed by the 1770. (See also Revolution, American.) 

Duke of York, but he repudiated it when he became New York has long been considered a “pivotsl 
King James II shortly afterwards. Sir Edmund Andros state” in presidential elections because it has the larg- 
became governor of the Dominion of New England est vote in the Electoral College. Six presidents have 
in 1688, and New York was joined to this territory been New York men. Four of them (l^an Burca, 
under Lieutenant-Governor Nicholson. Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. 

When the revolution broke out in England, many Roosevelt) had served as governors. Another & 
members of the colony sided with William and Mary, governor, Samuel J. Tilden, missed election as pr® 
In 1689 Jacob Leisler, a colonist of German birth, dent in 1876 by a few votes. As chairman of the Dens- 
led an insurrection against IGng James, and began ocratic state committee Tilden broke up the notoiioiu 
to repair the fort at New York City. A battery of “Tweed Ring” of New York City (see Tammany), 
six guns was placed beyond its walls, and the park He was governor 1874-76. When he died in 1886, be 
now standing on that spot is known as The Battery, left part of his fortune for a free public libraiy b 
William and Mary sent over Henry Sloughter as New York City. With the Astor and Lenox libraiies, 
governor in 1691. Leisler finally surrendered to Slough- it became the New York Public Library in 1895.(& 
ter and, after what was said to have been an unfair also chronology in New York Fact Sunimaiy.) 
trial, was hanged for treason. The State’s Great School System 

The period from 1690 to the American Revolution New York State’s education system had itshegi^ 
was marked by great corruption, but despite political nings in the schools established by the Mrly Driw 
disturbances the colony grew. From 1720 to 1771, settlers at their tradmg posts by the middle of® 
the population increased from 31,000 whites and 17th century. Today, in addition to a splendid pwte 
4,000 Negroes to 150,000 whites and 18,000 Negroes, school system, opportunities for higher education aie 
Battle for Freedom of the Press offered in all parts of the state. _ , 

The first newspaper was the Gazette, a government In New York City are Columbia Univemty, » 
organ established in 1725. In 1733 the Weekly Journal first King’s College, 1754, Fordham University, wi- 
appeared in opposition to the colonial government, lege of the City of New York and its Hunter w> 6 
The publisher, a German immigrant named John for women. New York University, Manhattan 
Peter Zenger, was supported by Chief Justice Morris lege. College of Mount St. Vincent, Manhsttam 
and others. He was imprisoned in 1735 on a charge of College of the Sacred Heart, Cooper y..,, 

seditious libel, but a juiy acquitted him. This verdict land University, Polytechnic Institute ® 
helped greatly to establish freedom of the press for the Pratt Institute, St. Francis College, St. Josep s 
colonists with its implications that newspapers cannot lege for Women, State College of Aledicme, an 
be challenged for criticizing the government. Joseph’s University. . 

Sir William Johnson took an important part in the Cornell University, at which the state 
state’s early history. He came to the colony in 1738 Colleges of Agriculture and Home Economics, 
to manage his uncle’s estate on the south side of inary College, and School of Industrial and w 
the Mohawk, near Schenectady. There he learned the Relations, is at Ithaca. 

Indian language and was adopted into the Mohawk Syracuse University, with State Colleges of 
tribe as a sachem. Johnson, appointed colonel of and Medicine, is at Syracuse; University of Roc 
the Six Nations in 1744, became a member of the at Rochester; University of Buffalo, 
provincial council in 1750, and in 1754 was a delegate lege, and Canisius College, Buffalo; Union 
from New York to the congress of Albany, and to the Schenectady; Adelphi College, Garden 
great council with the Indians. In 1755 General College, Geneva; St. Lawrence Life 

Braddock made Johnson “sole superintendent of the Alfred University, with State College of 
affairs of the Six United Nations, the allies and de- Alfred; Niagara University, Niagara FaUs; 
pendents” and he was commissioned to be Crown College, Clinton; Vassar College, 

Representative to the Indians the following year. In lege of New Rochelle, New Rochelle; Elmira o ^ 
1764 Sir William built Johnson Hall, where he lived Elmira; Wells College, Aurora; Clarkson 
in true baronial style until his death in 1774. Johns- Technology, Potsdam; Rensselaer 
town, N. Y., was named after him. tute, Troy; St. Bonaventure College *1"“ 

Active in the American Revolution St. Bonaventure; and Houghton College, n 

New York was a leader in protesting against meas- New York State also supports 11 teachers c 
iires of the English Parliament which were unfair. It The United States trains its army 
sent petitions to Parliament and to the king in 1764. Point (see Military Academy, Atlant'' 

Its assembly appointed a committee to correspond See also United States, section “Middle a 
with the other provinces about the “common cause.” Region.” 



215 


NEW YORK CITY 


Tower-Topped METROPOLIS of WESTERN WORLD 



Here is a view of “downtown” N ew York, largest city in the United States and second iargest in the world. In this scene from 
Governors Island are giant skyscrapers in lower Manhattan, a steamship on East River, and docks and piers. These are 
typical sights of the “Gateway to America” — the busiest port and one of the finest harbors in the world. 


• T^EW YORK CITY. In wealth, industry, and com- 
merce — in countless ways — New York today is 
the greatest city in the world. It is more than twice 
: as large as any other city in the Western Hemisphere. 
; Of the world’s cities, only Greater London, with a 
: population of more than 8,300,000, is larger. 

; The population of New York exceeds that of more 
: than half the nations on earth. The sprawling New 
' York-northeastern New 
1 Jersey metropolitan area 
; contains nearly 13,000,- 
000 people. This includes 
; New York City, four 
: nearby counties of New 
York State, and eight 
New Jersey counties. 

Of all the nations of 
' the Americas, only the 
United States has an an- 
nual budget exceeding 
that of New York City. 

The value of this giant 
city’s imports and ex- 
ports exceeds that of 
nny other port. The 
city is the richest in the 
world, vdth hotels and 
homes of amazing lux- 
ury. Yet by walking a 
few minutes from the 
city’s richest districts, one can find some of the most 
squalid, poverty-ridden tenements in America. 

Visitors may think that by seeing the “midto\\Ti” 
district of hotels, shops, and theaters on Manhattan 


Island, they are “seeing New York.’’ Actually this dis- 
trict, immense and rich as it is, counts for about as 
much as one block or so on “Main Street’’ in an aver- 
age toum. A better way to see New York is to view the 
city from the top of the Statue of Liberty — the colossal 
copper figure created by F. A. Bartholdi and presented 
to the United States by the French people in 1886. 
From the room in its head — a space large enough 

to hold 40 people — a 
breathtaking panorama 
spreads out in all direc- 
tions. 

The harbor itself fur- 
nishes many reasons for 
the greatness of “Man- 
hattan” (the name often 
given to the entire city 
though properly it be- 
longs only to the island 
that is its heart) . Around 
Bedloe’s Island lies a 
great land-locked bay, 
linked at the south to 
the Atlantic Ocean 
through the Narrows be- 
tween Long and Staten 
islands. To the north- 
east, the East River con- 
nects vdth Long Island 
Soimd and the waters 
skirting New England. To the north the Hudson River 
pierces far inland. New Yorkers still call the lower 
part of the Hudson “North River,” to distinguish it 
from the Delaware, the “South River” of colonial days. 


Population: (1950 census), 7,891,957. Boroughs: Kings 
(Brooklyn), 2,738,175; Manhattan, 1,960,101; Queens, 
1,550,849; Bronx, 1,451,277; Richmond, 191,555. Metro- 
politan area, 12,911,994. Growth of city: 1900, 3,437,202; 
1910, 4,766,883; 1920, 5,620,048; 1930, 6,930,446; 19i0, 
7,454,995. 

Area : 359.4 square miles. BortmpAs; Queens. 120.6; Kings, 
88.8; Richmond, 64.4; Bronx, 54.4; Manhattan, 31.2. 

Location: (Manhattan Island) about 40° N., 73° W. 

Climate: Average temperatures — annual, 52.7°; highest 
monthly, 74.4° (July); lowest monthly, 31.5° (Februarj’). 
Average precipitation — annual, 42.87 inches; monthly 
high, 4.37 inches (August); monthly low, 3.15 inches 
(November). 

Port of New York: (New York City and parts of New 
York and New Jersey) about 200 deep-water piers; about 
755 miles of water frontage. Average annual shipping: im- 
ports, 16,877,000 tons; exports, 12,404,000 tons; coastwise, 
39,434,000 tons. 

Transportation and Communication: Bridges, 9; tunnels 
(vehicular), 4; railroads, 12, with about 214,160,000 passen- 
gers a year; airlines, 28; airports, 4, with about 4,342,000 
passengers a year; telephones, 3,043,533; newspapers, 20 
daily, with about 6,641,000 circulation daily. 




216 


NEW YORK CITY 


THE IMMIGRANT’S FORMER GATEWAY TO AMERICA 



Here we see Ellis Island in New York Harbor. This famous immigration station was dosed in 
November 1954. Formerly as many as a million people a jrear passed through it before being 
admitted to the United States. The three large windows in the building with “pepper pot” 
towers mark the detention room where the newcomers were examined. Today immigrants are 
examined at consulates abroad and need not be detained here. Other buildings include hos- 
pitals, quarters for the staff, and facilities for aliens detained for deportation. The 27V4-acre 
island was made by filling in land around an original rocky islet of 3V4 acres. 


In all, New York City has 755 miles of water front. 
Sea contacts, and a population that was cosmopolitan 
from the first, explain the early love of amusement 
and fun which caused Washington Irving in his ‘Sal- 
magundi’ to dub the city “Gotham,” after an English 
village noted for frivolity. Today New York City is 
noted as a center of stage plays and other entertainment. 

Facing north, we see another “gateway” — Ellis 
Island, which once admitted a large portion of all im- 
migrants. Today the station is closed, as immigrants 
are examined abroad and cleared for entry (see Immi- 
gration). To the west we see 
thi'iving cities of New Jersey; 
but the great mass of Staten 
Island to the southwest be- 
longs to New York state and 
city for ah interesting reason. 

King James II had decreed in 
1688 that all islands in the 
bay which could be circum- 
navigated in 24 hours should 
belong to New York. Capt. 

Christopher Billopp worked 
a boat through Kill van Kull 
and Arthur Kill to circle 
Staten Island in one day. 

We cannot see much of the 
East River, which is really a 
strait three fourths of a mile 
wide, between Manhattan 
and Long Island. Since the 
rocks were blasted from Hell 
Gate toward its north end in 


1885, it has been used by 
coastal steamers. Midway 
in its course is Welfare Is- 
land (once Blackwells), site 
of hospitals and a former 
citypriBon.RandalIs,Wards, 
and Rikers islands have city 
institutions and play- 
grounds. At the “mouth” of 
the East River lies Govern- 
ors Island, once the home of 
colonial governors, now used 
by the United States Army. 
Giant Brooklyn 
Across the bay to the 
east is the vast stretch of 
Brooklyn, on Long Island. 
Many know Brooklyn be- 
cause of Coney Island, the 
amusement resort jutting 
into the Atlantic at the 
southwest tip of Long Is- 
land (see Coney Island). Yet 
it has many great industries 
and immense residential sec- 
tions of tree-shaded homes. 
The borough of Brooklyn 
has the largest population 
of any of the five boroughs making up the city of New 
York. Every work day many thousands of people cross 
to Manhattan in the morning and return home in the 
evening . They use bridges, subway tubes, and a motor- 
vehicle tunnel which go over or under the East River 
and link Brooklyn and Manhattan (see Brooklyn). 

When we return to Manhattan, we land at The 
Battery on its tip. Battery Park is a 21-acre open 
site once occupied by fortifications. Here for about 
a century and a half stood a landmark of New York, 
a big round structure built in 1808-11 as a fort. 





Incoming travelers by sea cannot miss the Statue of Liberty. It rises above old Fort Wooij 
on tiny Bedloe’s Island, over against "the Jersey side.” From a ship one sees only the giauj 
statue. This air view shows the star-shaped fort walls, built to provide defense agaiasi 
attack from any angle. The article Liberty, Statue of, teUs the statue’s story. 


217 


NEW YORK CITY 


It was then knowm as the West 
Battery. After the War of 
1812 it was called Castle Clin- 
ton. When its usefulness as a 
harbor fort ended it became a 
coliseum known as Castle 
Garden. Here such notables 
as Lafayette, Louis Kossuth, 
and Edward VII, then Prince 
of Wales, were entertained. 
Jenny Lmd, the Swedish sing- 
er, made her American debut 
here in 1850. From 1855 to 
1890 Castle Garden was an im- 
migrant receiving station. For 
six years it was closed. From 
1896 to 1941 it was the city 
Aquarium. It was partly de- 
molished in 1942 to make room 
for the Brooklyn Battery 
Tunnel. In 1950 it became a 
national monument. It is 
planned to restore the fort. 

Crowded Manhattan 
Manhattan Island is only 
12J^ miles long and between 1 
and 2 ]/^ miles wide. One can 
walk across it in half an hour. 
Its area of 31 square miles is 
only a small part of the city’s 
323 square miles; yet a quarter 
of the city’s total popdation 
lives here, closely crowded in 
lofty apartment buildings. The 


TWO NEW YORK CITY LANDMARKS 



average square mile houses 
some 87,000 — about one half 
as many as live in all Nevada. 
In addition, about a million 
people come here every day to 
work from homes in three 
states. To these millions of 
permanent residents and sub- 
urban workers must be added 
scores of thousands of visitors 
who arrive every day. About 
63 per cent of the area is res- 
idential. Business occupies 23 
per cent, and 14 per cent is 
given over to parks and play- 
grounds. 

To house its business ac- 
tivities, Manhattan has the 
highest skyscrapers in the 
world, topped by the tallest 
man-made structure of all, the 
Empire State Building. Such 
building was made easier by 
the fact that the island is 
solid rock to within a few 
feet of the surface. 

The Street Plan 

The shape and street layout 
of Manhattan make it easy for 
us to survey the island. The 
present street plan was de- 
vised in 1811, to provide 
orderly growth beyond the 
“crazy quilt” area of the old 



feet Building (top), the world’s tallest, soars 1,472 

Pletert Avenue and Thirty-fourth Street. When com- 

m 1931, it was 1,250 feet. A television tower has in- 


creased its height. Its 102 stories can house 25,000 office work- 
ers. The New York Public Library (bottom) is at Fifth Avenue 
and Forty-second Street, north of the Empire State Building. 



'TEW YORK CITY 


218 


A GREAT MUSEUM OF ART 



The Metropolitan Museum of Art is in Central Park facing Fifth Avenue. It houses one of the 
world’s greatest art collections and one of the largest general collections in the United States. 


town. Many east-west streets, numbered northward, 
connected the two rivers. About 12 avenues, num- 
bered from First Avenue on the east, ran north 
and south. This was done because the planners 
thought that industry would hug the river banks 
and most of the traffic would move east or west. 
Actually, the growth of New York has 
thrown most of the traffic burden on the few 
north and south avenues. The city has 
spent Vhundreds of millions of dollars to 
remedyythis old error in city planning. 

Mamhattan’s Crowded “Downtown” 

To find his way about Manhattan, a vis- 
itor needp remember only one street in addi- 
tion to the numbered streets and avenues. 

This street is Broadway. It starts at the 
tip of the island and runs approximately 
north. Since the island slants toward the 
northeast, Broadway seems to angle west- 
ward across the avenues. Far beyond the city 
it becomes the Albany Post Road to upper 
New York State. Nearly all Manhattan 
is within a few blocks of Broadway. 

We can start our tour of Manhattan 
where Broadway starts — at Bowling 
Green, a little park adjoining Bat- 
tery Park. Here Dutch settlers had 
a smooth grass plot for playing 
bowls. Near by is a shipping district, 
with steamship offices, the Custom- 
house, and business offices. 

About a quarter-mile north we 
come to Wall Street, where a Dutch 
wall once kept out Indians. It runs • 
east from Broadway. Opposite its 
end is Trinity Church. Alexander 
Hamilton, Robert Fulton, and other 
notables are buried in the church- 
yard. One block to the east is “the 


narrow street called 
Broad.” It becomes Nas- 
sau Street north of Wall. 

At the corner of Broad 
and Wall we are in the 
“financial heart” of Amer- 
ica. On the northeast 
comer is the United States 
Subtreasury Building. It 
stands on the site of Fed- 
eral Hall where George 
Washington was inau- 
gurated as president. In 
1939 it became a national 
historic site. On the south- 
east comer is J. P. Mor- 
gan and Company. The 
New York Stock Ex- 
change is on the south- 
west comer. 

A few blocks farther 
north we come to Maiden 
Lane and John Street, headquarters of the wholesale 
jewelers. In John Street diamond merchants trade 
with one another; at one time many carried fortunes in 
loose stones in their pockets. A few blocks north is 
City Hall Square. In Revolutionary days this was an 
open common on the edge of town. Here are the City 
Hall and the County Building. They were 
long ago outgrown, and most of the city’s 
office work is done in the Mimicipal Building 
at the northeast comer of the square. 
Flanking this building to the south is the 
west end of Brooklyn Bridge. 

At night, downtown New York is deserted. 
In most cities, “downtown” is filled at night 
with pleasure seekers. In New York, how- 
ever, everything except business has moved 
“uptown.” Every afternoon the subways 
honeycombing the district whisk away all 
workers, like some giant vacuum cleaner. 
The Lower East Side 

Slanting off northeast from City Hall 
Square is Park Row, once the home of most 
New York newspapers. Park Row 
ends after a quarter of a mile at Chat- 
ham Square, alongside Chinatown. 
The Bowery runs north from here. 
Its name comes from Peter Stuyv^ 
sant’s bouwerij or farm, which it 
crossed. After the Chdl War the Bow- 
ery became the home of sailors and 
“down and outers”; so in those days 
Chatham Square, called “Five P oints 
from the streets meeting there, was 
one of the world’s “toughest” spots. 

East of the Bowery we can exT^o’'® 
New York’s East Side. Modem hous- 
ing projects here have helped re- 
lieve the congestion of a large for- 
eign-born population. A feature 


CLEOPATRA’S 


NEEDLE 



The Egyptian obelisk called Cleo- 
patra’s Needle stands in Central Park. 
It dates from 1600 b.c. 



219 ». 


that attracts many visitors to the district is 
the Jewish area centering on Hester Street. 

Running north from City Hall Square is 
Centre Street. On this street are the new 
Cri m inal Courts Building and the new sky- 
scraper City Prison. They replace the old 
prison, the “Tombs,” and the old court 
building, once connected by the “Bridge of 
Sighs.” Broadway runs north through a 
wholesale machinerj’- district. A detoiu- west 
brings us to Washington Square, with its 
huge arch honoring George Washington. 

Around the Square stand close-packed 
homes once inhabited by the w'ell-to-do. 

Now this quiet area has been invaded by the 
downtown buildings of New York Universi- 
ty, some apartment hotels, and, to the south- 
west, “Greenwich Village.” This is a district 
of tenements in which many artists and 
writers have settled. 

Begirmmg at Washington Square and run- 
ning north we see Fifth Avenue, important 
to most women visitors because of its splen- 
did shops. We foUow it north to where we 
meet the diagonal swing of Broadwmy at 23d 
Street. Here is Madison Square. Toward 
the end of the 19th century, this wms the 
heart of “gay life” in New York, with its 
hotels and amusement places. Today the 
clothing industry has swamped the region, 
and spreads up Broadway and to the west, 
almost to the new amusement zone beginning 
at 42d Street. The resulting loss in real 
estate values was one reason for New York’s 
zomng law, which bars factories from resi- 
ential and commercial districts. Looking 
ack from Madison Square dotm Broadway 
0 Fourteenth Street, we see an old-time shopping 
center, with its stores featuring “bargain merchan- 
, There also is the famous Union Square, the 
ramtional spot where agitators are allowed to air 
em views. After crossing Fifth Avenue, Broadway 
n ^ jf UT department stores in the city, and 

nf n ° ^ hhe world, at 34th Street. One block west 
Broadway, between 32d and 33d, is the huge 
en^ylvania Railroad station, backed by one of New 
Dorics principal postoffices. 

_ Many Features of “Mid town” 
etuming at this point to Fifth Avenue, we find 
selves entering “midtown” New York, another 
^^skyscrapers. At 42d Street we come to the 
ah p which has some 3,000,000 volumes on 

1 ^ bookshelves. It houses many price- 

s collections, including the old Astor, Lenox, and 
iuden hbraries. 


— NEW YORK CITY 

THE COLOSSAL GEORGE WASHINGTON BRIDGE 




thp O' -1 J-ne nrsi; station nere was ouui, aiu 

term’ ^ I Commodore Vanderbilt. He had a 

tici Madison Square, but when corrupt poli- 

tried to extort money from him for franchise 


This tremendous span bridges the Hudson from the Fort Lee district in 
New Jersey, where we stand, to the Fort Washington district of upper 
Manhattan. The two forts were built in 1776 to hold the Hudson against 
the British. The bridge, which has a 3,S00-foot span, cost $60,000,000. 

privileges, he built a new station at 42d Street, which 
was then far uptowm, and said that he “would bring 
the city to the trains.” When the lines entering the 
Grand Central were electrified after 1906, the tracks, 
going north in Park Avenue, were roofed over as far 
as 96th Street; and Park Avenue became a fashionable 
hotel and apartment street. 

If we continue north on Fifth Avenue, we pass St, 
Patrick’s Cathedral at 50th Street, opposite the huge 
Rockefeller Center group of buildings. At 59th we 
come to Central Park, which is bounded on the east 
by Fifth Avenue. Another interesting route from 42d 
Street and Fifth Avenue takes us west again to where 
Broadway crosses 42d Street and Seventh Avenue at 
Times Square. Here beneath our feet is probably the 
busiest subway station in the world, with four lines 
crossing at different levels. Times Square is the 
center of the amusement district. Theaters cluster 
so thick along the square and the adjoining streets 
that at night people and vehicles can hardly move. 

At 59th Street and Columbus Circle, Broadway 
crosses Eighth Avenue and also touches the southwest 
comer of Central Park. Above 59th Street Manhattan 





f • ^ — 

1. The Gothic tower of the nonsectaiian Riverside Church rises high above Riverside Drive and the Hudson River. In the 
background at the ieft is the tomb of President Grant. 2. The poverty of this East Side slum, with its pushcarts and wasmng 
hung over the street, contrasts with the luxurious skyscraper hotels (3) overlooking Central Park at Fifth Avenue and 59tn 
Street. 4. Broadway at the left and Seventh Avenue at the right run north from Times Square in all their 
glitter. The theater district centering at Tiroes Square extends from Fifth to Eighth Avenue and from 39th to i7th Street. 



look River,' “dwntown,” and the Hudson lUver toward New Jersey. In the fore- 

Pound is Manhattan Bridee with BroSlyn Bridge beyond. 2. Staten Islanders come to work m Manhattan by ferry. 3. The 
Subtreasury Building is in the heart of ^ Wall Street district A statue of George Washington stands on the spot where 
the oath ofoffice S SLidl^t S ml 4. The old City HaU, completed in 1811, houses the City CouncU and the mayor’s 
“ffiw. Behind itare the clty^^Court B^ing and the Hall of Records. The 40-story Municipal Building rises in the background. 








NEW YORK city- 


how THE AIR MAN AND THE MAP MAN SEE NEW YORK 


ISLAND SOUND 


.T* 4i ’ 

'X/' 

■, . - 5 ^ 

A ■ ^.:- 

'•'..•’■■j. ■/?',*:.•' 'tv 


The airplane view shows the principal features of the 
city*s geography, with Manhattan Island in the center. 
The midtown business and amusement district is just 
south of Central Park. In the map below, heavy shading 
indicates the densely populated areas. 

becomes definitely residential, although the 
blocks are still built solid with almost no trees 
or grass. At 116th Street, Broadway divides 
the campus of Columbia University (estab- 
lished as King’s College in 1754). Some 70 
buildings of the imiversit 5 ’- are grouped on 
Momingside Heights. Near by is the magnifi- 
cent Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St. 
John the Dhdne, the world’s largest. Another 
interesting trip in upper Alanhattan is on River- 
side Drive from 72nd Street north along the 
high bluff overlooking the Hudson to the 
George Washington Bridge at 178th Street. 
Parallel to it, lower and nearer the river, is the 
Henrj’’ Hudson Parkway. This express drive ex- 
tends from the elevated West Side Highway to 
Westchester County. It crosses a ship canal 
connecting the Harlem and Hudson rivers. The 
western part of the canal was formerly Spuy- 
ten Duyvdl (“Spitting De^nl”) Creek. 



iR^BlCLYNN'. 

v .^1 








y r4E)>.’ARK 


■ 











223 » 


NEW YORK CITY 


Most famous of New York’s parks is Central Park. 
In it is the Metropolitan Museum of Art; near bj' is 
the American Museum of Natural History. The Bronx, 
northeast of Manhattan, has Van Cortland Park; 
Bronx Park, noted for its zoo and botanical gardens; 
and Pelham Bay Park, with eight miles of water front. 
Prospect Park, the largest, is in Brooklyn. The World’s 
Fair site (1939-40) is now Flushing Meadow Park. 
New York’s People and Schools 
The people of New York have come from almost 
every land in the world. Many of them are either for- 


en); New York University, with its Hall of Fame 
(see Hall of Fame) ; and Fordham University (Catho- 
lic, for men). Cooper Union is one of the country’s 
best-knovm technological institutions. Scores of other 
schools provide specialized instruction. 

A great problem of New York is to obtain over a 
billion gallons of water daily. It must reach out 
almost 125 miles to tap three main watersheds. The 
Croton watershed has 12 reservoirs. The 92-mile 
Catskill Aqueduct carries water from the Ashokan 
and Schoharie reservoirs (see Aqueduct). The Dela- 


MOTOR TUNNEL LINKS NEW YORK AND “JERSEY” 
















1... i-._. 


un a DUET day 60,000 motor vehicles pour through this tube and its twin wmcn lorm ine noiianu lunnei unuer me nuuson ^iver 
between New York City and Jersey City. Blower fans in those ceiUng vents change the air automatically 42 times an hour, or oftener 
when “robot” electrical devices warn the engineers in charge that the air is dangerously heavy with exhaust gases. The tubes are 
9,250 feet long— nearly two miles. Emergency phones hang along the walk on the right. 


eign born or the children of foreign born. Prominent in 
the population are Americans of Italian, Russian, 
German, Irish, Polish, and Austrian descent. New 
Yorkers often boast that there are more Italians in 
New York City than in Naples, more Germans than in 
Bremen, more Irish than in Belfast, and more Jews 
than in any other city. There are still foreign-back- 
^ound neighborhoods such as “Little Italy’’ and 
Chinatown,’’ and German, French, Russian, and 
Greek areas. There are also many newcomers from 
Puerto Rico who have settled in or near Harlem, the 
® largest Negro community. 

. ^use varied groups have had special problems. 

had to learn Fn g lisb and "the American w'ay 
0 life ’; yet it was desirable to preserve valuable Old 
orld customs. Both the newer- and the older-stock 
Pelicans also faced the task of building good will 
sua co-operation among peoples of many different 
uationahties, races, and religious faiths. 

^'^dition to its elementary and high schools, 
lymch enroll more than a million pupils. New York 
uiany institutions of higher learning. The city 
“ampins the CoUege of the City of New York, 
^ n , rises foiu' colleges: City CoUege, Hunt- 
Ulk™ n — and Queens College. 

include Columbia University, 
and Barnard College (for worn- 






histitutions 
Teachers CoUege 


ware River watershed began supplying wmter through 
the 85-mile Delaware Aqueduct in 1944. 

TrafiBc and Transportation Problems 

Providing adequate transportation is a never-end- 
ing problem. The local facilities provide about 
biUion rides a year, or enough to give 23 rides to every 
person in the United States. Railroads and ferries 
provide about 250 milUon more rides for visitors and 
commuters. As early as 1870 Manhattan had its 
first elevated railroad; in 1904 the first subway wms 
completed. Today the island is honeycombed wdth 
municipally owned subways, w'hich have replaced 
nearly all elevated lines of earUer days. In 1950 
the world’s largest bus terminal for commuters and 
long-distance travelers was opened in Alanhattan. 
Express motor highw'ays girdle the city. Along the 
w^est edge of Manhattan are an elevated express high- 
way and the Henry Hudson Parkway. Along the east 
edge of the island near the East River is the FrankUn 
D. Roosevelt Drive. Other parkways skirt or cut 
through the Bronx, Queens, and Brooklyn. These 
speedw'ays aid motorists to get into and out of the city. 

Vehicles and rapid-transit trains cross the East 
River on the Brooklyn, Manhattan, Williamsburgh, 
and Queensborough bridges. The Triborough and 
Bronx-VTiitestone bridges carrj^ motor traffic oMy. 
Tunnels are provided for subway and railroad trams. 



NEW YORK CITY 


224 




CENTERS OF LE ARNING IN NEW YORK CITY 



ir.,r 1 TT_! P Umversitj. 2. The Columbia Medical School is housed in this great buUd- 

.*“???■*?“* seate of learning. The domed building in the center of the square is 
gbt is the gymnasium. St. Paul’s Chauel is the small domed 


ing. 3. Columbia University is one 

the Low Memorial Library. The horsVshoe-^h>fcJH*il«yM^“^ domed building in the center of the sq 

building in theleft foreground gymnasium. St. Paul’s Chapel is the small 

oregrounu. 4. t ■ttham University is one of America’s large Roman Catholic institutions. 


The Midtown-Queens vehicular tunnelVras ouened 
in 1940. The 9,117-foot Brooklyn Bat\y Snel 
opened in 1950, is the second longest \iderwater 
vehicular tunnel in the world. \ 

Manhattan and New Jersey are connected by the 
George Washington Bridge, opened in 1931, and by 
the Holland and Lincoln tunnels for motor vehicles 
The Hudson tubes, opened in 1908 and 1909 carry 
passengers between Manhattan and New Jersey citi4 
as far as Newark. Staten Island is connected with 
Manhattan Ly ferry and with New Jersey by three 
huge bridges. Most of the western railroads stop on 
the west bank of the Hudson, but tunnels provide an 
entrance to the Pennsylvania Terminal on Manhat- 
tan. Railroads from the north and northeast use the 
Grand Central Terminal. 

An Aviation Center 

New York City has four large commercial airports 
in its metropolitan area, all under control of the Port 
of New York Authority. La Guardia, the municipal 
airport in Queens, was opened in 1939. International 


Airport (Idlewild), in South Queens, is the world’s 
largest. Opened to commercial aviation in 1948, it 
covers 4,900 acres. Two other airports, Newark and 
Teterboro, are across the Hudson in New Jersey. 

New York’s Leadership In the Arts 

With its many museums, art galleries, and concert 
halls. New York is the artistic center of the nation. 
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, on Fifth Avenue in 
Central Park, has the largest general collection in 
America. The Junior Museum, opened in 1941, is de- 
voted to exhibits illustrating American history. 

Associated with the Metropolitan Museum is The 
Cloisters. It is a collection of medieval sculpture and 
architectural material assembled by George Grey 
Barnard. The building overlooks the Hudson River 
in Port Tryon Park, at the north end of Manhattan. 
It was developed around architectural elements dating 
from the 12th to the 15th centuries from the cloisters 
of five French monasteries. Among its most valuable 
possessions are the Unicorn tapestries (for illustration 
in color, see Tapestry). 



225 »»" 


NEW YORK CITY 


The American Museum of Natural History on Cen- 
tral Park West is one of the world’s largest institu- 
tions devoted to natural science. Its lectures, circulat- 
ing collections, nature hikes, radio broadcasts, and 
many other services reach more than 40 million people 
every year. (For illustrations in color of museum ex- 
hibits, see North America; Arctic Regions.) The Hay- 
den Planetarium is a part of this museum. The Mu- 
seum of Modem Art encourages the study and appre- 
ciation of all the modem visual arts, including modem 
painting, photography, motion pictures, architecture, 
and theater and industrial design. Midto-rvn in Rocke- 
feller Center is the Musemn of Science and Industry. 

In Washington Heights at 155th Street and Broad- 
way are notable museums and learned societies — 
the Museum of the American Indian (Heye Fotmda- 
tion), the American Geographical Society, the Hispanic 
Society of America, the American Numismatic So- 
ciety, and the American Academy of Arts and Letters. 

Two great musical organizations have become na- 
tional institutions through their radio broadcasts — the 
Metropolitan Opera Association and the Philharmon- 
ic Symphony Orchestra. The City Center of Music and 
Drama, organized in 1943, has its owm sjunphony or- 
chestra and opera company. It is supported by a 
membership corporation. It pays only the taxes on 
its building and divides any profits with the city. 

High Rank in Business, Finance, Industry 
The value of the foreign trade passing through the 
Port of New York is almost half the total for the en- 
tire United States. New York is also a world eenter of 
finance. Here are the nation’s most important ex- 


changes (the Stock Exchange, the “Curb,” and the 
Cotton Exchange) and its largest banks and trust com- 
panies, all served by the great New York Clearing- 
house. The value of the city’s real estate is greater 
than that of the next seven cities of America combined. 

New York’s financial and commercial interests are 
on so enormous a scale that they overshadow its great 
manufacturing industries. But almost 10 per cent of 
the manufactured goods of the nation are produced in 
New York City. It is but a short distance from the 
coal and oil of the Appalachian fields. It has been 
further aided by the large supply of immigrant labor, 
which was a great factor in giving it the lead in manu- 
facturing wearing apparel. Almost half the clothing 
worn in the country is made in the workshops of 
New York City. 

The printing and publishing industry is largely 
concentrated here, ranking second to clothing in value. 
Other leading manufactures are bakery products, meat 
packing, foimdry and machine shop products, sugar 
refining, millinery, leather goods, shoes, tobacco 
manufactures, furniture, and paint and varnish. 

Early History 

The Dutch West India Company occupied the site 
of New York with a fur trading post in 1614, five years 
after Henry Hudson’s voyage up the river. After the 
Dutch had secured permission from the Indians to 
settle on Manhattan Island for the equivalent of S24, 
they named the island New Amsterdam. The early 
history of the city, from the days of Peter Stuyvesant 
to the start of the Revolution, is practically the his- 
tory of the state. {See New York.) 


GRAND CENTRAL STATION IN NEW YO RK CITY 



watch the coming and “have^your'hah^m^ an^" your clolhes cleane'd, and receive Imspitai 

of 17 restaurants, buy^cJ;„‘Wng,^^ewehy. and toys,^^^^^ 7^ those, the power plant. 


i fr«?n «3 eveiv day. ^oa can also board the city subway here, 
of 525 trains J rtAthAo rlAanpH. nnrt rArPlvA hnonltol 



NEW YORK CITY 


ity of these units sometimes overlaps. The 
citj-’s budget is more than a biUion dollars a 
year. In the United States this is e.vceeded 
only by the budget of the national govern- 
ment. The complexity of government struc- 
ture is due in part to the way the city grew. 
Its limits now take in fir-e separate counties. 
Each county contains a borough, and each 
borough and each count}’ has a separate gov- 
ernment organization. 

In 1874 New York City took within its 
borders all IManhattan Island, comprising 
New York County. It absorbed the present 
Bronx County in 1895. In 1897, under the 
Greater New York charter, it took in two Long 
Island counties. Kings and Queens, and Rich- 
mond County (all Staten Island). New York 
County is the borough of iManhattan. Kings 
Count}’ is the borough of Brookh’n. The other 
three boroughs carry the same names as their 
counties. 

A new city charter, adopted in Novemlwr 
1936, became effective Jan. 1, 193S. Under the 
pro\’isions of this charter, each borough elects 
New York City was prominent in the movement a president and members of an improvement board, 

which led to the American Revolution. The Stamp The presidents and boards have limited authority, 

Act Congress (1765) met here. Organizations of Sons principally over street and sewer repairs within the 

of Libert}’ used violence to oppose the sale of stamps borough. Through many departments the city govem- 

and later the shipments of unfairly taxed tea. The ment controls such other municipal affairs as schools, 

city was occupied by the British during the whole of parks, health, fire and police protection, housing 

the war. It was the chief refuge for Loyahsts. Before conditions, and the construction of public works, 

the Revolution, New Y'ork City had been outranked The city’s chief executive is a mayor, elected for a 
in commerce by both Boston and Philadelphia; but four-year term. He is assisted by a deputy ma}^. 

after the British eracuation (Nov. 25, 1783) New York Since 1947 the law-making powers have been aver- 

forged rapidly to the front. Trade with China was cised by a City CouncO, headed by a president. The 

begun, and by 1788 a hundred vessels or more might president and another cit}’ officer called a comptroller 

be seen in port at any one time. The opening of the (a sort of auditor) are elected by a city-wide vote. 

Erie Canal in 1825 gave new life to the westward One councUman is elected from each of the 25 state 


CROWDS GOING HOME 



The subways are _a New Yorker’s chief means of travel. Daring every 
morning and evening rush hour literally millions crowd the subway plat- 
forms. As a train stops they surge forward to board trains already nearly 
fulL Somehow all of them get on. 


movement of merchandise and ensured New York 
Cit}’’s commercial supremacy. A great fire, starting 
on December 16 and raging until Dec. 19, 1835, de- 
stroyed the entire East Side below Wall Street. 

New Y'ork City was the capital of the colony and 
state imtil 1797, and from 1789 to 1790 it was also the 
ca>j)ital of the nation. During the Civil War disloyal 
mobw^oted against the draft, but the city sent large 
numbe^ of its native and foreign-bom men to swell 
the UnioW~^s. Between 1863 and 1871 the “Tweed 
Ring,” througym^jjyjja^jjy jjall’s notorious poUtical 
machine, plundes^ power of the 

ring was broken. William IM. Tweed, was 

sent to prison. _ X 

A World’s ^^®\d in 1939 and 1940. In 1946 
the United Nation make New Y’'ork City its 

permanent capital, o ^Rockefeller, Jr., donated 
sLx blocks along the East ^j^nhattan and the 

city itself gave several ^ 

site for the capital. 

New York City’s 

New Y’’ork City is rul^ g^emmia-x structure of 
dty, count}’, and borough go tnuY^ author- 


senatorial districts within the city. 

The most powerful governmental body is the Bo.'ird 
of Estimate. It is made up of the mayor, the five 
borough presidents, the president of the City Coun- 
cil, and the comptroller. The Board of Estimate 
frames the budget. This must be approved by the City 
Council, but changes can be vetoed by the mayor. 
other important city body is the Planning Commis- 
sion, which makes long-range plans for city develop- 
ment. Its members are appointed by the mayor for 
overlapping terms of eight years. 

New York City has two other authorities with spe- 
cial responsibilities. These are the New York City 
Housing Authority and the Triborough Bridge an 
Tunnel Authority. There is also a city-owned radio 
station, WNYC, providing various public services. 

The 12 members of the bi-state Port of New Tof ’ 
Authority are appointed (six each) by the governors 
of New York and New Jersey. This authority coidro j: 
the New York Harbor, several tunnels and bridgesi 
some truck, bus, and rail freight terminal facilitiesT 
and several airports. The Port of New Y’^ork Author 
itv is a model for all such authorities in this country • 




227 » 


NEW ZEALAND 


NEW ZEALAND — 

^‘fhe HAPPY ISLES’^ 

ATEW ZEALAND “Last, loveliest, loneliest, 
exquisite, apart . . . the happy isles.” So 
Rud}"ard Kipling described New Zealand. 

Many travelers think the country is the most 
beautiful on earth. Sportsmen find it a 
paradise for hunting, fishing, and skiing. 

New Zealand was settled by British people 
and it is still very British., Like Canada, it 
is a self-governing member of the British 
Commonwealth of Nations. The official name 
of the country is Dominion of New' Zealand. 

A Long, Mountainous Island Chain 
Vast stretches of the South Pacific Ocean 
surround New Zealand on all sides. Australia, 
its nearest big neighbor, is 1,470 miles west- 
ward across the Tasman Sea. San Francisco is 
about 6,300 miles to the northeast. 

The country is a little smaller than Colo- 
rado. It consists of North Island, South 
Island, Stewart Island, and the Chatham 
Islands. The island chain is so long that if it 
were moved to the east coast of North America 
it would extend from the mouth of the St. 

Lawrence River to North Carolina. It is so 
narrow that no point is more than 80 miles from the 
sea. The interior is mountainous. The widest plains 
and all the principal cities are on the east coasts of 
the two main islands. There are only about 16 
people to the square mile. 

Because New Zealand lies south of the equator, the 
warmest part of the country is in the north. At the 
northern tip of North Island stretches an almost 
tropical beach 60 miles long. In the center of this 
island, volcanic mountains rise from a high plateau. 
A few are still active. In the “thermal district” 
around Rotorua, geysers spout, mud pools boil, and 
hot rivers flow. A fish caught in a cold stream can 
be cooked in a hot stream nearby. At Waitomo are 
vast underground caves, dimly lit by myriads of glow- 
worms. On the w'est coast rises beautiful Mount 
Egmont (8,260 feet), an almost perfect volcanic cone. 



— North to south, 1,100 tnUes. Area of New Ze^nd 
sq. mi., including North Island (44,281 sq. 
South Island (58,093 sq. mi.), Stewart Island (670 sq. 
and Chatham Islands (372 sq. mi.). Population (1951 

census), 1,939,472. 

T«L Islands, Cook Islands, Niue Islands, 

iOKeiau Islands, Auckland Islands, and other outlying island 
^aJ?^^'^°®®^®Pcndency, in Antarctica. AdministersJWestern 
^ ^^steeship and shares in trusteeship of Nat^. 

— Butter, cheese, meat (lamb, mutton, beef), 
^ool; gold, coal; clothing, furniture. . * 

suburbs). — Auckland (329,193) ; CI^t- 
caurch (174,221); WeUington (133,414); Dunedm (95,457). 


Snow-capped Mount Egmont, an extinct volcano, rises from m ^ost 
tropical plain. The tree fern that frames this view has fronds 15 feet long. 

Even more beautiful is South Island, which has 
higher mountains but no volcanoes. In the Southern 
Alps are many peaks above 10,000 feet that are ice- 
capped throughout the year. Near the west coast 
Mount Cook, New Zealand’s highest peak, rises to 
12,349 feet. Down its sides glaciers reach like giant 
fingers almost to the sea. The southwest coast is 
pierced by fiords as majestic as those of Norway. Near 
the head of one fiord, a superb waterfall, Sutherland 
Falls, plunges dow'n 1,904 feet. 

Ocean winds give New Zealand a cool moist climate 
with little change from summer to winter. The seasons 
are the reverse of those in the Northern Hemisphere. 
In July, the coldest month, 40° F. is considered un- 
comfortably low. In the warmest months— January 
and February— 75° F. is thought unpleasantly high. 
Because the prevailing wind is from the w'est, the west 
coast has the heaviest rainfall— up to 250 inches a 
year in parts of the Southern Alps. Mountain areas 
are dotted with lakes, and all around the coast short 
rivers tumble to the sea. Waterfalls and rivers sup- 
ply New Zealand with abundant h 3 'droelectric power. 
Native Plants and Animals 
Liunbermen have cut dow'n much of New Zealand’s 
virgin timber, but there are still rich forests in many 
parts of the country. Most famous of the native trees 
is the giant kauri pine. The pohutukawa is called 




NEW ZEALAND 


228 



New Zealand is a long and narrow island country about halfway between 
the equator and the South Pole. Cook Strait, which separates the two 
main islands, is 16 miles wide at its narrowest point. 


New Zealand’s Christmas tree because in December it 
is covered with flaming red flowers. The kowhai has 
golden yellow flowers hanging in clusters from brown 
branches. Tree ferns grow as high as 50 feet. 

ViTien New Zealand was discovered, it had many 
strange birds and no native mammals. The flightless 
moa, about 12 feet tall and now extinct, was a sort of 
giraffe of the bird world. The kind, another flight- 
less bird, still survives and has become the emblem 
animal of New Zealand. (New Zealand soldiers are 
called kiwis.) It is larger than a big hen, has a long 
beak, no tail, and onlj" a trace of wings. The color- 
ful tui and the bellbird keep the forests alive with 
their song. The lizardlike tuatara has a third eye 
in the center of its forehead. It is the sole survivor of 
a class of prehistoric reptiles. 

The early settlers imported animals from Europe 
and America. Some pigs escaped, and their descend- 
ants are now wild boars that are dangerous if at- 
tacked. Deer and rabbits multiplied rapidly and are 
now pests because they eat valuable pasture. 

The Maoris, New Zealand’s Native People 
Centuries before Europeans discovered New Zealand 
Polynesians had crossed the Pacific in canoes and 


settled the islands. They are tall, handsome, 
brown-skinned people, friendly and poetic. 
They call themselves Maoris (“ordinary folk”) 
to distinguish themselves from the Pakeha 
(“white”) New Zealanders. They now num- 
ber about 100,000. 

Most of the Maoris live on farms around the 
thermal district of Rotorua. They have ac- 
cepted Christianity, but in some of their 
churches they blend Christian teaching mth 
ancient Maori religious practices. They are 
deeply attached to their tribal groups. Each 
tribe is named for one of the canoes of the first 
Maori settlers. The tribe’s members gather in 
a beautifully carved meeting house to deal 
with tribal affairs. Then they sing traditional 
songs and perform ancient dances — the Haka, 
or war dance, bj’ the men and the Poi dance by 
the girls. Many of the young people now leave 
their tribes to work in the cities. 

A Prosperous Modern Nation 
The white people are almost aU of British 
origin and more than one third of them live 
in the four main cities. The largest city is 
Auckland, on the northern peninsula. Situated 
on a beautiful natural harbor, it is a busy port 
and an international air terminal. Wellington, 
the capital, has a fine harbor on the southern 
tip of North Island. It is the chief port for 
commerce between the two main islands. 
South Island’s principal cities are Christ- 
church, a typical English town, and Dunedin. 
Dunedin was settled chiefly by Scots and re- 
sembles Edinburgh both in appearance and 
climate. The country is well served by roads 
and railwaj's, although both have required the 
construction of thousands of bridges. 

The typical house, whether in town or country, is a 
one-story bungalow or ranch house, built of wood, 
with corrugated iron roofing. Nearly every house has 
a garden with glorious flowers; and the “bush” (coun- 
try) is always near enough for a family picnic. Golf, 
tennis, cricket, football, fishing, swimming, and horse 
racing are all popular sports. 

The four main churches are the Church of England, 
Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, and Methodist. 
Schools are free up to the age of 19. Attendance is 
compulsory up to the age of 15 for Maori and white 
children ahke. Each of the four main cities has a uni- 
versity college. Together they form the University 
of New Zealand, w'hich grants degrees. 

New Zealand gets its living chiefly from cattle 
and sheep. The soil is nowhere very fertile, but abund- 
ant rain produces rich pastures, and the climate is 
warm enough for stock to remain outdoors throughout 
the year. In general, sheep predominate in the hilly 
districts. Dairy cattle are raised on the west coast 
lowlands, which have abundant rain; and beef cattle, 
on the drier eastern plains. Stock raising is a scien- 
tific business. Sheep have been crossbred to produce 
both good meat and good wool. Dairy farms are like 






mM' 


u?“ 


il I' , ■■'•XT’" TTfS* 





milk factories. Practically all 
have electricity. 

The best section for crops 
is the long Canterbury Plain 
around Christchurch. Here 
wheat is the chief crop. Citrus 
fruits are grown in the warm 
Auckland peninsula. Otherdis- 
tricts near the sea specialize in 
apples, apricots, grapes, or pears. 

New Zealand is poor in min- 
erals. Gold production, once 
important, has declined. Coal 
is the leading mineral, but sup- 
plies are limited and New Zea- 
land must import some from 
Australia. Manufacturing is 
handicapped by lack of raw ma- 
terials and by the small mar- 
ket, which limits the size of fac- 
tories. The chief industries are 
making butter, cheese, and 
condensed milk, freezing lamb 
and mutton, and freezing or 
chilling beef. Small factories 
supply the home market with 
vehicles, lumber, clothing, and 
furniture. New Zealand exports dairy products, meat, 
and wool, chiefly to Great Britain. It imports metals, 
machinery, petroleum, textiles, and clothing. 

How New Zealand Is Governed 

The British sovereign is represented in New Zea- 
land by a governor general, but he acts on the advice 
of the New Zealand government. Parliament consists 
of a single chamber, the House of Representatives. 
(The upper house was abolished in 1951.) Members of 
parliament are elected every three years. Four of the 
80 members are chosen by Maoris. The prime minis- 

THE MAORIS 


— »228a«- new ZEALAND 

WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND’S CAPITAL CITY 















Residences spread over the hills around Wellington’s magnificent harbor on CooK Strait. 
The crowded business section, built on reclaimed land, lines the farther shore. Wellington 
is the chief port for commerce between the islands. 

ter, leader of the party in power, heads the executive 
council, or cabinet. 

New Zealand pioneered in social security legisla- 
tion. Its system includes old-age pensions; benefits 
for widows, orphans, and families; unemployment and 
sickness benefits; medical and hospital care. Its laws 
provide for minimum wages, a 40-hour week, and ar- 
bitration courts for labor disputes. The government 
operates hydroelectric plants, the railways, aviation, 
telegraph and telephone, and the chief radio network. 
It also engages in banking and housebuilding. The 


STILL PRACTICE 


THEIR ANCIENT ARTS 



The diin^=5 skilled in wood carving. A wamor 
“poi” seated in the “canoe” in-which 

aus. Their skirts are made of beaded flax stems 


• ' in this figure at the top of a tribal meeting house (left). 

®fhefr®‘nnc1stom “ ached the islands tap out the riiyt^ of the waves w^^^^ 


which their doaS" decorated with the feathers of rare birds. 





Grass is New Zealand’s chief crop, and dairying and sheep raising are the chief industries. On this modem dairy farm (left) pas- 
tures are fenced in with neat hedgerows. At the right, father and daughter are hard at work dipping sheep to destroy the vermin 
on their skin and fleece. The sheep swim along a deep and narrow channel and are given a ducking before they reach the end. 


state is, therefore, the chief employer of labor. Income 
taxes on individuals and corporations are heavy. 

Discovery and History 

A Dutch sea captain, Abel Tasman, discovered New 
Zealand in 1642, but the hostility of the natives 
prevented him from going ashore. The Dutch named 
the islands Nieuw Zeeland after one of the Netherlands 
provinces. Captain James Cook, an English navigator, 
explored and mapped the islands in 1769-77. 

British colonization was begun in 1840. In the same 
year, after entering into a treaty with the Maoris, 
Britain proclaimed New Zealand a British crovm col- 
ony. A constitutional form of government was estab- 
lished in 1852. Conflicts with the Maoris over land 
ownership brought on a fierce war in 1860 and slowed 
up settlement of North Island. On South Island, the 
discovery of gold in 1861 brought a rush of settlers. 

New Zealand became a dominion of the British 
Commonwealth in 1907. During the world-wide de- 


pression of the 1930’s the Labor party grew strong. 
It held power from 1935 to 1949 and carried out a far- 
reaching program of state socialism. In 1949 the more 
conservative Nationalist party came into office. 

New Zealand gave generous support to Great Brit- 
ain in both world wars. As a member of the United 
Nations, it joined in the defense of South Korea in 
1950. In 1951 the United States signed a mutual 
defense pact with New' Zealand and Australia. (For 
Reference-Outline and Bibliography, see Australia.) 
Ney (no), Michel (1769-1815). "The bravest of 
the brave” was the title given by Napoleon to his 
great marshal, Michel Ney. The son of a cooper, Ney 
had become an under-officer in a hussar regiment by 
the beginning of the French Revolution. Promotion 
came rapidly, and Napoleon made him a marshal when 
the empire w'as established in 1804. In the w'ar against 
Prussia and Russia Ney contributed to the victories 
at Jena in 1806 and at Friedland in 1807. 


GOING TO SCHOOL IN NEW ZEALAND 






■aa 229 


But it was in the Russian campaign that his bravery 
was most conspicuous. On the disastrous retreat from 
Moscow he protected the rear, encouraged the soldiers, 
and was himself the last to cross the Russian frontier. 
When news reached Napoleon that this “Launcelot of 
the Imperial chivalry” had escaped, he exclaimed to 
his officers: “I have more than 400,000,000 francs in 
the cellars of the Tuileries and would gladly have given 
all to ransom my faithful companion in arms.” 

But a few years later Napoleon in his far-away 
prison-island, St. Helena, heard without emotion the 
news that Ney had been shot as a traitor. The 
reason for this change of attitude was that when 
Napoleon had been forced to abdicate, in 1814, Ney 


NIAGARA FALLS 

had gone over to the royalists writh loud protestations 
of devotion to the Bourbons. Wlien Napoleon had 
returned from Elba, Ney had set out from Paris, 
boasting that he would bring this disturber of the 
peace back “in an iron cage.” But when he met his 
former commander, he and his whole army had joined 
the force of the enemy, and had fought for Napoleon 
at Waterloo. 

For this he had been condemned to death, and be- 
cause he had broken his faith both with Louis XVIII 
and wth Napoleon the exiled emperor condemned him 
as “dishonorable.” The legend that Ney escaped to 
the United States and lived there many years before 
his death is without any historical authority. 


AMERICA’S Roaring WATER GIANT 



P^IAGARa falls. In 1678, Father Louis Henne- 
s 11 Franciscan priest who accompanied La 

^Ue, was the first white man to view the falls of Niag- 
^ recent year the falls had an estimated 3,500,- 
^ sight-seers. Among them were many newly mar- 
couples who spent their honeymoon at this 
^pular spot about 22 miles northwest of Buffalo, 
ere Lake Erie empties into Lake Ontario. Anthony 
celebrated English novelist, once wrote 
of all the sights on earth which tourists travel 


to see,” he knew of none “so beautiful, so glorious, 
and so powerful” as the falls of the Niagara River. 

The Mighty Falls 

Every minute about 15,000,000 cubic feet, or more 
than 465,000 tons of water pour in torrents over the 
precipices of the falls of Niagara. These torrents land 
about 50 feet beyond the ledge above and drop as 
much as 167 feet to the turbulent water below. 

As the water plunges from the brink of the falls, 
it fiUs the air with a silvery mist which under the 


- 230 


NIAGARA FALLS 

sunlight displays many rainbows. The plunging water 
also sends out a never-ending roar as it strikes the 
bottom. For this reason the Iroquois Indians called 
the cataract Niagara, meaning “thunder of waters.” 
In winter, water near the edges of the falls may 
freeze into majestic masses of ice. 

The falls are divided into two parts by Goat Island. 
The larger portion, on the southwest side, is the 
Canadian Fall, also called 
the Horseshoe Fall. It meas- 
ures 3,000 feet along its 
curve and drops about 158 
feet. The smaller Ameri- 
can Fall is northeast of Goat 
Island. It is 1,000 feet 
straight across, and drops 
about 167 feet. 

Just before flovdng over 
the ledge, the American 
stream is only about feet 
deep. The Canadian stream 
is about 20 feet deep and 
carries some 95 per cent of 
the river’s water. Thus the 
Horseshoe is the larger and 
grander of the two falls. 

The plunging water has 
worn the lower rocks away 
so that there are caves be- 
hind the sheets of water of 
both falls. Sight-seers may 
enter these and get unusual views of the falls. The 
Canadian Fall has carved out a plunge basin 192 feet 
deep. The basin slows dovm the flow below the fall, 
and steamers can go near the cataract here. 

Putting the Water Giant to Work 

All the drainage from four of the Great Lakes pours 
over the crest of Niagara. Only about one fourth of 
tills tremendous volume of falhng water is used to 
generate electric power in hydroelectric plants. They 
develop a maximum of about If million horsepower, 
some two thirds of this on the Canadian side and 
one third on the American side. The plants draw 
water from the river above the falls, through canals. 
Near each plant, the water drops through penstocks 
to powerhouses below the falls. There it turns great 
turbine generators (see Turbine). 

Control of Niagara Falls has long offered the 
world a fine example of international cooperation. 
A treaty of 1910 and later agreements ii.xed the 
amounts of water that could be diverted to hj'dro- 
electric plants. To supendse diversion of water, an 
international Niagara Control Board was set up in 
1923. In 1950 the two countries made a new treaty 
which specified the minimum flow, depending upon 
season and time of day, to be maintained over the 
falls. This treaty opened the way to greater hydro- 
electric development of the falls. 

In treaties and agreements the United States and 
Canada have always been careful to preseiv’e the 
beauty of the great cataract. In 1943 the two gov- 


ernments built a submerged weir to direct a greater 
proportion of water over the American Fall. 

How Niagara Came to Be 
Geologists say that the falls of Niagara are about 
25,000 years old. But the hard rock (called Lockport 
dolomite) at the brink of the falls is much older. 
It was made on the bed of an inland sea more than 300 
million years ago, in Silurian times (see Geologj'). 

Gradually the limy sediment 
hardened to stone — either 
pure limestone or dolomite, 
a hmestone with magnesium. 

In a later age, the Niagara 
region was involved in avide- 
spread uplift of land, about 
a basin centered in the state 
of Michigan. Eain and 
streams wore down most of 
the uplifted land. But the 
layer of tough limestone and 
dolomite resisted erosion; and 
the edge of the deposit formed 
a great cliff, called the Nia- 
gara escarpment. It runs 
westward from Rochester, 
N.Y., between Lakes Erie 
and Ontario, and then swings 
north through the province of 
Ontario. Everywhere it is 
capped by hard Niagara lime- 
stone or Lockport dolomite. 
Many ages later, glaciers covered the Niagara re- 
gion (see Ice Age). As the last glacier retreated 
northward, it left Lake Erie at its southern edge. 
Water from the lake began to spill over the Niagara 
escarpment into the Ontario basin below, just south 
of where Queenston and Lewiston now stand. 

The new fall did not wear away the dolomite cap 
rock as fast as it churned away the softer rock below. 
From time to time, blocks of the undermined cap rock 
would break off. In this way the fall worked back 
toward Lake Erie, forming a steep-walled gorge as 
it went. The process is still going on. On the aver- 
age the undermining process moves the American Fall 
southward from two to seven inches a year and the 
Horseshoe Fall from two to five feet. (For a diagram 
of the imdercutting process, see Earth.) 

Niagara’s rate of cutting has changed many times. 
It started slowly, for at first the river drained Lake 
Erie only. Superior, Michigan, and Huron used a more 
northerly outlet. But the drainage changed as the 
glaciers retreated, and at length water from all four 
lakes pomed over the falls. This speeded up cutting- 
TITien the falls reached the point where the Whirl- 
pool now is, they reached an ancient valley cut into 
the dolomite from the west and later filled wnth 
glacial debris. The river gouged out the soft material, 
forming the whirlpool basin. 

From Stunts to Public Parks 
The fascination of Niagara has prompted adventur- 
ers to perform foolliardy acts. One of the first was 


NIAGARA— A PEACEFUL FRONTIER 


LAte Mi, 



The Niagara River forms a boundary between the United 
States (right) and Canada (left). Its peace has been 
undisturbed since the War of 1812 when the battles of 
Queenston Heights (marked by the Brock Monument) 
and Lundy’s Lane were fought here. Today the unde- 
fended frontier gives an outstanding example of peace 
and cooperation between neighboring nations. 




231 B- 


NIAGARA FALLS 


WHERE NIAGARA HAS CARVED 


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ITS GORGE 

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LAKE ONTARIO 


picture above shows the Niagara peninsula as seen looking L.. 
south from above Lake Ontario. The view extends from 
"Pc^ort on the New York State Barge Canal (left) to beyond k- 
me Welland Ship Canal (right). Water flows from Lake Erie, 
mt away to the south, over the falls in the middle distance. 

The Niagara escarpment may be seen in the foreground. r 

c'ose-up view (right) of Niagara Falls and the gorge shows ; 



the French acrobat, Charles Blondin, who walked 
across the gorge on a tightrope in 1859. Some have 
gone over the falls in barrels or other containers. 
Others have tried to swim the rapids. All such 
hazardous stunts are now prohibited by law. 

For years both the American and Canadian gov- 
ernments have worked to improve the falls area. 
For the enjoyment of visitors they have built over- 
ooks and connected them with foot paths and 
highways. At night colored lights illuminate the 
falls and rapids. Both governments maintain 
public parks near by (see New York State). 
Niagara falls, N. Y. Water power helped 
build the city of Niagara Falls and today it turns 
he wdieels of its many factories. The city is lo- 
cated at the main falls of the Niagara River. The 
ailing water here provides a great and constant 
source of power for hydroelectric plants which 
supply the city and a large surrounding area 

(see Niagara Falls). 

Abundant and cheap electric power has made 
' 'ugara Falls one of the largest electrochemical 
und electrometallurgical centers in the world. The 

y uianufactures abrasives, carbon, graphite, alu- 
•'unum, bronze, iron alloys, and various chemicals. 














-jio: 

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'/.I 



232 


NIAGARA FALLS 

The main tourist attraction is Niagara Falls, with 
its gorge and upper and lower falls. In the city itself 
is Hyde Park, a municipal recreation area of 382 
acres. The Rainbow Bridge, the Whirlpool Rapids 
Bridge, and a railroad bridge link the community with 
Niagara Falls, Ontario, across the river. 

A fort called Little Niagara was built in 1745 and 
rebuilt in 1751 on the present site of Niagara Falls, 
N.Y. Here Augustus Porter founded the village of 
Manchester in 1806. It was burned by the British in 
1813. The village remained small until a canal to 
supply water power was built around the falls between 
1852 and 1862. 

Electricity from the village’s first hydroelectric 
plant was used for park hghting beginning in 1879 and 
for commercial purposes starting in 1881. In 1892 the 
villages of Manchester and Suspension Bridge were 
combined as the city of Niagara Falls, N. Y. Popula- 
tion (1950 census), 90,872. 

NIBELUNGS (ne'be-lungs), SONG OF THE. 
In the Middle Ages the minstrels of northern Europe 
roamed from castle to castle entertaining the people 
with song and story. One of their favorite themes was 
the long series of heroic deeds and tragic events cen- 
tering around the treasure of the Nibelungs, a myth- 
ical race of Scandinavian dwarfs. These tales at last 
took written form in German as the Nibelungenlied, 
or Song of the Nibelungs, and in a Scandinavian ver- 
sion known as the Volsunga Saga. From them Wagner 
took the stories of his Ring cycle of operas (see Opera; 
Wagner). 

The story of the evil treasure begins when three 
gods, Odin, Loki, and Hoenir, saw an otter devouring 
a salmon. They killed the otter and bearing the pelt 
with them sought shelter for the night in the abode 
of Rodmar, a greedy heartless miser. Rodmar recog- 
nized the pelt as being that of one of his sons, who 
had the power of changing his shape. He demanded 
as pay (wergeld) for the slaying of his son enough gold 
to completely cover the otter pelt. To get the gold 
the gods hastened to the river and seized a priceless 
treasure which was guarded by a giant fish, but when 
all was heaped upon the pelt one hair remained un- 
covered. Yielding to Rodmar’s demand, Loki placed 
on this a ring which bore this curse: “Evil shall come 
to him who wears it.” This treasure passed after a 
time into the hands of the Nibelung kings and played 
its tragic part in the Nibelungenlied. 

In the Song of the Nibelungs this hoard is found in 
the possession of Siegfried, a daring warrior, who has 
slain the two kings of the Nibelungs to obtain it. 
Little mention is made of the curse, and the story 
deals chiefly with the adventures and loves of humans, 
the gods having altogether disappeared from the 
scene. The plot centers around Kriemhild, the beauti- 
ful sister of Gunther, king of the Burgundians, w'ho 
holds his court at Worms, on the middle Rhine. Sieg- 
fried comes to Worms to woo Kriemhild, and in due 
coui-se they are wedded. 

Many characters are introduced into the stoiy. One 


is Brunhild, an Icelandic princess of wonderful beauty 
and warlike strength. Only he who should overcome 
her in deeds of skill and strength might win her love 
and hand. King Gunther, attracted by the fame of 
her beauty, goes to woo her, and Siegfried accompanies 
him as his friend and ally. Wearing a cloak of dark- 
ness which makes him invisible, Siegfried aids Gunther 
in defeating Brunhild in three tests of prowess— hurl- 
ing for him the spear, putting the weight, and jump- 
ing with Gunther in his arms far beyond the limit that 
Brunhild could reach. 

Gunther weds Brunhild, and she goes to live in the 
court at Worms. Later she learns of the deception 
and that it was Siegfried and not Gunther who was 
worthy of her hand. Soon after, Siegfried is treacher- 
ously slain by one of Gunther’s followers; and Brun- 
hild slays herself with his sword. Kriemhild vows 
vengeance on her brother, for she knows that he is 
really responsible for her lord Siegfried’s death. She 
marries Etzel (Attila), king of the Huns, and after 
many years invites Gunther to visit the kingdom. He 
comes bringing his followers but is met by a powerful 
army and overcome. Gunther is put to death and 
Siegfried is avenged. 

The treasure again enters the story at this point. 
Kriemhild demands from Hagen, a vassal of Gunther 
and the slayer of Siegfried, the hiding place of the 
hoard. He refuses to impart it, saying — 

None knoweth of the treasure save God and me alone: 

And unto thee, she-devil, it never shall be known. 

Enraged, Kriemhild grasps Siegfried’s sword and 
decapitates Hagen but is herself slain by a follower 
of Etzel. 

The story is thus filled with tragedy. This perhaps 
is due to that element in the story which was known 
to the earlier versions but forgotten in the later the 
curse of the Nibelung hoard which falls upon all who 
possess it. 

NICARA'GUA. One of the 

largest Central American re- 
publics is Nicaragua (area, 57,- 
145 square miles). It is shaped 
like a triangle. It adjoins Hon- 
duras on the north, the Carib- 
bean Sea on the east, and the 
Pacific Ocean and Costa Rica 
on the southwest and south. 

There are two ranges of vol- 
canic mountains. One stretches 
along the northern border. The 
other separates the Pacific from 
Lakes Nicaragua and Managua. Lake Nicaragua is 1011 
miles long. In the Lake Managua region is the mile-hig 
volcano Momotombo. 

Nicaragua is divided into three natural regions'" 
the western, the central, and the eastern. Abou 
three fourths of the people live in the high wes 
ei-n region of lakes and mountains. The tempeW 
ture ranges from 40°F. to 95°. There are two seasons-- 
wet and dry. About 60 inches of rain falls in the we 




" 233 NICHOLAS 



THE PAN AMERICAN HIGHWAY IN NICARAGUA 

Teams of oxen are pulling wagons along Nicaragua’s section of the Pan American Highway. 
Much of the highway in Central America has a gravel surface. 


season from May to Decem- 
ber. The volcanic soil is rich 
and the region has the best farm 
land in the country. Com, rice, 
coffee, sugar, cotton, cacao, and 
beans grow on the mountain 
slopes and in the valleys. 

East of the mountains is a 
sparsely populated plateau. 

About 120 inches of rain falls 
here each year. In the north 
the hills are covered vdth for- I 
ests of pine and oak. Forestry 
and mining are the chief occu- 
pations. Grasslands in the south 
support ranching. 

The east coast is low, hot, 
and swampy; and it has many 
rivers that empty into the 
Caribbean Sea. The coast may 
have as much as 300 inches 
of rain in a year. This re- 
gion grows many bananas. 

Although Nicaragua is an agricultural nation, al- 
most one third of the people live in cities. Most of 
the cities are in the western lake region. The capital, 
Managua (109,352), lies at the foot of Momotombo, 
on the south shore of Lake Managua. In 1931 Managua 
was destroyed by an earthquake. Other important 
cities are L4on, Granada, Corinto (the largest Pacific 
port), and the Atlantic ports of Bluefields and Ca- 
bezas. The chief exports are coffee, gold, cotton, 
bananas, cacao, sugar, mbber, lumber, and hides. 

Nicaragua’s lakes and rivers are used for most of 
the local transportation. A railroad connects inte- 
rior cities with the port of Corinto. Except for the 
Pan American Highway there are few good roads. Man- 
agua has an international airport. The United States 
has considered building a canal across Nicaragua in 
case an enemy might destroy the one in Panama. 

Spain ruled Nicaragua from early in the 16th cen- 
tury until the country became independent in 1821. 
In the next century civil war ravaged the country. 
Between 1912 and 1933 United States Marines were 
sent to protect United States interests. In 1954-55 
there were border disputes with Guatemala and Costa 
Bica that brought intervention from the Organization 
of American States. (See also Central America.) Popu- 
lation (1950 census), 1,057,023. 

Nice (nes), France. On the Mediterranean coast 
0 France, at the western end of a crescent-shaped 
area called the Riviera, is the city of Nice. The Rivi- 
^a lies between the Maritime Alps and the Gulf of 

enoa. The mountains protect the coast from the 
north winds, and the cHmate is sunny and warm like 
mat of southern California. There are olive groves 
and lush gardens. Dates, bananas, and oranges are 
grown. 

people come to Nice each year to rest in the 
sunshme, pky in the Casino, and take part in the 


brilliant carnival held before Lent. Nice is dmded 
into three parts: the New Towm, the Old Towm, and 
the Port. The medieval Old To^vn lies close to the 
seashore. To the north is the New Town, with modem 
theaters, hotels, casinos, and villas. East of the Old 
Town is the commercial center and port. Nice has a 
cathedral, a museum, a library, and a monument to 
Garibaldi, who was born there in 1807. 

Nice was settled about 2,000 years ago by Greeks 
from Marseilles. When the Greeks conquered a neigh- 
boring tribe, they named their city Nice (from the 
Greek Nike, meaning “victory”). Later the city fell 
under Roman and then Turkish rule. In the following 
centuries it was controlled at different times by Pro- 
vence, Savoy, and Sardinia-Piedmont. Italy ceded 
Nice to France as a reward for French aid in creating 
a united Italy. 

Nice’s main export is olive oil. Soap, perfumes, 
leather, and furniture are other important products. 
Population (1946 census), 206,750. 

NICHOLAS, Emperors (Czars) of Russia. Two 

of Russia’s Romanov rulers were named Nicholas. 
Nicholas II was the last emperor. 

NICHOLAS I (bom 1796, mled 1825-1855) was a 
grandson of Catherine the Great. His father w'as 
Paul I. Because he had two older brothers, Alexander 
and Constantine, it was thought he would never be 
emperor. Constantine abdicated his right to the 
throne in 1822. Then Alexander supposedly died in 
1825. There is a persistent legend that he was tired 
of mling and lived on for many years as a hermit 
monk in Siberia. He had no son to succeed him. (See 
also Alexander I.) 

Nicholas thus succeeded Alexander and immediately 
trouble began. There was unrest in the army, and the 
St. Petersburg regiments revolted in what was called 
the Decembrist uprising. They demanded a constitu- 


'.act 



NICHOLAS 



RUSSIA’S LAST IMPERIAL FAMILY 
This picture of Nicholas II and his family was taken shortly be- 
fore the revolution. The boy, Alexis, sits at his father’s feet 

tion. Nicholas crushed the revolt. He then estab- 
lished an elaborate secret police sj’stem throughout 
the Russian empire. 

The 30 years of Nicholas’ reign saw three wars. In 
1828-29 Russia fought against Turkey. Russian armies 
helped crush a Hungarian revolt against Austria in 
1849. Nicholas died during the Crimean War (1854^56). 
He was succeeded bj”^ his son Ale.xander II. (See Russia; 
Turkey; Himgary; Crimean War; Alexander II.) 

NICHOLAS n (born 1868, ruled 1894-1917) was 
a great-grandson of Nicholas I and the oldest son 
of Alexander III. His mother, a Danish princess, was 
a sister of Queen Ale.xandra of England, wife of 
Edward VII. 

Nicholas had great charm but was hopelessly weak 
as the all-powerful head of the Russian state. He was 
greatly influenced by his vdfe Alexandra Feodororaa. 
She was the former Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. 

The imperial couple fell under the spell of an evil 
Siberian monk named Rasputin. Alexis, their only 
son and heir to the throne, had hemophilia, a blood 
disease. For some reason, when the boy began to 
bleed, only Rasputin seemed able to stop it. Nicholas 
and Alexandra thus came to believe that Alexis’ life 
depended upon Rasputin. The monk gained great 
political power and offended many of the nobles. 

Nicholas, trjdng to keep peace, called the Hague 
Conferences of 1899 and 1907 (see Hague Peace Con- 
ferences). In spite of his efforts, a powerful militarj’' 
bureaucracy managed to fling Russia into a disas- 


trous war (1904-5) with Japan (see 
Russo-Japanese War) . The war was fol- 
lowed by wddespread revolutionary 
movements. Nicholas called for the 
election of a Duma (legislative assembly) 
as a step toward constitutional govern- 
ment (see Russia, subhead “The First 
Dumals Convened’’) . The Duma wasnot 
a success and public discontent grew, 
particularly in the cities. The discouraged 
emperor withdrew almost completely 
from public life. Rasputin continued to 
meddle wdth government affairs until he 
was assassinated. 

In the summer of 1914, Russia and the 
other great European powers were cata- 
pulted into World War I (see World War, 
First). War again proved a disaster for 
the imperial government. There were 
corruption at home and defeat on the 
war fronts. The storm broke in 1917. 
Troops in St. Petersburg attacked and 
looted the Winter Palace. The emperor 
abdicated both for himself and the 
sickly Alexis, leaving the throne to his 
brother Michael, who disappeared dur- 
ing the uprisings and was never heard 
of again. The imperial family vras 
kept under guard until they were finally sent to 
Siberia. There, on July 17, 1918, in the town of 
Ekaterinburg, Nicholas, Alexandra, and their five 
children were brutally murdered by the Soviets. 

NICKEL. This metal got its name from a GeriMn 
word for imp, because of the trouble it gave chemists 
in early times. Today nickel is one of our most use- 
ful metals. It is silvery, lustrous, hard, malleable, 
and magnetic. Pure nickel is seen onl}’ in coatinp 
(nickel plate) on other metals, where it is used to 
embellish them, to protect them from rust or tarnish, 
or to give them a better wearing surface, as in t e 
case of quality printing plates. The coat is ®PP|l 
by electroplating (see Electroplating). Allo 3 ’ed wi 
copper, nickel is widely used in coins. Alloj'cd wi 
three parts of copper and one of zinc, nickel ^ 
metal known as “German silver,” used to make tab e- 
ware and as a base for silver-plated ware. 

These uses, however, are comparatively unimpor- 
tant. Most nickel goes into the manufacture of nic 'o 
steel, an alloy adapted to withstand strains. _R 
used in armor plate, cannon, structural work, bridge^; 
railroad rails, rivets, locomotive boilers, engine forg 
ings, trailer frames, dipper teeth of steam shovels, an 
automobile gears, shafte, and axles. . 

A nickel steel called Invar, containing 36 per ce 
nickel, is used for measuring implements and 
lums. It is practically’ none.xpansive within o > 
nary temperature variations. Another nickel s 
called platinUe expands at almost the saine . 
glass. It is used for the connecting wires in elec 
light bulbs. 



- 235 



blasting for CANADIAN NICKEL 

These miners are inserting explosive charges into the wall of 
anicKel mine in the Sudbury district in Ontario, Canada. 


Nickel forms many other alloys. Copper-nickel al- 
loys are used for bullet jackets and boiler tubes. 
Nickel-chromium steel is used for automobile forgings 
and gears and for armor plate. Electrical-resistance 
wire in electric appliances is usually an alloy of nickel 
with other metals — iron, chromium, or copper. 

Monel metal is a “natural" alloy of nickel and cop- 
per, made by reducing certain ores which contain both 
these metals. This tough, lustrous, corrosion-resisting 
elloy is used for food-handling equipment, valves, 
turbine blades, propellers, wire filter cloth, and many 
otbr purposes. {See Alloys.) 

. Nickel oxide is used in Edison storage batteries, 
•h glassmaking, and in pottery glazes. The salts are 
emidoyed in electroplating and in hardening oils for 
lualdng soap and oleomargarine. Nickel resists the 
action of most acids except nitric acid. 

Most of the world’s nickel comes from the Sudbury 
istrict of Ontario, where the principal ore is pent- 
landite, an iron-nickel sulfide. New Caledonia is the 
only other important producer. 


“Nicknames and whippings,” said 
alter Savage Landor, “when they are once laid on, 
ao one has discovered how to take off.” Nations, 
'a persons, have nicknames which grow up in cu- 
rious ways and become fixed. The nickname Uncle 
“am is applied to the United States. During the 
''ar of 1812, someone asked why “U. S.” was stamped 
government goods. He was told that the letters 
ood for Unele Sam, the local title for Samuel Wilson, 


NIGERIA 

the government inspector. This jest was repeated 
throughout the country. The name stuck, and Uncle 
Sam came to personify the United States government 
and the American people. 

This nickname became even more popular than 
the earlier one, Brother Jonathan. The original of 
the name Brother Jonathan, according to the story, 
was Washington’s friend. Gov. Jonathan Trumbull 
of Connecticut. perplexed by the need of arms 

and war material. General Washington would ^ay, 
“We must consult Brother Jonathan.” This expres- 
sion, being often repeated, came into common use and 
at last was extended to the American nation as a 
whole. Brother Jonathan, like Uncle Sam, is alway^s 
portrayed as a tall thin man with long narrow beard, 
long-tailed coat, high hat, and a shrewd but humorous, 
countenance — attributes which marked the typical 
American of the early daj’^s. 

Very different is John Bull, the personification of 
the English nation, who is represented as a stout, 
ruddy-faced, matter-of-fact, blunt fellow attired in 
leather breeches and top boots, generally with a cud- 
gel in his hand and a bulldog at his heels. The name 
John Bull was first used in a political satire published 
by Dr. Arbuthnot at the time of the War of the Span- 
ish Succession, in Queen Arme’s reign. 

There are many nicknames, generally of an imcom- 
plimentary character, applied by the people of one 
nation to those of another. Thus the American called 
the Mexican a “greaser,” referring to his untidy ap- 
pearance; while to the Mexican or Spanish-American 
an American or Englishman is a “gringo” (from the 
Spanish word for gibberish or unintelligible speech). 
(See also Yankee.) 

Some people have thought that the word nickname 
came from the word nick, meaning “to cut,” since a 
nickname is often a shortened form of the full name. 
Actually the word was originally eke name and it 
meant an “added name.” 

NIGERIA. Britain’s colony 
and protectorate of Nigeria 
may soon become a lead- 
ing power in Negro Africa 
along with its sister colony, 
the Gold Coast. These two 
West African colonies are 
closer to self-government 
and independence than any 
other colonial territories in 
Africa. {See also Gold Coast.) 

Nigeria is located on the Gulf of Guinea where 
Africa’s west coast starts to bulge into the Atlan- 
tic. Except for the coast, it is completely surround- 
ed by French territory (for map, see Africa). Ni- 
geria has political control of the British Camer- 
oons, a United Nations trusteeship. Thus the re- 
gion called Nigeria includes the colony, the pro- 
tectorate, and the trusteeship. Its total area 
is 372,674 square miles. The total popu- 
lation (1953 estimate) is 31,500,000. Almost all 




NIGERIA 


236 



the people are Negroes. The capital and chief port 
is Lagos (174,000). 

The Land and the People 

Nigeria is about the size of Texas and Arizona 
combined. The coastal belt in the south is not far 
from the equator. It is wet and swampy and the 
yearly rainfall is heavy. The delta of the Niger River 
is a land of mangroves and tangled vines. Farther 
inland are lush and steaming tropical rain forests. 
The trees have huge trunks and loom up from the 
floor of the jungle in a tangle of vines and creepers. 
Then the rainfall decreases, the land gradually rises, 
and the forests give way to the rolling grasslands of 
the Sudan (see Grasslands). In the extreme north 
the land is desert, the lower fringes of the great 
Sahara. 

Part of Nigeria is gorilla country. There are also 
baboons and chimpanzees. Other animals include ele- 
phants, leopards, antelopes, and wart hogs. Here also 
is found the bulging-eyed lemur. There are countless 
insects. Alany, such as the tsetse fly, are disease 
carriers that affect both men and animals. There are 
crocodiles in the rivers. 

The people of Nigeria, like the people of the Gold 
Coast and most of the rest of West Africa, are called 
“true” Negroes. This is because in the west coastal 
region there was never much mixing of races. In the 
e.xtreme north, however, Nigerian Negroes sometimes 
intermarried vdth the Hamitic peoples of the Sudan. 
(iSee also Africa; Races of Mankind.) 

The principal tribes are the Yoruba of southern 
Nigeria and the Hausa in the north. In general, the 


A STREET IN NIGERIA’S CAPITAL 

Lagos is the capital of Nigeria and the residence of the 

It is also Nigeria’s chief port. The city is on an island linKeo 

to the mainland by a railroad and automobile bridge. 

Yoruba are farmers and the Hausa are traders. The 
north is a land of massive mud-brick cities, trains of 
camels and other pack animals, and herds of goats. 
Most of the Hausa are Moslems. The Yoruba of the 
south were not influenced like the Hausa b}’ Moslem 
culture from the north and east. Living by themselves 
they developed a culture of their own — one of the 
most ancient in Negro Africa. Their cities of Benin 
and Ibadan flourished long before Europeans entered 
the country. The greatest of the Negro empires and 
kingdoms sprang up in the land of the Yoruba. The 
sculptures of Benin became famous all over the world. 
While most of the Hausa are Moslem, the Yoruba are 
pagan ancestor-worahipers except for those converted 
by missionaries to Christianity. 

Lagos, Nigeria’s capital, sprawls along the coast. 
It is a town of corrugated iron houses with tin roofs, 
whitewashed warehouses, missions and churches, nois) 
bazaars, and crow'ded streets. It is Nigeria's chief 
port and has an international airport served by British 
Overseas Airwaj's. 

Fanning, Mining, and Trade 

Agriculture is the main industry. Nigeria’s nat- 
ural wealth comes chiefly from palm oil and cocoa. 
Other important crops are peanuts, rubber, cotton, 
hides and skins, rice, casava, millet, com, and 3’ams. 
There are also banana plantations. 

The Nigerian mines have been worked for centuries. 
The most important minerals are lead, tin, and iron. 








-=> 236ffi 


NIGER RIVER 


There are also deposits of manganese, silver, lignite, 
and coal. 

The principal ports are Lagos, Port Harcourt, Sa- 
pele, and Calabar. Much of the trade within the 
country is carried over the inland waterways and by 
caravans of pack animals. 

Nigeria’s chief exports are cocoa, palm oil, peanuts, 
bananas, rubber, hides and skins, tin, and coal. The 
important imports are cotton piece goods, iron and 
steel, salt, tobacco, machinery, motor vehicles, petro- 
leum products, and bicycles. 

There are two main railroads. One runs from Lagos 
to Ibadan and then on to Kano and Nguru. The other 
links Port Harcourt with smaller inland trading cen- 
ters. There are about 30,000 miles of road, none of 
which are very good. The best have tarred surfaces. 
Lagos has a radio broadcasting station. There are 
both international and internal air services. 

History 

Northern Nigeria was known to the Moslem world of 
North Africa before Europeans ever saw Nigeria’s 
south coast. Caravans from the Sahara were the con- 
tact with the lands of the Mediterranean Sea. Even 
in ancient times these caravans provided the markets 
of Europe with slaves, gold, and ivory from Nigeria. 

Portuguese mariners were the first Europeans to 
find the Nigerian coast. Their ships sailed into the 
Gulf of Guinea early in the 15th century. They were 
followed by Dutch and English explorers. By the 16th 



% 

n i, ^ primitive people 

these huts are the mostprinutive in 

onirhou.in.u grouped in compounds. Windows we 

' “Oles in the mud waUs. The people do their cooking outdoors. 


centur}’’ the English had established small trading 
posts in the region of the Niger Eiver delta. The 
slave trade was at its height. Then, in 1833, slavery 
was abolished throughout the British Empire; and for 
a long time, except for a few explorers, the British 
lost interest in Nigeria. 

British control of this region officially began in 
1861 when they annexed Lagos with the consent of 
its African ruler. A colonial government was estab- 
lished. In 1866 it was placed under the control of the 
governor of Britain’s colony of Sierra Leone. In 1874 
it was transferred to the administration of Gold Coast 
Colony. Not until 1886 did Nigeria become a sepa- 
rate colony within the British Empire. 

The colony of Nigeria, first confined to the coastal 
region, gradually acquired more and more territory 
to the north. Finally, in 1914, the whole region was 
brought under a single administration as the Colony 
and Protectorate of Nigeria. 

World War I had little effect on Nigeria. After 
World War II, however, Nigerians who had fought 
with the British in North Africa and Europe came 
home restless and discontented. They wanted self- 
government. Britain became more aware of its West 
African colonies. Both Nigeria and the Gold Coast 
were given constitutional changes that granted more 
power to their elected representatives. Both countries 
still have British governors but they are well on their 
way to independence. (See also Gold Coast.) 

NIGER (nl'ger) RIVER. 

Africa’s third largest 
river is the Niger. Only 
the Congo and the Nile 
are longer. 

The Niger is 2,600 miles 
long. It rises in French 
West Africa only 150 miles 
from the Atlantic. Then it 
flows northeast in a great 
arc, approaches the fringe 
of the Sahara, then bends southeast, enters Nigeria, 
and finally empties into the Gulf of Guinea. It has a 
huge delta, even larger than that of the Nile. 

As a navigable stream, the Niger is of great im- 
portance. Steamers of light draft can make their 
way over most of its length. Through its largest 
tributary, the Benue, it provides a 870-raile high- 
way eastward into Central Africa. A railway connects 
the upper reaches of the Niger with the Senegal River, 
which empties on the extreme west coast. Thus, by 
boat and rail, travelers can reach the famous French 
West African trading centers of Sansandig, Segou, 
Timbuktu, and other river stations far in the inte- 
rior toward the Sahara. 

Niger shipping is chiefly engaged in the transport 
of palm oil, peanuts, copal (a resin used for varnishes), 
tree gums, rubber, coffee, ivory, and other products 
of the vast and luxuriant Niger River basin. 

The delta of the Niger is verj" complex. About 80 
miles north of the Nigerian coast, the river starts 




NIGER RIVER 


>2366' 



fanning out into a network 
of small streams. Small riv- 
ers enter it from either side. 

In some places it is almost 
impossible to find a naviga- 
ble channel. Along the 
coast the delta is about 150 
miles wide. 

Large steamers enter 
from the sea through the 
Nun Mouth, the Forcados, 
the Brass Mouth, and the 
Bonny. Because of mosqui- 
toes and the tsetse fly, the 
delta’s climate is one of the 
most unhealthy in Africa. 

The ancient Greeks and 
Romans knew that the Ni- 
ger existed and where it was 
located, but they never explored it. Eighteenth- and 
19th-century explorers were hampered by cannibal 
tribes living along its banks and by the almost impass- 
able jungle. The Niger was not accurately mapped 
until late in the 19 th century. 

NIGHTHAWK. On summer evenings, the nighthawk 
can be seen swooping erratically through the sky, 
catching a meal of insects. From time to time it 
utters a loud nasal cry, “pee-eent,” and follows this 
with several quick, fluttering vingbeats. Then sud- 
denly it performs a thrilling high dive. From a height 
of a hundred or more feet it plunges straight down on 
half-closed wings, apparently determined to dash it- 
self into the ground. Within a few feet of a house or 
treetop, it abruptly turns and mounts upward again. 
At the moment of the turn, the rush of air through 
the large (primary) wing feathers produces a loud 
booming sound. No satisfactory explanation of this 
spectacular dive has ever been given. The bird seems 
to dive for the sheer fun of it. 

The nighthawk has a great froglike mouth that 
opens from ear to ear. During flight it holds its mouth 
open and uses it like a trap to catch flying insects. 
The beak is a tiny tip, less than a half inch in length. 

A grown nighthawk is about ten inches long, as large 
as a robin. The large wings are quite out of propor- 
tion to the body. The plumage is a mixture of black, 
gray, brown, and buff, almost invisible against the 
bark of a tree limb. In flight, a patch of white in 
the primaries looks like a hole in the wing. This 
white patch distinguishes the nighthawk from its near 
relative, the whippoorwill. Othenrise the two birds 
look exactly alike. 

The legs of the nighthawk are small and weak. In 
wooded country it rests lengthwise on a tree limb. 
The birds also roost on the open ground of plains or 
deserts or on flat roofs in the cities. They build no 
nest. The two eggs are laid on gravel ground or on 
graveled roofs, where their grayish-white, black-spot- 
ted coloration blends perfectly into the background. 
(For picture in color, see Birds.) 


A LIVING INSECT TRAP 

N otice how the nighthawk’s plumage blends into the gravel on 
which it is lying. The huge mouth scoops in flying insects. 

The nighthawks breed throughout North America 
from the Yukon Territory to the Gulf states. They are 
among the latest migrants to arrive in the spring. By 
the end of August they gather in large flocks to start 
the long journey to their winter home in South Amer- 
ica. While flying they keep from 50 to 100 feet apart. 

The nighthawk belongs to the goatsucker family, 
Caprimulgidae, to which the whippoonvill also be- 
longs. In the Southern states it is known as the bull- 
bat. The names goatsucker and nightjar are more 
properly applied to a related bird found only in Eu- 
rope. The scientific name of the nighthawk is Chor- 
deiles minor; of the European goatsucker, or nightjar, 
Caprimulgus europaeus. 

NIGHTIN GALE, 

Florence (1820-1910). 

In 1854 a slim English- 
woman led a small band 
of volunteers to Turkey to 
nurse men wounded in the 
Crimean AVar. Florence 
Nightingale found filth, 
disease, and near-starva- 
tion among the wounded 
British soldiers. For two 
years she fought to wipe 
out these appalling condi- 
tions. She was hampered 
by official red tape and the 
army’s prejudice against women. But in the end sW 
won out. Wounded men were given real nursing care, 
perhaps for the first time in the history of v.mr. Florence 
Nightingale became a famous authority on nursing an 
devoted her life to the improvement of hospitals. _ 

Florence Nightingale was born May 12, 1820, m 
Florence, Italy, where her parents were spending® 
vacation. She was named for her birthplace. Her 
father, AVilliam Nightingale, was a well-to-do Ismd- 
owner of London and Derbyshire, England. 



237 


mother, Fanny, was a gay, char mi ng woman, who loved 
society. William Nightingale taught Florence at home. 
She studied mathematics, music, and foreign languages. 

Florence was a pretty girl and very popular. But 
she did not enjoy her mother’s kind of social life. 
She liked to take care of the old and the sick people 
in the neighborhood. WTien she was 17 she VTote in 
her journal that God had called her to devote her 
life to nursing. She steadfastly continued to believe 
this. Later she refused to marry a man she liked be- 
cause she felt that marriage would interfere with 
her work. 

Over her parents’ objections she visited hospitals 
in England and continental Europe. She studied the 
methods of the CathoHc nursing orders in France and 
Egj'pt, and spent three months at the Institute for 
Protestant Deaconesses in Kaiserwerth, Germany. 
In 1853 she became superintendent of the Establish- 
ment for Gentlewomen During Illness, in London. 

WTien war with Russia broke out. Miss Nightingale 
volunteered her services (see Crimean War). She was 
appointed head of the women nurses serving in Tur- 
key. l^Tien she arrived, the death rate was 42 per cent. 
More men w'ere dying from fever and infection than 
from battle wounds. She enforced sanitary regula- 
tions, introduced special diets, and reduced the death 
rate to 2 per cent. With her own money she bought 
linen, shirts, food, and even beds for the hospitals. 
Often she worked 14 hours a day without food or 
rest. Her health broke. She contracted Crimean 
fever (probably tj^rhus), and nearly died. But she 
refused to return to England. 

By 1856 Florence Nightingale was world famous, 
^ngfellow wrote a poem, 'Santa Filomena’, honoring 
her ^ the “Lady with a Lamp” (from her custom of 
walking through the wards at night, lamp in hand). 
England raised 50,000 pounds in her name to estab- 
lish a nurses’ home. Although invahded and often 
bedridden, Florence Nightingale was not done with 
her work. Back in England she set up office in her 
bedroom and campaigned by letter for hospital re- 
or^. She enforced high professional standards in 
earing for the sick, and made nursing a worthy career 
or women. She died Aug. 13, 1910, at the age of 90. 
Nightingale. No bird has been more celebrated 
literature than the nightingale. Homer wrote of the 
Sweet, tawny nightingale.” Milton called it the “most 
a^eet, most melancholy bird.” Keats had the night- 
'ogale in mind when he wrote of the 


V ‘ ' ^bat found a path 
inrough the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, 

She stood in tears amid the alien corn; 
p, I The same that ofttimes hath 

nrm d magic casements, opening on the foam 
Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn. 

Americans have to go abroad to hear this most fa- 
ous of birds, for it does not live west of the Atlantic. 

the thrushes, are the only American 
u s that approach the nightingale in beauty of song. 
■: 'f, l°bnd throughout Europe, most abundantly in 
Brance, Spain, and Portugal, and m parts 
bs'and. Its song is heard most often in the 


NILE RIVER 

spring. The bird called a nightingale by the ancient 
Persians, Greeks, and Romans was probably the 
Persian bulbul. 

During the mating and nesting season, from the 
middle of April to the middle of June, the male sings 
day and night. His song is a melodious outpouring of 
glorious tone and is evidently an expression of devo- 
tion to his mate. Although the bird endures cage 
life, the male dies if taken during this time of year. 
The nest is a loosely built cup of dead leaves on or 
near the ground. It is supported by plant stems and 
lined with fibrous roots. The bird lays from four to 
six eggs, of a deep oHve color. 

This brilliant singer has drab plumage. The bird 
is about six inches long, with rusty brown and gray 
feathers. It is shy and perches in shrubs or low trees. 
Its favorite food is the larvae of insects, especially the 
larvae of ants and wasps. 

The nightingale belongs to the family of thrushes, 
or Turdidae. The common Eimopean nightingale is 
Luscinia megarhyncha; the larger eastern species, 
Lusdnia philomela; the bulbul, Luscinia hafizi. 
Nightshade. Several weedlike relatives of the 
potato have mild or strong poisons in their leaves, 
berries, or roots. These plants are called the night- 
shades. The common or black nightshade grows 
about 12 inches high and has pointed, oval leaves, 
drooping clusters of white flowers, and small black 
berries. When animals chew the fresh leaves or people 
eat too many of the berries, they may be made sick. 
But in some regions, people boil the leaves and eat 
them as a kind of green. 

Another plant of this nightshade group is the blue- 
blossomed bittersweet. Its scarlet berries taste both 
bitter and sweet and are mildly poisonous. Still 
another kind that is not very harmful is the horse 
nettle or apple of Sodom with its orange berry. This 
is a native of western North America. 

The deadly nightshade, or belladonna, found in 
various parts of Europe and Asia, is particularly val- 
uable to medicine. Various preparations of the leaves 
and roots are called belladonna. They are used to re- 
lieve pain or spasm, and as an antidote to opium. 
The active principle in these preparations is atropine. 
Oculists use it to hold the pupils of the eyes dilated 
during an examination. The deadly nightshade is a 
five-foot shrub with dull green leaves, purple bell- 
shaped flowers, and black cherrylike fruit. It has a 
disagreeable smell. 

Nightshades belong to the family Solanaceae. Scien- 
tific name of common nightshade, Solanum nigrum; of 
bittersweet, Solanum dulcamara; of horse nettle, 
Solanum carolinense; of deadly nightshade, Atropa 
belladonna. 

Nile river. The longest river in Africa and the 
third longest river in the world is the Nile. In one 
sense the main course of the river actually begins at 
Khartoum. Here the Blue Nile comes in from the 
Ethiopian mountains. It flows clear and blue, except 
at flood time, when it is reddish brown. It meets 
the gray-green VTiite Nile coming from the lake 



238 


NILE RIVER 


THE NILE POURS FROM LAKE VICTORIA 



hicic luc yuuug wnite Wile plunges from Lake Victoria over 20- 
foot Rmon Falls in Uganda Protectorate. The falls were sub- 
merged and the lake level was raised when a flood-control 
and power dam was finished at Owen Falls a mile downstream. 

region of Central Africa. The sources of the Blue 
Nile were known in ancient times, but about the 
White Nile geographers told legends of the Moun- 
tains of the Moon and underground streams. It is only 
in recent times that explorers have followed it back 
through the swampy “sudd” region with its reeds, 
white, blue, and crimson water lilies, and other float- 
ing vegetation, and its mosquitoes. They followed it 
past the rapids and waterfalls in which it descends 
from Lake Albert hke a gigantic millrace, and from 
Lake Albert through the beautiful gorges of the 
Victoria or Somerset Nile which feeds Lake Albert 
from Lake Victoria, and thence to the headwaters 
of this lake, the Kagera River. 

From Khartoum to Aswan the Nile descends in six 
cataracts. After Khartoum it receives only one tribu- 
tary, the Atbara, another Ethiopian stream, which 
is 600 yards wide in flood time, and between floods 
almost dries up, so that fish, turtles, crocodiles, and 
hippopotami remain imprisoned in the deep pools of 
its upper reaches until the next flood time. After 
watering the whole land of Eg 5 q)t the Nile finally 
reaches the Mediterranean through two channels. 
These are called the Rosetta and the Damietta 
mouths, and the general region is known as the Delta. 

For thousands of years, Egypt has depended for 
crops and life itself upon the yearly floods of the 
Nile (see Egypt). These come from spring and early 
summer rains to the south, particularly in Ethiopia. 
The flood waters reach Egj'pt in July. Formerly the 
Egyptians let the water flood their land and deposit 
soil-renewing sediment. Today a great dam at Aswan 
holds the water for release throughout the year. The 
dam was completed in 1902 and heightened in 1912 


and 1933. The Owen Falls Dam to control outflow 
from Lake Victoria was opened in 1954. 

From Lake Victoria to the sea, the Nile is 3,473 
miles long. To this could be added the headwaters— 
about 150 miles across Lake Victoria to the Kagera 
and the 430-mile length of that stream. 

Nimitz, Chester William (born 1885). The com- 
mander of all United States naval forces in the Pa- 
cific during the second World War was Adm. Chester 
W. Nimitz. He was born in Fredericksburg in central 
Texas, far from the ocean. But in early boyhood he 
learned to love the sea. His grandfather was a retired 
merchant marine officer and owned a curious-looking 
hotel in Fredericksburg. People called it the “Steam- 
boat” Hotel because it had a porch and tower shaped 
like the superstructure of a ship. Young Nimitz held 
mock battles on the tower, while his grandfather told 
him stirring yarns of the sea. 

But after graduation from school at near-by Kerr- 
ville, Nimitz wanted to enter West Point. No appoint- 
ments were vacant, and so he took examinations for 
Annapolis. He entered in 1901. He was a good stu- 
dent and was graduated with distinction in 1905. 

Nimitz’ first duty was in Asiatic waters. He com- 
manded the gunboat Parmy and later the destroyer 
Decatur. Then came customary tours of sea and shore 
duty. In 1913 he married Catherine Freeman of 
Wollaston, Mass. They 
had four children. Nimitz 
became a submarine and 
Diesel-engine expert. In 
the first World War he was 
chief of staff to the com- 
mander of the Atlantic 
Fleet’s submarine force. 

In 1921 Nimitz was 
made a commander, and 
the next year attended the 
Naval War College. From 
1926 to 1929 he headed 
the Naval R. 0. T. C. at 
the University of Cali- 
fornia. He rose through 
other sea and shore com- 
mands to the post of chief of the Bureau of Navigation 
in 1939. He was then a rear admiral. 

Ten days after Pearl Harbor, Nimitz was given com- 
mand of the Pacific fleet. He arrived in Hawaii to 
find morale low and organization disrupted. He re- 
built the fleet and launched it on a series of campaigns 


CHE STER nimitz 



Admiral Nimitz led American 
naval forces in the mcific 
the second World wftf* 


that brought victory. He chose his commanders care- 
fully, then gave them fuU responsibility in planning 
and carrying out attacks. , 

Despite a strenuous schedule of work, slim, bronzed 
Nimitz always found time for sports. Tennis, marks- 
manship, and swimming became his favorites. He be- 
came a fleet (five-star) admiral in 1944. In Decem- 
ber 1945 he succeeded Adm. Ernest J. King as chief o 
naval operations. Nimitz retired in 1947, butreturow 
to public service in 1949 as United Nations adminis- 


trator for the Kashmir plebiscite. 



= 239 


Nineveh {nWe-vS). When the people of Israel 
were suffering under the heavy yoke of the proud 
and ruthless Assyrian kings, the Old Testament 
prophets called down the vengeance of heaven on 
Nineveh, the splendid capital of the Assyrian Empire. 
“IVoe to the bloody city!” they cried. “The Ixird 
mil make Nineveh a desolation and dry like a mlder- 
ness.” The prophecy was fulfilled when the hordes 
of the conquering Medes and Chaldeans more than 
25 centuries ago (612 b.c.) swept over the doomed 
city and made it a desolate waste. As the centuries 
went on the sun-dried bricks of which most of the 
houses were built crumbled to dust. The drifting 
sands covered the ruins, mounting higher and higher, 
until every trace of the once mighty capital was lost. 
Finally the very memory of its location disappeared 
except for a native tradition. 

It was not until the middle of the 19th century that 
archeologists set to work on the vast flat-topped 
mounds with pick and shovel. They uncovered evi- 
dence that the mounds marked the site of one of the 
most magnificent capitals of antiquity. More than 
that, the walls and sculptures and hbraries they 
brought to light have enabled men of science to re- 
write the great lost chapters of history that tell of the 
empire of the Assyrians. Nearly every important fact 
we have today about Assjo-ia has been discovered 
since the ISlO’s. These discoveries were made as the 
result of excavations at Nineveh and other sites in the 
ancient valley of the Tigris. 

One of the earliest and most successful of these 
investigators was an Englishman, Sir Henry Layard. 
He unearthed (1845-51) the palaces of Seimacherib 
and Ashurbanipal with their alabaster bas-reliefs 
of hunts and sieges and battles, and colossal 
winged man-headed statues of bulls and lions. Most 
important of all, he found many thousand tablets of 
-4shurbanipal’s library. These have now been deci- 
phered and tell us the story of science, history, reli- 
pon, and literature in the days of Assyria, and Baby- 
lonia as well. Excavations have been proceeding ever 
pnce, but incalculable treasures still remain to be 
brought to light. 

The mounds, extending at intervals for some 20 
piles along the Tigris, opposite the modem city of 
- losul, represent not only the city of Nineveh proper, 
TOt also of Dur Sharrukin, the city of Sargon II, and 
waph. Nineveh, though it existed at least as early 
On- was chiefly the creation of Sennacherib 
B.C.), who walled and fortified it for two 
a half miles along the Tigris, building a great 
P^^ce and laying out extensive gardens. {See 
“Jo Babylonia and Assyria.) 

NIOBe (ni'o-be). One of the saddest stories in 
wepc mythology is that which tells how the proud 
daughter of Tantalus and wife of Amphion, 
g, ® 'I'hebes, was punished for her presiunption. 
j j of her seven sons and seven daughters 
, despised the goddess Leto (Latona) who had 
y one son and one daughter. But the children 
Eeto were the great Apollo, god of the sim, and 


NITRATES 

Artemis (Diana), goddess of the moon. For this 
arrogance they slew all the children of Niobe with 
their arrows. Niobe’s grief was so great that Zeus 
out of pity changed her into a rock on Mount Sipylus, 
from which tears continued to flow. 

Nitrates. Most forms of plant and animal life 
could not exist without the chemical compounds called 
nitrates. Two of the common ones, potassium nitrate 
and sodium nitrate, are extremely valuable because 
of their use in fertilizers and explosives. Silver ni- 
trate has wide uses. It is employed as a caustic in 
medicine, as a light-sensitive substance in photog- 
raphy, and to silver the backs of mirrors. Iron nitrate 
is used in djming; and barium and strontium nitrates 
give brilliant colors to fireworks. 

The molecule of every nitrate has within it a com- 
bination of atoms known as the nitrate radical. This 
consists of one nitrogen atom bound to three oxygen 
atoms. Its chemical formula is NO3. The nitrate 
radical stays together and acts as a unit in most chemi- 
cal reactions. It does not exist by itself, however, ex- 
cept in the ionized state (see Ions). Therefore in the 
nornoal state the nitrate radical is always found at- 
tached to some other kind of atom — most frequently 
those of metals. 

The nitrate radical is somewhat unstable. Nitrogen 
does not enter into chemical combinations easily, and 
when it does it tends to go back to its normal free 
state. Nitrates also dissolve readily in water. These 
two facts make nitrate compounds very useful to 
plants, for all plants need a constant supply of nitro- 
gen in order to form proteins for body building. 
Without an ample supply their growth is poor and 
stunted {see Plant Life). 

But most plants cannot use the vast amounts of 
free nitrogen in the air; they can use only nitrogen 
that they get from the soil. So the fact that nitrates 
dissolve and release their nitrogen easily makes them 
the chief supply of nitrogen in nature. 

Since nitrates dissolve so easily, they are rarely 
found in nature. Decaying plants give up nitrates, 
and the excrement of animals also contains these 
compounds. But rain usually washes the nitrates 
away and the compounds break up. Potassium ni- 
trate (saltpeter) is foimd free in a few regions, how- 
ever, chiefly in eastern India. And vast deposits of 
sodium nitrate (Chile saltpeter) exist in the desert 
regions of Chile and Bolivia. 

All nitrates may be called salts of nitric acid. In 
their formation, an element such as potassium (K) 
replaces hydrogen (H) in nitric acid (HNO3). The re- 
sulting salt, potassium nitrate, has the formula 
KNO3. In the reaction, free hydrogen is given off. 

In sii^ar fashion, silver (Ag), sodium (Na), and most 
other metals replace hydrogen readily in nitric acid. 
Gold and platinum do not, however, and aluminum 
does so only slowly. Compounds such as ammonia 
and cellulose also can form nitrates in this way. 

Nitrates are distinct from nitrites, another group 
of nitrogen compounds. These are salts of nitrons 
add (HNO 2 ). Unlike nitrates, they are highly stable. 



240 


NITRIC ACID 

Nitric acid. For hundreds of years nitric acid 
has been one of the world’s most important chemicals. 
Geber, the famous Arabian scientist, discovered it in 
the 8th century. He called it aqua fortis (“strong 
water”) because it attacks so many other substances, 
including nearly all the common metals. It was first 
prepared by treating potassium nitrate (saltpeter) 
with sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), and some is still 
made in that way. 

Most of our supply, however, is derived from the 
oxidation of ammonia by the Ostwald method. Am- 
monia, prepared by the Haber process (see Nitrogen), 
is mixed with heated air and passed through platinum 
gauze, which acts as a catalyst. The ammonia (NH3) 
reacts with the oxygen in the air to form nitric oxide 
(NO) and water (HjO). The nitric oxide is then 


further oxidized to nitrogen peroxide (NOd, which 
unites with the water to form nitric acid (HNOj). 

Nitric acid is a colorless, fuming liquid with so 
strong an aflinity for water that it is difficult to get a 
concentration over 95 per cent. The commercial acid 
ranges in strength from 50 to 70 per cent and usually 
looks yellow from the presence of various oxides in 
solution. For, in addition to being a strong acid, 
nitric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent. 

When metals, metallic oxides, or carbonates come 
into contact with nitric acid, the salts called nitraks 
are formed. These are important in the making of 
fertilizers and explosives such as dynamite (see 
Nitrates; Fertilizers). The nitrating of cellulose for 
making rayon, pyroxylin, and similar plastics is 
accomplished with nitric acid (see Cellulose). 


NITROGEN, PRESERVER and DESTROYER 0/ LIFE 


T^ITROGEN. About four-fifths of the air we breathe 
-*• ' consists of the gas called nitrogen. But we do not 
use this gas in our lungs. We breathe it out again 
imchanged. It serves only to dilute the oxygen of the 
air so that we wall not get too much at one time. This 
is one of nitrogen’s most important jobs. If the air 
were all oxygen, breathing it would soon “burn” us 
up in the chemical sense of the word (see Oxygen). 
And if a blaze started anywhere, it would be virtually 
impossible to put it out. In pure oxygen, even iron 
wdU catch fire. As it is, the nitrogen in the air slows 
down the action of the oxygen. 

Free nitrogen has this effect because it is very in- 
active. It does not burn or help other things to burn. 
It is slow to enter into any khid of chemical union. 
That is why there is so much of it at large in the at- 
mosphere. It is not one of the commonest elements 
(see Chemistry), but what there is in the world is 
mostly out in the open. Relatively little nitrogen is 
locked up in combinations with other elements, com- 
pared, for example, to the vast amounts of oxygen and 
hydrogen locked up in the form of water. 

Nitrogen Compounds Essential to Life 

In sharp opposition to nitrogen’s inactivity and its 
reluctance to form compounds stands the fact that ni- 
trogen compounds are absolutely essential to all forms of 
life. Protoplasm, the complex substance inside all 
living cells, requires nitrogen for its formation; and 
the essential food materials called proteins are all 
built^ around nitrogen compounds (see Proteins; 
Protoplasm). 

It i^asy to see, therefore, that the processes by 
whichmitrogen is captured and put to work are tre- 
mendously interesting and important to us. 

Capturing nitrogen from the air is called nitrogen 
fixation. In nature it takes place in twm ways; by the 
action of lightning and by the action of bacteria. 
^^^len a flash of lightning passes through the air it 
causes nitrogen to unite with oxygen in the form of 
nitric oxide (NO). As this cools, it takes on another 
atom of oxj^gen and becomes nitrogen pero.xide (NOj). 
This in turn joins with rain water or water vapor 


(HjO) in the atmosphere to form nitric acid (HNOj). 
The acid is carried down to earth, where it reacts with 
minerals in the soil to produce nitrates, like potassium 
nitrate or saltpeter (KNO3) (see Saltpeter). These 
nitrates can be used directly by plants to form the 
proteins out of which their living cells are built. 

But the thundering and gigantic power of lightning 
is not nearly so effective as the quiet work of the tin)' 
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It has been estimated that 
electric storms produce all over the earth about 80 
million tons of nitric acid a year. This is nowhere 
near enough to keep the supply of fixed nitrogen up 
to the requirements of living na:ture. Bacteria must 
provide the rest. 


Bacteria That Put Nitrogen to Work 

There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing bacteria: 
those that live on the roots of plants and those that 
live free in the soil. The root dwellers belong to the 
genus Rhizdbium. The free-living kind include the 
species called Clostridium pasteurianum and several 
species of the genus Azotobacter. The former stands 
out like a saint among sinners, for all others of the 
Clostridium genus are bacteria of disease, notably 
those that cause tetanus and gas gangrene. 

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria take the nitrogen direct!) 
from the air, combine it wnth hydrogen, and use this 
combination in building proteins. The root-dwelling 
type thrive only on the roots of leguminous plants like 
alfalfa, clover, beans, and peas (see Alfalfa). But the) 
fix more nitrogen than these plants requirej so the 
surplus is stored in the roots and passes into the 
soil when the plants are harvested or die. That 'S 
why leguminous crops are said to enrich the sou ui 
which they grow. 


Keeping Nitrogen in Circulation 
Once the nitrogen has been built into Ihdng tis^e, 
it may be used over and over again. Animals get their 
proteins either from plants directly or by devouring 
plantrnating animals. I\Tien a plant or animal dies, 
some of the bacteria of decay break up the protein, 
and the nitrogen emerges in the form of ammonw 
(NH3). Part of this escapes into the air, but roost 0 



NITROGEN 


it is seized upon by another type of bacteria and 
turned into nitrites. And still another type of bac- 
teria turns the nitrites into nitrates — ready to be 
used by plants in forming a new supply of proteins. 

The bacteria that do this kind of work are called 
nitrifying bacteria, in distinction from the nitrogen- 
fixing bacteria. Unfortunately, there are also denitri- 
fying bacteria which, during the decay of protein, set 
nitrogen free into the air again. And it is this con- 
tinual loss that must be made up. 

The processes by which nitrogen circulates between 
air and soil and among the different forms of life is 
called the nitrogen cycle. (For details of how plants 
use nitrogen, see Plant Life.) 

Fertilizers and Explosives 
Wild plants die and give back their nitrogen to the 
soil where they grew. But our harvests are con- 
tinually taking it away without return. That is one 
of the reasons why farmers must use fertilizers (see 
Fertilizers). Those that supply nitrogen include 
sodium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, and the wmste 
products of animals and birds, like manure and guano. 

Ammonium sulphate is a by-product of coke manu- , 
facture. Sodium nitrate, also called niter or Chile salt- 
peter, is found in vast deposits in the deserts along the 
western coast of South America. It accumulated 
there ages ago as the result of plant decay and 
escaped being washed away when the chmate changed 
to almost perpetual drought. 

The reluctance of nitrogen to unite with other ele- 
ments is matched by its readiness to break away from 
such unions whenever it gets the chance. Thus most 
nitrogen compounds are relatively imstable, and some 
of them break up with great violence. These are the 
sources of most of our explosives, including gun- 
powder, guncotton, dynamite, nitroglycerin, tri- 
nitrotoluene (TNT), and the several fulminates (see 
Gunpowder; Explosives). 

Artificial Fixation of Nitrogen 
. The great demand for low-cost nitrogen compounds 
m makmg both fertilizers and explosives exceeds the 
supply from natural sources. For this reason industrial 
science has worked out several methods of artificial 
mtrogen fixation. Some of these are patterned after 
others are products of the laboratory. 

Electric Arc Process: This reproduces the effects of 
ightning. Air is blown through a gigantic electric 
nitrogen and oxygen unite to make nitrogen 
peroxide gas, which then passes through a spray of 
''ater and forms nitric acid. Only where electric power 
can be generated at very low cost, as in Norway, is 
ais method practical. 

yanamide Process: Nitrogen is circulated over hot 
calcium carbide (CaCa) with the result that the nitro- 
sen replaces part of the carbon, forming calcium 
(CaCNj). This may be used directly as a 
iizer or may be treated with steam under pres- 
^ Produce ammonia. 

Process; A mixture of nitrogen and 
cogen is subjected to tremendous pressure in the 
chance of a catalyst, usually a compound of iron. 


The two gases unite to form ammonia. Fritz Haber in- 
vented this process in Germany in 1913 and Karl Bosch 
improved it. It provided Germany with fertihzers and 
explosives when the supply of natural nitrates was 
cut off by war. The Casale process and the Claude 
process are variations of the Haber-Bosch technique. 
This method of nitrogen fixation is most widely used. 

Chemistry of Nitrogen 

Nitrogen was first recognized as a distinct substance 
in 1772 by Daniel Rutherford of the University of 
Edinburgh. It is commercially prepared by evapora- 
tion of liquid air. The more volatile nitrogen comes 
off before the oxygen. One of the few direct uses of 
free nitrogen is in making “gas-filled” electric lamps 
(see Electric Light and Power). But in the impor- 
tance of its compounds, both for hving things and in 
industr 3 q it ranks next to the “big three” — hydrogen, 
oxygen, and carbon. 

Its valence ranges from one to five, illustrated by 
its compounds with divalent oxygen: nitrous oxide 
(N2O), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen trioxide (N2O3); 
nitrogen peroxide (NO2), and nitrogen pentoxide 
(N2O5). Most of its compoimds, however, are 
formed with valences of three or five. 

The two most widely known compounds of nitrogen 
are respectively an acid and a base — nitric acid and 
ammonia (see Nitric Acid; Ammonia). In the interest- 
iug compound ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) both 
basic and acid nitrogen appear in the same molecule, 
with the ammonium part (NH4) showing a valence 
of three and the nitrate part (NO3) showing a va- 
lence of five. 

Nitrogen combines with several of the metallic ele- 
ments such as magnesium and calcium, to form ni- 
trides (MgsNz) which react with water to yield am- 
monia. Wlien carbon and nitrogen together combine 
with a metal, a cyanide is produced, like the highly 
poisonous cyanide of potassium (KCN). 

Organic Compounds of Nitrogen 

As we have seen, the proteins are the most impor- 
tant of the organic compounds of nitrogen. They are 
built up in a unique manner from the amino acids 
which contain nitrogen in the amino combination — 
NH 2 (see Biochemistry). These acids are “amphoteric” 
substances; that is, they can act both as acids and 
bases. Thus the acid part of one amino acid molecule 
can combine with the basic part of another amino 
acid molecule, and so on, until several join together 
in forming the huge complex protein molecules. 

There are few dyes that do not contain nitrogen. 
The formula for aniline (CCH 5 NH 2 ) reveals that it is 
formed from the benzene ring (CeHe) by substituting 
an amino group for one of the hydrogen atoms. The 
special value of the aniline dyes for silk and wool 
arises from their affinity for the proteins of which 
these animal fibers are composed. This affinity is 
responsible also for the effectiveness of many anti- 
septics and germicides containing nitrogen. Most 
photographic developers contain nitrogen. So do many 
hypnotic drugs and the alkaloids, such as caffeine, 
quinine, and morphine. (See Chemistry; Anesthetics.) 




Nobel (nO-bSl'), Alfred Bernhard (1833-1896). 
During his life, Alfred Nobel made millions of dollars 
by his invention and manufacture of dynamite. But 
he left his vast fortune to promote world peace and 
to advance knowledge (see Nobel Prizes). 

Nobel was born in Stockholm, Sweden, on Oct. 21, 
1833. His father, Immanuel Nobel, was a self-edu- 
cated inventor. Alfred was the third of four sons. 
Failing in business in Stockholm, Immanuel Nobel took 
his family to St. Petersburg (now Leningrad). There 


he remained somewhat cynical over the effectiveness 
of the pacifist movement. He died in 1896 at San 
Remo, leaving the executors of his will to establish 
the system for administering the Nobel prizes. 
Nobel prizes. Alfred Nobel, Swedish chemist and 
inventor of dynamite, left more than $9,000,000 of 
his fortune to found the Nobel prizes. Under his will, 
signed in 1895, the income from this fund was to be 
distributed yearly in five equal pafts as prizes to 
those who had most helped mankind. A prize was to 


he had some success manufacturing 
rifles and land and water mines for the 
Russian government. Alfred was a 
sickly child. He was educated at home, 
first by his mother and later by tutors. 
He was a quiet boy, well-read in science 
and literature. Instead of going to high 
school, he traveled widely in Europe 
and the United States. He learned 
chemistry and mechanical engineering 
through his own studies. 

At 21, Nobel joined his father and 
brother in St. Petersburg. Immanuel 
Nobel had begun some experiments with 
nitroglycerin, but had abandoned them. 
Nobel resumed the work and invented a 
blasting cap made of fulminate of mer- 


AL.FRED NOBEL 



The inventor of dynamite left 
a fortune for peace. 


be awarded in each of these five fields: 
physics, chemistry, physiology (or medi- 
cine), literature, and peace. The physics 
and chemistry awards were to be made 
by the Swedish Academy of Science; 
physiology or medicine, by the Caro- 
line Institute of Stockholm; literature, 
by the Swedish Academy of Literature; 
and peace, by a committee of five 
chosen by the Norw^egian Parliament. 

A code of statutes, drawn up after 
Nobel’s death, has interpreted and car- 
ried out his will through the years. The 
statutes have modified the will by pro- 
viding that a prize may be omitted in 
any year. The peace prize has been the 
one omitted most frequently. 


cury to fire a charge of nitroglycerin. The cap was one 
of the most important inventions in explosives since 
the invention of gunpowder. 

Though still sickly, Nobel took charge of the fam- 
ily’s business. In 1863 he returned to Sweden and 
set up a small factory to make nitroglycerin. A year 
later a terrific explosion destroyed the plant and 
killed five people. One was his youngest brother, 
Emil. But Nobel refused to give up work and moved 
the plant to a barge moored in a lake. Further trage- 
dies occurred. In 1866, after disastrous explosions at 
world ports many nations forbade their vessels to 
carry nitroglycerin. Nobel then sought to make the 
explosive safer to handle. He found the answer in 
dynamite (see Dynamite). 

The invention made Nobel wealthy. He spent the 
next ten years patenting his discovery and setting up 
plants in the United States and European countries. 
In 1876 he patented blasting gelatin, a combination 
of guncotton and nitroglycerin. In 1878 he helped 
his brothers Robert and Ludwig develop the rich 
Baku oil fields in Russia. He invented ballistite 
in 1888, one of the first smokeless powders. 

For most of his life Nobel lived for nothing but 
work. He never married. He found recreation in his 
laboratory and in writing poetry in imitation of his 
literary idol Shelley. In later years he traveled 
throughout Europe and had homes in Paris, Stock- 
holm, and San Remo, Italy. In 1876 he met Bertha 
Kinsky Qater Baroness von Suttner), a Bohemian 
noblewoman. She became one of the world’s leading 
pacifists. In letters to Nobel over several years she 
developed his ideas for world peace. Nobel’s bequest 
for a peace prize was largely in tribute to her, although 


The Nobel prizes were first awarded Dec. 10, 1^1, 
fifth anniversary of Nobel’s death. They have since 
been given every December 10 when possible— the 
peace prize in Oslo, the other four in Stockholm. No 
Nobel prizes were announced for the war years 1940, 
1941, and 1942. The amount of each prize, more than 
$40,000 in 1901, varies from year to year with the in- 
come from the fund. Often a prize in a given field is 
divided among two or more winners. 

In keeping with Nobel’s will, all nationalities are 
eligible for awards. A Polish-born citizen of France, 
Mrne. Marie Curie, was the first person to receive 
more than one of the Nobel prizes (co-winner in 
physics, 1903, and winner of a full prize in chemistry, 
1911). (For American and Canadian winners, see 
table under entry Nobel Prizes in the Fact-Index.) 
Nomads. Lands too dry for farm crops and forests 
are the earth’s great pastures. Many deserts have 
grass or shrubs enough for camels and sheep, and the 
steppes on borders of deserts bear good short grass 
(see Deserts; Grasslands). The grazing animals soon 
eat all there is in one place and owners must keep 
moving them to fresh pastures. People w'ho live jn 
this way are nomads. Their animals provide milk, 
meat, hides, and hair or wool for cloth and rugs. 
They live in tents that can be easily moved. 

The most famous of all nomads are the Arabs who 
live in the Arabian Desert (see Arabia). They are 
called Bedouins (“desert people’’). They live muc 
as Abraham, Isaac, and David lived in the same deser 
land in early Bible times. 

Life In a Bedouin Tribe . 

Usually a Bedouin is small and thin, for 
scarce in the desert. His skin is naturally hga ' 



■242a- ^ NOMADS 

THIRSTY CAMELS CROWD AROUND A WATERING TROUGH 



These C U have just com; in from‘'p;sture and have not been watered Each camel dn^ 'xhe me®rchan?s 

wait their turn. Among the black tents of the Bedouins can be seen two small white tents of traveling merchants. The merchants 
will brand the animals they want to buy and will take them at the end of the season. 


but it has been burned brown by the sun. He has 
never gone to school and cannot read or write. He 
believes “there is no god but Allah,” and he tries to 
follow the teachings of Mohammed (see Mohammed). 
Mohammed says he should wash before praying. The 
Bedouin has hardly enough water for drinking and 
cookmg, so he washes by rubbing his hands with dry 
clean sand. 


The largest Bedouin tribe has about 3,000 tents 
end 75,000 camels. The whole tribe is hardly ever 
together. The herdsmen scatter in bands of fifty or 
jnore to find grass for their own beasts. The sheik is 
he chief of the whole tribe. He may own a thousand 
camels and a dozen swift Arabian horses. A herdsman 
owns only two or three camels. 

TV, r scorching hot on the Arabian Desert. 

he herdsmen must be in the sun all day tending their 
nnimals. Their clothes must protect them from the 
^nn and from sudden sandstorms whipped up by 
^’bids. The Bedouin wears a white cotton 
cnirt that reaches to his heels, with long sleeves. Over 
u'tk u bis aba — a square of striped wool cloth 

a W ^be arms. At night he uses the aba for 

On his head he wears a round wool cap, 
oV ^bis a colored kerchief. He binds the ker- 
cf to his head wdth a thick wool cord. He goes 


barefoot unless he has to walk a long distance on 
stony ground. Then he wears sandals made of camel 
hide. His wife dresses much the same way except that 
her clothes are dark blue and she fastens her kerchief 
with a band of folded cloth. 

The Bedouin calls a tent the “house of hair” because 
it is made of black goat-hair cloth. The top is 20 or 
30 feet long. A separate strip hangs down the back. 
On cold ^vinter nights the front is closed wdth another 
strip. The family sit and sleep on cotton quilts. They 
have no glass or china, no furniture, and no stove. 
The mother cooks over an open fire. She makes the 
fire in a pit and puts three stones around the edge to 
hold the cooking pot. For fuel she bums desert brush 
and dried camel dung. 

The sheik’s tent is about a hundred feet long. It is 
divided into two parts by curtains. The smaller part 
is for the sheik and his guests. It is furnished wdth 
beautiful carpets and soft pillow^s. The larger part is 
for the women and children and for storage. When 
the sheik sets out for the desert he loads about fifty 
camels wdth sacks of wheat, barley, salt, coffee, rice, 

and dates. , 

The sheik likes to have guests because it is lonely 
in the desert. MTen he entertains an important visi- 
tor he has his servants kill a lamb or a kid. MTiile 


NOMADS 


2425 


A NOMAD FAMILY AT HOME 



This is a family of Bedouins — Arabs of the desert. Because they are Mohammedans, the 
woman would not pose for the photographer until she had covered her face with a heavy 
veil. She took it off as soon as the picture was taken. Bedouin women are much too busy 
to be bothered wearing veils in the hot desert. 


it is roasting, the women cook rice and bake bread. 
They pat the dough very thin. Then they thraw it 
over a dome-shaped iron placed over a fii'e pit. The 
cooked meat, rice, and bread are put into a wooden 
bowl so large it takes two men to carrj- it. The guests 
sit on rugs around the bowl and eat out of it with 
their fingers. The sheik serves coffee at the end of 
the meal from a shiny brass coffeepot. He uill not 
eat until all his guests have finished. 

The herdsman’s family rarelj' have bread or meat. 
For breakfast and lunch the 3 " have only camel’s milk, 
fresh or sour. For supper thej" have more milk, dried 
dates, and a little wheat boiled in water. Thej" have a 
feast when a swarm of locusts appears. Thej’- eat some 
of the insects roasted hot. The rest are dried, ground 
to powder, and stored. 

hlordng doj-^ comes when there is no more grass for 
the camels. Tlien the tents are taken doum. The tent 
cloth is rolled on poles and slung across a camel’s 
back. Other camels are loaded mth household goods 
and leather bags of food and water. The water and 
food are for the nomads and the horses. The camels 
will not need to eat or drink on the journey (see 
Camel). Just before the march begins thej’' are led 
to a long leather watering trough. The men en- 
courage them to drink all they can hold. A verj' big 
camel can drink 60 or 70 quarts. 

The sheik and his armed band ride ahead on fast 
camels (dromedaries) to protect the tribe against rob- 
bers. Then come the pack camels and the fffter camels. 
A litter is a large light wooden cage with loop holes 
projecting on either side. It is decorated vith bright 
tassels, shells, and colored cloth. Two women and 
several small children can all ride m one litter. 


During the march the nomads 
sleep on the open ground. After 
a week or more they reach the 
new camping place. They set up 
their tents around a water hole 
or well. Only the tribe onming 
a well is allowed to draw water 
from it. 

August is the hottest, driest 
month. Then the grass dies and 
the nomads make their way .to 
an oasis. The oasis is in the 
desert but it is not dry. For 
a mile or two around the oasis 
^^llage spread date palms and 
green fields. The larger oases 
are watered by mountain 
streams. Small oases lie in low 
land where underground water 
can be tapped for irrigation. 

The nomads camp at the edge 
of the oasis. Soon traders ap- 
pear and set up small white 
tents. The nomads sell them 
all the camels they can spare. 
With the money they get, they 
buy food, cloth, and weapons 
in the oasis milage. In September they set out 
into the desert again to breed more camels. 

The Arabs introduced the tent to Africa. On the 
northern edge of the Sahara, Berber nomads live in 
tents like those of the Bedouins of Arabia. Most of the 
vast Sahara is so diy^ even camels cannot find pasture 
there (see Sahara). The great deserts of Turkestan, 
in central Asia, are colder and have more rainfall. 
Here nomads raise sheep, cattle, and horses. The)’ 
wear thick padded clothes and live in yur/s, which 
are cii’cular tents, covered with wool felt. 

IFhen rain fails, nomads can get food only by raid- 
ing farms. Throughout history they have warred on 
the settled agricultural peoples. In times past they 
have even swarmed over Europe (see Mongols; Huns). 
Today the nomad way of life is fast vanishing. 
Norfolk, Va. Since colonial days, Norfolk, with 
its suiTounding area, has served as a key base in the 
defense of American shores. The city is situated on 
Hampton Roads, the great natural harbor where the 
James River flows into Chesapeake Bay. It shares the 
harbor with Portsmouth, Newport News, and Hamp- 
ton (see Virginia). Together these four cities com- 
mand a strategic approach on the Atlantic coast. 

The chief United States military establishments in 
the area are the Norfolk Naval Station, in Norfolk, 
the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, in Portsmouth along the 
Elizabeth River; and the Langley Air Force Base, 
in Hampton. The port of Norfolk is joined with tho=e 
of Portsmouth and Newport News to form a single 
customs unit — the Port of Hampton Roads. This 
port ships coal, scrap iron, grain, tobacco, cotton, 
canned goods, and lumber. Among its imports are 
wood pulp, ore, petroleum products, and sugar. 



243 NORMANDY 

Norfolk’s development as a great rui ns of chateau gaillard guard the seine 
maritime city came with the ad- ' ’ ~~ 

vance of railroads, which made it 
the water outlet for the rich Vir- 
ginia back country. It is now a 
giant rail and water terminus, 
served by nine trunk railways and 
many foreign and domestic steam- 
ship lines. Spurred by the growth 
of its shipping trade, it became 
one of the leading industrial cities 
of the South. Shipbuilding and 
repairing is one of its major in- 
dustries. It has a large automobile 
assembling plant and factories pro- 
ducing clothing, thread, and ferti- 
lizer, Norfolk is the center of a 
vast sea-food industry. The city 
has a mmiicipal auditorium and 
stadium, a public library system, a 
museum of arts and sciences, and a 
number of fine parks and play- 
grounds. It is also a resort for 
swimmmg, hunting, and riding. 

Norfolk was founded in 1636. During the Revolu- resided, came to own Normandy. Leaders of Nor- 
tion, in January and February 1776, it was completel}' mandy then rebelled and called in the French kings, 
burned except for St. Paul’s Church (built in 1739). Disorder and confusion followed until the French king 
Since 1919 the city has had a city-manager form of Philip Augustus conquered Normandy from King 
government. Population (1950 census), 213,513. John of England. The struggle was renewed in the 
Normandy, France. During “apple blossom time,” Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453), which ended in the 
no land is lovelier than the old province of Normandy expulsion of the English, though at a terrible cost, 
on the north coast of France. From sandy beaches Thereafter Normandy’s history, merging with that 
and white chalk cliffs, Normandy stretches back in of all France, was less eventful, 
a gently rollmg countryside. Woodlands, shining But these early centuries of stirring history left 
streams, and thatched, w'hite stone farmhouses be- their marks on the land. At Mont St. Michel, the 
speak peace. Yet when the second World War thun- rocky island off the coast, is the famous fortress-abbey 
dered over Normandy’s hedgerows, the fury was only where politics and religion were mingled in intrigues 
another chapter in the land’s tempestuous history. and wars. In the ancient city of Caen, on the Orne 
“Normandy” means “land of the Northmen.” These River, are the Abbey for Men and the Abbey for 
terrifying Vikings invaded the region in the 9th cen- Women, built by William the Conqueror and his wife 
tury, steermg their dragon-prowed ships up the Seine, Matilda to pacify the pope who disapproved their 
and spreading fire and sword along its banks far inland marriage. Near Caen is placid little Bayeux, where 
to Pans. (For picture, see Northmen). In 911 Charles is kept the famous Bayeux “tapestry” depicting in 
the Simple concluded a treaty of peace with their embroidery the incidents in the Norman conquest of 
chief, Rollo, which granted them a large part of England. The most historic city in Normandy, how- 
Normandy; they later took the rest. ever, is Rouen, on the Seine, the ancient stronghold of 

Exploits of the Norman Nobles the Northmen. Here a mosaic in the sidewalk shows 

With their marvelous facility for adaptation, the where Joan of Arc wms burned at the stake. Here too 
Northmen within a century became patriotic French- is a fine Gothic cathedral, in which Henry II of Eng- 
fflen. Abandoning their fierce ways, they took up the land hes buried and where also is entombed the lion 
French language and the Christian religion. But they heart of his son Richard I. 
retained their old fondness for travel and adventure. Ports, Products, and People 

I'lve stalwart sons of one Norman family found their Normandy has some of the finest harbors in France. 

to Italy, where they established a kingdom in the Among them are Le Havre at the mouth of the Seine; 

south. The dukes of Normandy meanwhile rose in Cherbourg, at the tip of the peninsula of Cotentin; 

power until one of them, William, crossed the channel and Dieppe, in the northeast. The region is famous 

“nd took possession of England in 1066 (see William, for its cider and its fine textiles and laces. 

^unp of England). The people of this old province are mostly tall, 

William, though conqueror, wisely blended his Nor- blue-eyed, and fair-haired, showing their descent from 
traditions with the existing institutions of Eng- the Northmen. They are among the most hardy and 
In time England, w'here the seat of power now industrious inhabitants of France. 



Richard the Lion-Hearted bnilt this rugged castle in 1197 to defend his Normandy 
against the French kings. It was conquered in 1204, five years after his death, and 
destroyed in 1603. The village is one of twin towns called Les Andelys. 



north AMERICA 


The WEALTH and VARIETY of NORTH AMERICA 









: ■ J 













'i&0 


VA\T, sjf 


\, yiffi - - f-i 


















N orth America. The discovery of North America 
was one of mankind’s greatest pieces of good for- 
tune. When Columbus reached the New World in 1492, 
civilization was old in Europe and Asia. Fertile lands 
were crowded. Peasants tilled the soil of their lords 
without hope of owning land of their own. 

Yet North America — ^vast and rich — lay almost un- 
occupied by man. The American Indians were there, 
it is true. But there were only about 5 million in 
an area of more than 9 million square miles. Most 
of them lived in the warmer portions. North of 
modern Mexico, the wilderness held less than a million 
and a half people. They lived chiefly by hunting and 
fishing. They had cleared little of the magnificent 
forest for farming and they had left untouched the 
wealth of minerals. Only the most advanced Indians 
south of the Rio Grande made even moderate use of 
the metals and croplands. 

This big, empty land was ideal for European people. 
Much of it lay in the middle latitudes which are best 

for white men. The soil and 

climate were excellent for rais- 
ing the plants and animals 
which Europeans used. They 
valuable new 
lood plants such as corn. Vast 
forests along the Atlantic coast 
provided timber for homes, 

. The wealth and variety of resources in 

' ' ' ’ North America oSer aimost every oc- 

iJC ' cupation. Here (top) a man traps furs 

Ss&t'-.' , in', Canada’s evergreen forest, an- 

gaSS^, ' \ other (bottom) cuts sugar cane on a 

SSSf’S. A ' tropical plantation. Between these 

fUBTAA- , .. extremes, millionsdootherjobs.Thou- 

^•V'ari~.t\-.-. ' .-J sands work in the huge chemical plani 

]■ ... , ■ ■. . j (middle). It is on an island m the Kan- 

A.VA'r''}'*, ; } , jawha River near Charieston, W. va. 




MUsrvT^ w ^ 

h : — dA 


' 


iiuaiuianui, or irom lo yy . lo no jc.. iwiiu Greenland and Aleutian TclnnHcY 
Estimated area, about 9,400,000 square mUes. Population, about 216.000,000? 

Moun/ains.—On the east the Laurentian Plateau and the Appalachian Hiehla’ndo Vh.vi, 
est peak, Mount MitcheU, 6.684 feet). On the west the CordiUe?^ sISem fh riSi 
peakinllaska, Mount McKmley,20,269feet;in Canada, Mount Wim m 8 S 0 
mthe United States, Mount Whitney, 14.495 feet; in Mexico, Mount Orizaba’, 18,'700feet)’ 

Hiuers and Lakes.— Rivers: Missouri-Mississippi (3,988 miles). Mackenzin fv anni 
Yukon (1,800), Rio Grande (1,800), Colorado (1,650), Nelson (1,600). Columbia O ’lldl 
St. Lawrence (740). Lakes: Great Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron Erie Ont’nrini’ 
Great Bear, Winnipeg, Great Slave, Nicaragua, Great Salt. ’ * 

Potilical Divisions.— United States (including Alaska, Canal Zone Puerto Rico and 
Virgin Islands); Canada; Mexico; Central American Republics (Guatemala TTY,ad„?r.r 
Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Panama); Cuba; HaitlrDomSi Republic-’ 
British possessions (British Honduras, Jamaica, Bahamas, Bermuda, and other iBioadeil 
French and Dutch islands; Greenland, part of the Danish kingdom. smuds). 



I 



245 





246 






247 


shipbuilding, and other uses. Minerals lay in enor- 
mous variety and abundance beneath the surface. 


The continent contains about 
one-sixth of the world’s land area. 
Only two other continents, Asia 
and Africa, are larger. And the 
value of the land is enhanced by its favorable location 
with respect to climate. 

From south to north the continent lies between 7° 
and 85° N. latitude; that is, it extends almost from 
the equator to the North Pole. But most of the land 
lies in the middle latitudes. The broadest east-west 
span is between the 45th and 50th parallels, just 
about halfway between the equator and pole. Here 
the continent stretches more than one-sixth of the 
way around the earth. 

Good harbors on the adjoining oceans provide easy 
contact with the rest of the world. Ships that cross 
the north Atlantic Ocean from Europe find excellent 
harbors along the eastern shores. In the southeast, 
the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea afford a 
fine ocean highway to rich tropical islands and South 
America. The western coast has several fine harbors 
on the wide north Pacific. 

A Broad, Fertile Central Plain 

At the heart of the continent a broad central low- 
land sweeps from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mex- 
ico. At its center, it is about 1,500 miles wide. 
From the Gulf to the northern limits of agriculture 
it extends some 1,700 miles. Its expanse is broken by 
the Black Hills and the Ozark-Ouachita Plateau. 

This huge sweep of plain offers the kind of land 
that men have coveted in every age and country. In 
the eastern portion, ample rainfall produces grain 
enough to feed most of the continent and a surplus 
for shipment abroad. Its drier Great Plains grass- 
lands support vast herds of stock. 

Western Mountains and Plateaus 

Mountains border the Central Plains. To the west 
IS a broad, rugged system of high ranges which are 
known collectively as the Cordilleras. It cuts through 
the continent from Alaska down through Central 
America and is six hundred miles wide at its greatest 
breadth. The eastern portion is a chain of lofty, 
rugged ranges called the Rocky Moimtains in Canada 
and the United States, the Sierra Madre Oriental in 
Mexico, and the Brooks Range where it curves west- 
ward to Bering Strait in northern Alaska. 

. The western portion consists of another chain of 
high ranges called the Sierra Madre Occidental in 
Mexico, the Sierra Nevadas and Cascades in the 
United States, the Coastal Ranges in Canada, and 
the Maska Range in the north. An extension, the 
Aleutian Range, tapers southwest into the north 
Pacific, ending in the Aleutian Islands. 

Lower mountains bordering the Pacific coast are 
knoMm as the Coast Ranges in California, where they 
fun parallel to the Sierra Nevadas, and the Olympics 
'a Washington. Northward they are partially sub- 
wierged and form a chain of rugged islands that enclose 


NORTH AMERICA 

an inside passage along the Canadian coast. Between 
the two main ranges lies a region of basins and plateaus. 

Eastern Mountains and Coastal Plain 
East of the Central Plains rise lower, weathered 
uplands — the wide, rock-ribbed Laurentian Plateau, 
or Canadian Shield, in eastern Canada, and the Appa- 
lachian system, which stretches southwest from New- 
foundland to Alabama. From the southeastern slope 
of this mountain backbone, rolling piedmont hills de- 
scend to a level Coastal Plain along the Atlantic. This 
margin merges into the eastern end of the Coastal 
Plain on the Gulf of Mexico. 

The greater part of the mountainous areas in both 
the east and the west is too rough and steep for ex- 
tensive farming. But the mountains hold uncounted 
wealth in minerals and timber, and provide wide 
ranges for stock. Many river valleys are broad and 
level enough for farming. The highlands of Mexico 
and Central America also have productive and densely 
settled valleys and plateaus. 

The rich continent has its wastelands. In the north, 
vast stretches are frozen much of the year. But part 
of the belt that is too cold for agriculture bears the 
largest evergreen forest in the world, and precious 
metals are torn from the icy earth. Much of the 
plateau and basin between the Rockies and the 
Sierras is too dry for normal cultivation. But this 
desert holds veins of rich minerals. Where mountain 
rivers irrigate the soil it bears lush crops. 

Despite the areas that are too rugged, too dry, or 
too cold for farming, it is estimated that from a third 
to a half of the contment is excellent farming land. 
One-fifth bears valuable forests, and perhaps a fourth 
furnishes grass for stock. 

How the Lakes and Rivers Serve the People 
Magnificent rivers and lakes drain North America. 
The giant Mississippi-Missouri River and its many 
important tributaries drain most of the central low- 
lands and carry grain and manufactured products 
south to the Gidf. The Great Lakes — largest body of 
fresh water in the w'orld — join with the broad St. 
Lawrence River to float iron ore, grain, and other 
bulky produce of the interior eastward to the Atlantic. 

Shorter rivers in the Appalachians have cut gaps 
in the ranges. In colonial times they gave settlers 
routes for moving west. Today their valleys serve as 
highway and railway routes. Power from mountain 
streams helped to develop this region into the busiest 
industrial section of the continent. In the central 
lowlands, the close network of roads and railways 
does not depend upon valley routes. But in the 
Cordilleras, engineers have pushed transcontinental 
routes through the passes and valleys to the Pacific. 

The leading western rivers are important for irri- 
gation and power. The Columbia-Snake, the Colo- 
rado, the Sacramento-San Joaquin, and Fraser flow 
into the Pacific, while the Rio Grande makes its way to 
the Gulf of Mexico. The two great rivers of the Arctic 
region — the Mackenzie and the Yukon — lie icebound 
two-thirds of the year. The mountain-bom rivers of 
Mexico and Central America plunge toward the ocean 


Geographic 
Features of 
North America 




NORTH AMERICA 

through deep canyons. None is 
long or na\ngable far from its 
mouth. (For a map of the lead- 
ing North American river ba- 
sins, see United States.) 


248 


SUMMER AND WINTER WINDS 


Varied Climates 
of the Continent 


The con- 
tinent’s 
great ex- 
Arctic to the 


tent from the 

Tropics provides every tj^ie of 
climate found anywhere (see 
Climate; Eainfall). January 
temperatures range from a 
mean of — 40° F.on Greenland’s 
ice cap to between 64° and 75° 
in the tropics. The growing sea- 
son increases from a few days 
of 24-hour sunshine along the 
Arctic coast to year-around 
frostless weather in the south. 

Great differences in altitude 
also cause wide variations in 
temperature. A mile’s rise in 
altitude lowers the temperature 
about as much as does a move 
900 miles northward. Las Vegas 
in mountainous New Mexico 
has about the same mean an- 
nual temperature as Daven- 
port, Iowa, about 450 miles 
farther north. The highest 
mountaintops in North Amer- 
ica have Arctic temperatures 
and year-around snow fields. 

The Climate-Making Winds 

Another important factor in 
making climate is the array of 
prevailing winds. The tropical 
portions of the continent and 
the West Indies lie in the zone 
of the trade winds. They blow 
from the northeast in winter 
and tend to become east and 
southeast breezes in summer. 

The broad portion of the con- 
tinent has prevailing westerly 
winds — that is, a general movement of the atmosphere 
from west to east. This drift carries cyclonic disturb- 
ances which act like huge whirlpools, several hundred 
miles across. These disturbances bring frequent 
change from stormy weather to fair and cause shifts 
in the wind as they pass eastward (see Winds) . 

These cyclonic storms are also subject to seasonal 
influences. In summer, the oceans around the conti- 
nent are cooler than the land, and air pressures over 
them tend to be correspondingly higher. The prevail- 
ing summer winds blow from these “highs” over the 
North Pacific and from the region of the Gulf of Mex- 
ico and Caribbean Sea. The North Pacific “high” pro- 
jects cool air eastward toward the interior, but often 



On these maps of the prevaiUng winds of January and 
most frequent movement 
of the air. Notice that the winds tend to shift 
aautkin summer to gen- 
erally northwest and west in winter, as explained else- 
wnere on this pfigo* 


it does not get beyond the 
Rockies. The Gulf-Caribbean 
“high” sends warm air overthe 
eastern two-thirds of the con- 
tinent. Sluggish “highs” over 
the Atlantic cause long, hot 
spells by keeping heated airfrom 
moving eastward out to sea. 

In winter the cyclonic dis- 
turbances are shaped by pre- 
vailing winds from the north- 
west and north. Heavy masses 
of polar air build up in the al- 
most sunless winters of north- 
ern Canada. From time to time 
they sweep from the Macken- 
zie Valley “high” down into 
the interior lowlands, some- 
times reaching the Gulf coast. 
As the cold wave drives for- 
ward, temperatures may drop 
60 degrees in a day. 

Mountains Block Winds 
The location of the conti- 
nent’s mountain barriers also 
affect its climate. The pre- 
vailing westerly winds bring 
moist breezes from the Pacific 
to the northwest coast. They 
prevent extremes of heat and 
cold and bring heavy rains. 
The climate resembles that of 
Europe’s western coast. 

But this tempering influence 
is lost as the winds are forced 
upward by the mountains. The 
interior suffers the extremes of 
heat and cold characteristic of 
continental climates. Temper- 
atures on the Central Plains 
may vary more than 100 de- 
grees between the greatest win- 
ter cold and the summer heat. 

Regions of Meager, and 
Abundant Rainfall . 
The rain-bearing westerly 
winds drench the north 
Pacific coast but carry little of their moisture east 
of the Cordilleran barrier. Less than five inches fall 
annually in parts of the intermoimtain plateaus, and 
these areas are true desert. Most of the snow and 
rain that fall over central and eastern North America 
comes from the humid air drawn in from the Gulf by 
cyclonic activity. 

Rainfall in the Gulf area is abundant — an average of 
some 50 inches annually. It decreases northward to 
about 10 inches in the cold regions of northern Canada. 
It also falls off sharply from the Cordilleras eastward, 
to the region (roughly east of the 100th meridian) where 
cyclonic storms draw moisture from the south. The 
Great Plains receive less than 20 inches of rain a year. 





NORTH AMERICA* 


Aberdeen. S. Dak. 21,051 
Abilene, Tex. 45,570 

Acapulco, Mex. 28,700 

Acklins (isl.). Bah. Is. 

1,744 

Aguascalientes, Mex. 

93,432 

Alabama (state), U. S. 

3,061,743 

Alabama (river), D. S. 
Alaska (pen.), Alaska 
Alaska 128,643 

Albany (rlvert. Can. 
Albany, N. Y. 134,995 
Alberta (prov.). Can. 

939,501 

Albuquerque, N. Mex. 

96.815 

Alexander (archipelago), 

Amarillo, Tex. 74,246 
Amundsen (gulf). Can. 
Anchorage, Alaska 11,254 
Andros (isl,). 

Bah. Is. 6,718 

Angmagssallk, Greenland 
Anguilla (Island), 

L. Antilles 5.037 

Anticosti (isl.). Can. 424 
Antigua, W. Indies 41,757 
Antilles, Greater (islands), 
W. Indies 14,680,446 

Antilles, Lesser (Islands), 

^ W. Indies 1,833,000 

Arctic Ocean 
Arizona (state), U. S. 

. . 749,587 

Arkansas (state). TJ. S. 

, , 1,909,511 

.^kansas (river), U. S. 
Athabaska (river). Can. 
Athabaska (lake). Can. 
Atlanta, Ga. 331,314 

Augusta, Ga. 71,508 

Augusta, Maine 20,913 

Tex. 132,459 

^el Heltog (isl.). Can. 
Aylmer (lake). Can. 

BafQn (bay) 

Baffin (island). Can. 
Bahama Is., W. Indies 

Baja California 76,000 

Bangor. Maine 


J 5 
J6 
H 8 

L 7 

H 7 

K6 
K 6 
C 4 
C 3 
K4 
L 5 

G 4 

H 6 

E 4 
H 6 
F 2 
C 3 

L 7 
P3 

M 8 
M 5 
M 8 

L 8 

M 8 
B 2 

G 6 

J 6 
J 6 
G 4 
H 4 
K 6 
K6 
M 5 
J 6 
H 1 
G 3 
M 2 
L2 

L7 


G 7 
949,708 L 6 
31,558 M 5 


Bante (Island). Can. 
Barbados, W. Indies 

Barbuda (Isl.), 192,800 

L. Antilles 979 

Barrow, Alaska 951 

garrow (strait). Can, 
Bathurst (island). Can. 
S®™“Eouge La. 125,629 

Beaufort (sea) 

94,014 

“ftu-srs'ga.. 

Can.’*®® 


37,403 

31.834 


F 2 

M 8 

M 8 
C 2 
J2 
H 2 
J 6 
D 2 
J 6 
K4 


34,393 


Bering (strait) 

Bermuda Is., 

BUtogs.Mont. 

326,037 

g{?™4rck, N. Dak. 18,640 
(mt. range), 

Boise.'ldaho 

'^^161444 

him 

Brpos (river). U. s ■ 

Sft?ol (bay); Alaska 
British Columbia (prov.), 

BilHch rr , 1.165,210 P 4 

59,220 K 8 

^35 066 

By^?'(fsfe.Can 

Catea.^“-’ 


K 8 
N4 
A 3 
B 3 
M 6 
H 5 
K 6 
H 5 

G 5 
G 5 
K 3 
J 2 
G 2 
M 5 
H 5 
H 5 
J 6 
B 4 


Cama^ey.cuba‘°;|gllll 

Canada li009.429 J 4 


C 3 
J 7 
L 5 
G 5 
L 2 
N 5 
G 4 
G 7 

P 6 
L7 


Canadian (river), U. S. 
Canal Zone 52,822 

Cap Haltien, Haiti 24,957 
Cape Breton (island). 

Can. 157,696 

Caribbean (sea) 

Carson City, Nev. 3,082 
Cascade (mt. range), H.S. 
Casper, wyo. 23,673 

Cat (isl.). Bah. Is. 3,870 
Cedar Eapids, Iowa 72,296 
Cedros (island). Mex'. 374 
Charleston, S.C. 70,174 
Charleston, ‘W.Va. 73,501 
Charlotte, N.C. 134,042 
Charlottetown, P.E.l. 

15,887 

Chattanooga, Term. 

131,041 

Chesapeake (bay), IJ.S. 
Chesterfield (inlet). Can. 
Cheyenne, Wyo. 31,935 
Cheyenne (river), H.S. 
Chicago. 111. 3,620,962 

Chicoutimi, Que. 23,216 
Chidley (cape). Can. 
Chihuahua, Mex. 86,962 
Churchill (river). Can. 
Churchill, Man. 500 

Cienfuegos, Cuba +97,658 
Cincinnati, Ohio 503,998 
Ciudad Juarez, Mex. 122, 598 
Ciudad Trujillo (cap.). 

Dom. Rep. 181,553 

Cleveland, Ohio 914,808 
Cllpperton (island) 

Coast (mts.). Can. 

Coast (mt. range), H.S. 
Coats (island). Can. 
Coclmane, Ont. 3,401 

Cocos (island), C. R. 

Cod (cape). U. S. 

Colon, Panama 52,204 
Colorado (state), H. S. 

1,325,089 

Colorado (river), H.S. 
Colorado (river). H.S. 
(Colorado Springs, Colo. 

45,472 

Columbia, S. C, 86,914 

Columbia (river), U. S. 
Columbus, Ga. 79.611 

Columbus, Ohio 375,901 

Conchos (river), Mex. 
Concord, N.H. 27,988 

Connecticut (state), H.S. 

2.007,280 
Cordova. Alaska 1,165 

Corptis Christl, Tex. 

108,287 

Corrientes (cape). Mex. 
Costa Rica 800,875 

Cozumel (island). Mex. 

2,905 

Cuba, W. Indies 5,853,898 

Culiacan, Mex. 48,983 

Cumberland (sound). 

Can. 

Curacao, Neth. Ant. 


(island 
Dallas. Tex. 
Danville, Va. 

Davis (strait) 
Dawson, Yi^on 
Dayton, Ohio 
Dease (strait). Can 


95.195 

434,462 

35,066 

783 

243,872 


Del Rio. Tex. 
Delaware (state). 


14,211 
H. S. 
318,085 


Denmark (strait) 

Denver, Colo. 415.786 
Des Moines, Iowa 177.965 
Detroit. Mich, 1,849.568 
Devon (island). Can. 

Disko (island), 

Greenland 

District of Columbia. 

U g 802,178 

Dixon Entrance (strait) 
Dominica, W. Inmra 47,624 
Dominican Republic, 

W. Indies 2,136,872 

Dougla^Arlz. 9,442 

Dover, Del. 6.223 

Dubawnt (river). Can. 
Dubawnt (lake). Can. 
Duluth, MiuA- 
Durango. Mex. 59,498 

Eastmain (river). Can. 
Edmonton. Alta. 159.631 

El Paso. Tex. 130.485 

El Salvador 1,855,91 < 

Eleuthera (island). 

Bah. Is. 0-430 


J 6 
LS 
L 7 

N5 
L8 
G 6 
P 5 
H 5 
L 7 
J 5 
G 7 
L6 
L6 
L6 

M 5 

E 6 
L6 
J3 
H 5 
H 5 
J5 
LS 
M 3 
H 7 
J4 
J 4 
K7 
K6 
H 6 

M 8 
L5 
H 8 
P 4 
P 5 
K3 
K5 
KO 
M 6 
L9 

H 6 
H 6 
G 6 

H 6 
K6 
G 5 
K6 
K6- 
H 7 
L5 

L5 
D 3 

J 7 
H 7 
K8 

K7 
L7 
H 7 

M 3 

M 8 
J 6 
K6 
N 3 
E 3 
K6 
H 3 
H 7 

L6 
R 3 
H 5 
J 5 
K5 
K2 

N2 

L6 
E4 
M 8 

L8 
G 6 
L6 
H 3 
H 3 
J 5 
H 7 
L4 
G 4 
H 6 
J 8 

L 7 


Elko, Nev. 5,393 

Ellesmere (island). Can. 

Erie (lake) 

Erie. Pa. 130,803 

Etah. Greenland 
Eugene. Ore. 35,879 

Eureka, Calif. 23,058 
Eureka Sound, N.'W. Terr. 
Evansville, Ind. 128,636 
Fairbanks, Alaska 5,771 
Falso (cape), Mex. 

Farewell (cape), 

Greenland 

Fargo, N. Dak. 38,256 
Flatteir (cape), H. S. 

Flint. Mich. 163,143 

Florida (state), H.S. 

2,771,305 

Florida (strait) 

Florida Keys, H. S. 

Fort Albany, Ont. 

Fort Chlpewy-an, Alta. 

Fort George (river). Can. 

Fort George, Que. 

Fort Liard. N.W. Terr. 

Fort McPherson, N.'W. 

Terr. 

Fort Nelson. Br. Col. 350 
Fort Resolution, 

N.W. Terr. 

Fort Simpson, N.W. 

Terr. 

Fort Smith, N.W. 

Terr. 250 

Fort Smith. Ark. 47,942 
Fort Vermilion. Alta. 

Fort William, Ont. 34,947 
Fort Worth, Tex. 278.778 
Fort Yukon, Alaska 446 
Foxe (channel). Can. 

Foxe (basin). Can. 

Foxe (pen.). Can. 

Frankfort, Ky. ir,916 
Fraser (river). Can. 

Fredericton, N. B. 16,018 
Frederik VI Coast (re- 
gion), Greenland 
Fresno, Calif. 91,669 

Galveston, Tex. 66,568 

Garry (lake). Can. 

Gary, Ind. 133,911 

George (river), Can. 

Georgia (state), H. S. 

3,444,678 

Gila (rlverL H. K 
Godhavn, Greenland 319 
Godthaab (cap.), 

Greenland 1,021 N 3 

Gracias a Dios (cape). 

Cent. Amer. 

Grand Bahama (island). 

Bah. Is. 2.333 

Grand Cayman (island). 

Jam. 5,600 

Grand Falls, Newfld. 5,508 
Grand Forks, N. Dak. 

26,836 

Grand Island, Nebr. 22,682 
Grand Rapids, Mich. 

176,515 

Grande Prairie, Alta. 2,664 
Great Abaco (isl.). Bah. 

Is. 3,461 


G 5 
K2 
K 5 
L 6 
M 2 
F 5 
P 5 
K 1 
K6 
D 3 
G 7 

O 4 
J 5 
F 5 
K 5 

K 7 
K 7 
K 7 
K4 
G 4 
L4 
L4 
F 3 

F 3 
P 4 

H 3 

G 3 

H 3 
J 6 
G 4 
J 6 
J 6 
D 3 
K3 
L3 
L 3 
K 6 
P4 
M 6 

O 3 
F 6 
J 7 
J 3 
K 5 
M 4 

K 6 
G 6 
N 3 


K8 
L 7 


K8 
N 5 


J 5 
J 6 


K 5 
P 4 


L 7 
G 3 


L7 
G 5 
G 3 
L 4 
K 5 
O 2 
T 2 
72,387 M 8 


Great Bear (lake! 

Great Ex+una (island). 

Bah. Is. 3,784 L 7 

Great Falls, Mont. 39,214 G 5 
Great Inagua (island). 

Bah. Is. 890 

Great Salt (lake), H. S. 

Great Slave Oake). Can.- 
Great Whale (river), Can. 

Green Bay, Wis. 52,735 
Greenland 21,412 

Greenland (sea) 

Grenada, "W. Indies 
Guadalajara, Mex. 378,423 H 7 
Guadalupe (Uland). 

Guadeloupe. W. Indies_^^^ ^ ^ 

Guantanamo. 

Guatemala (cap.), ^ ^ 

Guatemala 2,788,122 J 8 

Habana (Havana) (cap.). 

Cuba 1-787,448 K 7 

Haiti. W. Indies 3.111.973 L8 
Halifax. N. S. 85,589 M 5 

Hamilton (Inlet). Can. N 4 

Hamilton, Ont. 208,321 K 5 
Harrisburg. Pa. 89,544 L 5 
Hartford, Conn. 177.397 L 5 


Hatteras (cape). H. S. L 6 

Havana (Habana) (cap.). 

Cuba 787 448, K 7 

Havasu (lake), H. S. G 6 

Hecate (strait). Can. E 4 

Helena, Mont. 17,681 G 5 

Hermosillo, Mex. 43,522 G 7 
Hispaniola (Island), 

W. Indies M 7 

Holguin, Cuba 1224,579 L 7 
Hondimas (gulf). Cent. Am. K 8 
Honduras 1,505,465 K 8 

Hopedale, Newf. 167 

Houston. Tex. 596,163 
Hudson (bay). Can. 

Hudson (strait). Can. 

Huron (lake) 

Hutchinson. Kans. 33,575 
Idaho (state), H. S.588,637 
Iliamna (lake). Alaska 
Illinois (state), H. S, 

8,712 176 

Indiana (state). H. S. 

3,934,224 
Indianapolis, Ind. 427,173 
Iowa (state), H. 8. 

2,621,073 

Isachsen, N.W. Terr. 

Jackson, Miss. 98,271 
Jackson-sdlle, Fla. 204,517 
Jalapa, Alex. 51,123 

Jamaica, W. Indies 

1,374,000 

James (bay). Can. 

Jefferson City, Mo. 25,099 
Jones (sound). Can. 

Juan de Fuca (strait) 

Julianehaab. 

Graedland 054 

Juneau (cap.), Alaska5,956 
Kamloops, Br. Col. 8,099 
Kansas (state), H. S. 

1,905.209 

Kansas (river). H. S. 

Kansas City, Kans. 129,553 
Kansas City, Mo. 456,622 
Kenora, Ont. 8,695 

Kentucky (state), H. S. 

2,944,806 
Ketchikan, Alaska 5,305 
Key West, Fla. 26,433 
King Christian IX Land 
(region). Greenland 
King Christian X Land 
(region), Greenland 
King Frederik VIII Land 
(region). Greenland 
King WUhelm Land 
(region), Greenland 
Kingston (cap.). Jam. 

109,056 

Kingst-on, Ont. 33,459 
Klamath Falls. Ore. 15,875 
Knoxville. Tenn. 124, 769 
Kodiak (island), Alaska 
Koksoak (river). Can. 

Kotzebue. Alaska 623 
Koyukuk (river). Alaska 
Kuskokwim (river), Alaska 
La Ceiba, Hond. 16,645 
La Martre flake). Can. 

Labrador, Nfld.,Can., 5,525 
Lake of the Woods Hake) 
Lanca-ster (soimd). Can. 

Lansing, Alich. 92,129 
Laredo, Tex. 

Leaf (river). Can. 

Le6n, Mex. 

Le6n, Nic. 

Lethbridge. Alta. 

Lexington. Ky. 

Liard (river). Can. 

LimOn, C. R. 

Lincoln (sea) 

Lincoln. Nebr. 

Little Rock, Ark. 

London, Ont. 

Long (Island). Bah. Is. 4, 564 
Los Angeles, Calif. 

1.970,358 

Louisiana (state). H. S. 

2,683,516 
Louisville, Ky. 360,129 

Lynchburg, Va. 47,727 
Alackenzie (river). Can. 

Alacon, Ga. 

Madison. WIs. 

Aladre Occidental (mt. 

range). Alexico 
Maine (state). H. S. 

913,774 

AlanagUa (cap.), Nic. 

109,352 

Alanlkuagan (river). Can. 


51.910 

122,585 

30,544 

22,047 

55,534 

11,310 

98,884 

102,213 

95,343 


70,252 

96,056 


N 4 
J 7 
K 3 
L 3 
K 5 
J 6 
G 5 
C 4 

K 5 

K 6 
K 5 

J 5 
H 2 
K 6 
L 6 
J 8 

L8 
K4 
J 6 
K 2 
F 5 

O 3 
E 4 
F4 

J 6 
J 6 
J 6 
J 6 
J4 

K6 
E 4 
K 7 

P 3 

P 2 

P 1 

R 2 

L 8 
L 5 
G 6 
KO 
C 4 
M 4 
C 3 
C 3 
C 3 
K8 
G 3 
M 4 
J 5 
K2 
K 5 
J 7 
L4 
H 7 
K8 
G 5 
K 6 
P 3 
K 9 
N 1 
J 5 
J 6 
K 5 
L 7 

G 6 

J 6 
K 6 
L 6 
P 3 
K 6 
K5 

H 7 

Af 5 

K8 
M 4 


beures are taken from the latest official census i 
appropriate country. flncludes suburbs. 


estimate available. For date and source of a population figure, aee article on 


[ 249 ] 











Copyrljhl by C.S. HAMMOND A Co., N.Y. 



NORTH AMERICA — Continued 


Manitoba (prov.), Can. 

776,541 

Manitoba (lake). Can. 

Mansel (island), Can. 
Manzanillo, Mex. 13,036 

Marquette, Mich. 17,202 

Martinique, W. Indies, 

261,695 M 8 
Maryland (state), U. S. 

2,343.001 

Massachusetts (state), 

U. S. 4.690,514 

Matanzas, Cuba -^82,646 
Mayaguana (Isl.), Bah. 

Is. 591 

Mazatl^, Mex. 41,470 
McClintock (chan.). 

Can, 

M’CIure (strait). Can. 
McMurray, Alta. 621 
Mead (lake), U. S. 

Medford, Ore. 17,305 

Medicine Hat, Alta. 16,364 
Melville (pen.). Can. 

Melville (island). Can, 

Memphis, Tenn. 396,000 
Mendocino (cape), U. S. 

Mgrida, Mex. 144,793 

Meridian, Miss. 41,893 

Mexico (gulf) 

Mexico (Mexico City) 

(cap.), Mex. 2,233,914 
Mexico 25,706,182 

Miami, P a. 249,276 

Michigan (state), XT. S. 

6,371,766 

Michigan (lake), XT. S. 

Milk (river), U; S. 

Milwaukee, Wis. 637,392 

Minneapolis, 

Minn. 621,718 

Minnesota (state), U. 8, 

2,982.483 

Mississippi (state), XT. 8. 

2,178.914 

Mississippi (river), XT. 8. 
Mississippi (delta), XT. 8. 
Missoula, Mont. 22,485 

Missouri (state), XT. S, 

3,954,653 

Missouri (river). XT. 8. 
Mistassini (lake), Can. 

MobUe, Ala. 129,009 

Moisio (river), Can. 

Mona (passage) 

Moncton. N. B. 27,334 
Monroe, Xja. 38,572 

Montana (state), V. 8. 

591,024 

Monterrey, Mex. 331,771 
Montgomery, Ala. 

106,525 

Montpelier, Vt. 8,599 

Montreal, Que. 1,021,520 
Moose Jaw. Sask. 24,355 


J4 
J4 
K 3 
H 8 
K 5 


L 6 

L5 
K 7 

I. 7 
H 7 

H 2 
G 2 
H 4 
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Moosoneo, Ont. 300 

Morelia, Mex. 63,248 

Mosquitos (gulf). Cent. 

Am. 

Muskogee, Okla. 37,289 

Nanaimo. Br. Col. 7,196 

Nashville, Tonn. 174,307 

Nassau (cap.), Bah. Is. 

13,231 

Nebraska (state), XT. 8. 

1,325,610 
Nelson, Br. Col. 6,772 

Nelson (river). Can. 
Nettllling (lake). Can. 
Nevada (state), U. S. 

160,083 

New Bnmswlck (prov.). 
Can. 515.697 

New Hampshire (state), 

U. S. 533,242 

New Jersey (state). XT. 8. 

4.836,329 

New Mcjxico (state), 

XT. 8. 681.187 

Now Orleans, La. 570,445 
Now 'Westminster, Br. 

Col. 28.639 

Now York (state), XT. 8. 

14,830,192 

New York, N.Y. 

7,801,957 

Newfoundland (prov.). 
Can. 301,416 

Nicaragua (lake). Cent. 
Am. 

Nicaragua 1,057,023 

Nipigon (lake). Can. 

Nome. Alaska 1.876 

Norfolk. Ya. 213,613 

North Battlcford, Sask. 

7.473 

North Bay, Ont. 17,944 


K 6 
L6 
L6 
H 4 
K 4 
H 8 

K 8 
J 6 
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K 6 

L 7 

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North Carolina (state), 

U. 8. 4,061,929 

North Dakota (state), 

XT. S. 619,636 

North Magnetic Pole 
North Platte (river), 

U. 8. 

North Saskatchewan 
(river), Canada 
Northwest Territories, 

(terr.). Can, 16,004 

Norton (sound), Alaska 
Nottaway (river), Can. 

Nova Scotia (prov.), 

Can, 642,584 

Nimivak (island), 

Alaska 225 

Nutak, Newf. 66 

Oakland. Calif. 384,675 

Oaxaca, Mex. 46,156 

Ogden, Utah 57,112 

Ohio (state), U. S. 

7,946,627 
Ohio (river), U. 8. 

Oklahoma (state), U. 8. 

2,233,351 

Oklahoma City, Okla. 

243,504 

Olympia, Wash. 15.819 

Omaha. Nebr. 251,117 

Ontario (lake) 

Ontario (prov.), Can, 

4,597,542 

Oregon (state), U. 8. 

1,621,341 

Orizaba, Mex, 65,622 

Orlando. Fla. 52,367 

Ottawa (river). Can. 

Ottawa (islands^ Can. 

Ottawa (cap.), Canada 

202,045 

Panama (gulf), Cent. 

Am. 

Panama (cap.), Panama 

127,874 

Panama 805,285 

Peace (river), Can. 

Peace River, Alta, 1,672 

Peary Land (region), 

Greenland 
Pecos (river), U. 8, 

Pelly (river), Can, 

Pennsylvania (state), 

U. 8. 10,498,012 

Pensacola, Fla. 43,479 
Peoria, III. 111,866 

Philadelphia, Pa, 

2.071.605 
Phoenix. Ariz, 106.818 
Pierre, 8. Dak. 5,715 

Pinar del Rio, Cuba 

t93.287 

Pines (island). Cuba 

9,812 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 676.806 
Platte (river), U. 8, 

Pocatello, Idaho 26.131 
Porcupine (river), 

Port Arthur. Ont. 31,161 
Port-au-Prince (cap.), 

Haiti 142,840 

Port Nelson. Man, 

Portland, Maine 77.634 
Portland. Ore, 373,628 
Porto Rico (Puerto Rico),N 
W. Indies 2.210,703 
Powder (river), U. 8. 

Prince Albert, Sask, 17.149 
Prince Edward I. (prov.). 

Can. 98,429 M 6 

Prince George, Br. 

Col. 4.703 F 4 

Prince of Wales (isl.). Can. J 2 
Prince Patrick (island). 

Can. F 2 

Prince Rupert, Br, Col, 

8,546 F 4 

Providonco, R. I. 248,674 M 5 
Prudhoe Land (region), 
Greenland 

Puebla, Mex. 206.840 

Pueblo, Colo. 63,685 

Puerto Rico, W, Indies 

2.210,703 

Quebec (prov.), Can. 

^ 4,055,081 

Quebec, Quo. 164.016 

Queen Charlotte (islands), 

Can._ 2,389 


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Queen Elizabeth (isls.) Can. H 2 
QuerCtaro. Mex. 49,428 J 7 

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65.679 L 0 
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QuerCtaro. Mex. 

Race (cape). Can. 
Raleigh. N. C. 

Rod (river), U. 8. 

Red Mver), U. 8. 

Red Deer (river), Can. 


Regina, Sask. 71,319 

Reindeer (lake), Can. 

Reno, Nev. 32,497 

Resolution (island). Can. 
Revillagigedo (islands), 
Mex. 

Rhode Island (state), 

U. 8. 791,896 

Richmond, Va. 230,310 
Rio Grande (river) 
Rochester, N. Y. 332,488 
Rock Springs, Wyo. 

10,857 

Rocky (mts.) 

Roswell. N..Mex. 25,738 
Rupert House, Que. 

Sable (cape), Can. 

Sable (island). Can. 
Sacramento, Calif. 

137,572 

Saguenay (river), Can. 
Saint Augustine, Fla. 

13,555 

Saint Christopher (is- 
land), L. Antilles 29,818 
Saint John, N. B. 60,779 
Saint John’s, Ne^vfld. 

52,873 

Saint Lawrence (river), 
Can. 

Saint Lawrence (gulf), 

Can. 

Saint Lawrence (isl). 

Saint Louis, Mo. 856,796 
Saint Lucia, W. 

Indies 70.113 

Saint Matthew (isl.), 

Saint Paul, Minn. 311,349 
Saint Petersburg, Fla. 

96,738 

Saint Pierre & Miquelon 
(Fr.), (islands) 4,354 
Saint Vincent, 'W. Indies 

61,647 

Salem, Ore. 43,140 

Salt Lake City, Utah, 

182,121 

Saltillo, Mex. 69,874 

Salvador, El 1,855.917 
San Angelo, Tex. 62,093 
San Antonio, Tex. 408,442 
San Bernardino, Calif. 

63,058 

San Diego, Calif. 334,387 
San Francisco, Calif. 

776,357 

San Jos6 (cap.), C. R. 

86,718 

San Jose, Calif. 95,280 
San Juan (cap.), P. R. 

224,767 

San Luis Potosf, Mex. 

126,696 

San Salvador (cap.), El 
Sal. 161,961 

Santa Barbara, Calif. 

44.913 

Santa Barbara 
(isls.). U.S. 

Santa Clara. Cubatl44,630 
Santa Fe, N. Mex. 27,998 
Santiago (river), Mex. 
Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. 

„ tT69,244 

Saskatchewan (prov.), 

Can. 831,728 

Saskatchewan (river). 

Can. 

Saskatoon, Sask. 53,268 
Sault Sainto Marie, 

Ont. 32.452 

Savannah, Ga. 119,638 
Savannah (river), U. S. 
Scranton, Pa. 125,536 

Seattle, Wash. 467,591 

Seven Islands, Que. 1,866 
Severn (river). Can. 
Seward, Alaska 2,114 

Seward (pen.), Alaska 
Sheridan, Wyo. 11,500 

Slireveport, La. 127,206 

Sierra Nevada (mt. 
range), U. S. 

Sioux City, Iowa 83.991 

Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 

52,696 

Sitka, Alaska 1,985 

Skogway, Alaska 758 

Slave (river). Can. 
Smithers, Br. Col. 1.204 
Snake (river), U. 8. 
Somerset (island). Can. 
South Carolina (state), 

U S. 2,117,027 


H 4 
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South Dakota (state), 

U, S. 652,740 

South Platte (river), 

u. s. 

South Saskatchewan 
(river), Canada 
Southampton (isl.). Can. 
Southern Indian (lake), 
Can. ■ 

Spokane, Wash. 161,721 
Springfield, 111. 81,628 

Springfield, Mo, 66,731 
Stikine (river), Can. 
Sudbury, Ont. 42,410 
Superior (lake) 

Sverdrup (islands). Can. 
Sydney, N. S. 31,317 
Tacoma, Wash. 143,673 
Tallahassee, Fla. 27,237 
Tampa, Fla. 124,681 

Tampico, Mex. 94,221 
Tanana (river), Alaska 
Tegucigalpa (cap.), 

Hond. 72,385 

Tennessee (state), U. S. 

3.291.718 

Tennessee (river), U. S. 
Terre Haute, Ind. 64,214 
Texarkana, Ark. 15,875 

Texarkana, Tex. 24,753 

Texas (state), U. S. 

7,711.194 

Thule, Greenland 
Timmins, Ont. 27,743 
Toledo. Ohio 303.616 

Toluca, Mex. 52,789 

Topeka, Kans. 78,791 

Toronto, Ont. 675,754 

Torredn, Mex. 128,548 

Trenton, N. J. 128.009 

Trinidad, Colo. 12,204 
Trols Rivieres, Que. 46,074 
Tucson, Ajiz. 45,454 

Tulsa, Okla. 182.740 

Ungava (bay). Can. 

United States 150,697,361 
Utah (state), U. S. 688,862 
'Valladolid, Mex. 6,402 

Vancouver. . 

Br. Col. 344,833 

Vancouver (isl.), Can. 
Veracruz, Mex. 101,469 
Vermont (state), 

Vicksburg, Miss. 

Victoria, Br. Col. 61,331 
Victoria (island). Can. 
Villahermosa, Mex. 

33,588 

Virgin Is. (.U.S.), W. 

Indies 26,665 

Virgin Is. (Br.), "W. 

Indies 6,605 

Virginia (state). U- |jg ggo 

Viscoimt Melville (soimd), 
Canada 

Waco, Tex. 84,706 

Wager (bay), Can. 
Washington (statej.^U. S. ^ 

Washington. D. C., 

(cap.), U.S. 802,178 

West Indies (islands) 

16.000,000 
West Palm Beach, 

Fla. 43,162 

West Virginia (state). 

U. S. 2,005.552 

White Horse, Yukon 

2,694 

Wichita, Kans. 

Wichita Falls. Tex. 08.042 
Wilmington. N. C. 46,043 
Windward (passage) 
Winnipeg Qake), Can. 
Winnipeg, Man. 235,710 

■WInnipegosis (lake). 

Can. _ 

Winston-Salem, N. C. 

87, oil- 

Wisconsin (state), 

3,434,5/5 

Wollaston (lake). Can. 
Woods (lake) , „ o 
Wyoming (state), 

Yakima. Wash. 38,486 

Yaqui (river). Mex. 
Yellowstone (river), U.a. 
York Factory, Man. 
Yucatan (channel) 

Yucatan (pen.) 760,000 

Yukon (river) . 

Yukon Territory iUirr.h 
Can. 0,090 

Yuma, Ariz. 9.14v 


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- 253 


In the tropical trade-wind belt, windward slopes 
receive heavy downpours, while lee sides are dry. 
Southern California and adjacent Mexico receive vir- 
tually no summer rain because at that season they lie 
in the high-pressure belt known as the horse latitudes. 
In winter, the area along the 30th parallel has pre- 
vailing westerly winds and winter rain or snow. 

Variety of Natural Growth, Soils, and Crops 
Differences in temperature and rainfall bring strik- 
mg differences in natural vegetation and soils. They 


NORTH AMERICA 

also affect crop growing and other uses of the land. 
The land tends to lack fertility in the hot, wet 
regions where rain leaches plant food from the soil 
throughout the year. Intensive evaporation in the 
desert regions makes many soils alkaline and unfit 
for use. The most fertile soil covers the heart of the 
central lowland where rainfall suffices for crops, but 
is not so heavy that it quickly robs the soil of plant 
foods and needed minerals. (For a detailed explana- 
tion of the continent’s soil, see Soil.) 


Where and How the People Live 


npHE PEOPLES of North America have made as- 
tounding progress in developing the continent’s re- 
sources and creating strong nations in a few centuries. 
Harmonious relations across undefended frontiers have 
set an example of peace to older nations. They have 
linked the various regions and nations wdth a gigantic 
transportation network, and each area profits from 
sharing its produce with the others. 

The people of the leading manufacturing countries, 
the United States and Canada, had the advantage of 
developing their industries with tools supplied by 
the Machine Age. By bold pioneering with the new 
techniques, they attained an industrial efficiency 
unmatched abroad. 

North Americans were leaders also in creating demo- 
cratic governments and in achieving personal, relig- 
ious, political, and economic liberty. The American 
republics have served as an inspiration to freedom- 
seeking peoples on every continent. (Separate articles 
describe the countries, states, provinces, and other 
territories into which the continent is divided, and 
tell the history of their achievements.) 


About 216 million people are scat- 
tered unevenly over the continent. 
The cold north supports the 
scantiest population. Greenland averages perhaps 
two or three persons to a hundred square miles, and 
Labrador four. Alaska has thriving towns where 
the Japan current warms its coast, but its average 
population is only about one in every five square 
®iles. The deserts and the rugged mountainous areas 
ore also thinly settled. Nevada averages one and one 
half persons to the square mile, and Mexico’s arid 
®°^hem half of Lower California about two. 

The two most thickly peopled regions of North 
America offer a striking contrast. One lies in north- 
Gastem United States where industrial cities cluster 
c osely together. Here manufacturing and commerce 
6|ve w'ork to millions and the standard of living is 
igher than it is on any other continent. The most 
populated states are Rhode Island, with 
Pio P^^sons to the square mile; New Jersey, with 
•8; and Massachusetts, with 596.2. 

The second densely populated region is found on 
^rtain of the tropical islands in the West Indies. 

are even more crow’ded than the manufacturing 
® ates. Barbados has more than 1,160 persons to the 


square mile. Martinique averages about 616, and 
Puerto Rico has 644. 

These islands can support many people because the 
hot sun and abundant rain make it easy to grow food 
crops. Wild palm trees furnish material for the airy 
houses, and few clothes are needed. But the island 
farmers make little money and have a meager stand- 
ard of living (see West Indies). 

Between these extremes in the density of popula- 
tion, the various parts of the continent differ also in 
density of settlement, prosperity, and means of liveli- 
hood. These differences depend upon the natural 
resources of the regions and upon the people’s skill 
and enterprise in using them. 

North America’s physical features divide it into 
four large natural regions that cut across the boundary 
lines of nations and states. They are: the Laurentian 
Plateau, or Canadian Shield; the Appalachian High- 
lands; the Central Lowlands, or Plains; and the 
Cordilleras. The Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains 
form physically distinct regions which lie as a rim 
along the southeast angle of the continent. But the 
people’s use of the land along this rim resembles 
their use of the Appalachian Highlands and the cen- 
tral lowlands respectively. 


The Laurentian Plateau — 
also called the Canadian Shield 
— occupies two-thirds of Cana- 
da. There it forms a broad V around Hudson Bay. 
The southern edges thrust into the United States near 
Lake Superior to the west and the Adirondack Moun- 
tains in the east. 

The glaciers of the Ice Age stripped the land of its 
soil, laying bare some of the oldest rocks in the world 
(see Geology). There has not been time since the ice 
retreated to develop efficient river drainage of the 
northern and western parts. Hence w'ater gathers 
into a multitude of ponds and lakes, threaded together 
by a network of sluggish rivers and streams. 

Eskimos and Fur Trappers of the North 
In the north the shield lies in the tundra region 
that borders the Arctic coast. Here the bitter cold 
of the long, dark winters freezes the soil to great 
depths (see Arctic Regions). Only a shallow layer 
thaws during the few frostless days of summer. The 
Eskimo inhabitants live by hunting, fishing, and 
trapping (see Eskimos). 


How the People 
Are Distributed 


Laurentian Plateau 
(Canadian Shield) 




254 


NORTH AMERICA- 

South of the tundra stretches a vast evergreen forest. 
Indian trappers and fur traders bring rich cargoes 
of animal peltries from these woods as they did in 
the early days of French occupation (see Furs and 
Fur Trade) . Lumbering and pulp wood cutting are other 
important occupations in the eastern half of the re- 
gion. But logging is hampered because it is difficult 
to transport the timber to market across the many 
bogs, swamps, and small lakes. 

In the southeastern part of the region, the surface 
falls off sharply to the St. Lawrence River, giving 
a steep drop to the rivers. Thus an ample supply of 
hydroelectric power is available. Where dams have 
been built, the power has been used by pulpwood and 
paper mills and smelters. 

Mineral Wealth of the Shield Rocks 

The Shield’s ancient rocks are rich in minerals. 
Nickel, copper, platinum, gold, and silver mines clus- 
ter between Lake Huron and Hudson Bay. On the far 
northwestern edge, new gold mines have been opened 
on the shores of Great Slave Lake. Uranium and 
radium ores are mined near Great Bear Lake. One of 
the world’s richest iron ranges lies at the southwestern 
edge of the Shield in Minnesota, and copper veins are 
worked near by. 

Labrador, on the Atlantic fringe of the Shield, 
has tundra in the north and forests in the south. 
But long winters, sparse soil, and distance from the 
settled parts of the continent, have hampered develop- 
ment. The sea’s wealth in fish provides almost the 
only means of livelihood. (See also Canada; and 
articles on the Canadian provinces.) 


The Appalachian Highlands 
extend from Newfoundland 
southwestward into Alaba- 
ma. In the northeast (Nova Scotia and New England) 
the mountains push down almost to the drowned 
Atlantic coast. From New York southward, they lie 
somewhat inland. The eastern slope merges into a 
belt of rolling .land called the Piedmont. Between 
this and the ocean lies a narrow Coastal Plain. 

In this region, the mountains consist of roughly 
parallel ridges. The most prominent systems are called 
the Blue Ridge, the Great Smokies, and the Black 
Mountains. On the northwest side of the mountain 
system, a broad plateau slopes down to the central low- 
lands. It has been gashed into mountainous hills by 
streams. The north-central portion is known as the 
Alleghenies; the southern, as the Cumberlands. Be- 
tween the main ranges and the dissected plateau stretch 
the broad Great Valley and the parallel ridges of the 
ridge-and-valley region (see Appalachian Highlands). 

Farming the Uplands and the Coastal Plain 
In New England and much of New York State, the 
farmers use the hilly land for hay and dairy pasture 
to meet the demand of city markets for milk. Truck 
farmers on the long, sandy Atlantic Coastal Plain 
ship vegetables to the cities throughout the year. 

The best farmlands of the region lie in the Great 
Valley and on the rolling Piedmont. In the central 


section, farmers raise grain and vegetables, in addi- 
tion to dairying. Tobacco is the chief crop of the 
Piedmont in Virginia and the Carolinas. Favorable 
slopes support fruit orchards. 

Farther south, around the southeastern and south- 
ern edges of the mountains, lies the cotton belt. Here 
rainfall is abundant, and 200 days or more are frost 
free — exactly the conditions needed by the cotton 
plant. South of the cotton belt the chmate becomes 
semitropical. 

The Earth’s Leading Manufacturing Area 

The earth’s richest manufacturing area stretches 
from the Potomac River northward through southern 
Canada and from the Atlantic Ocean inland into the 
Mississippi Valley. Its mills turn out virtually every 
manufactured product used by mankind. The thick 
coal beds of the Alleghenies and numerous waterfalls 
in the hills supply power and fuel for thousands of 
factories. Superb land and water transportation bring 
them raw materials and carry their goods to market 
throughout the world. Most of the people live in 
cities and towns and make their living from industry, 
commerce, and transportation. 

Southeastern United States remains a region of 
farms and plantations, but industries have increased 
enormously in recent decades. They depend upon raw 
materials produced there. Textile mills spin and 
weave the cotton; cigarette factories use the tobacco; 
liunber mills and furnitiue factories process the 
timber. Cheap hydroelectricity from the mountain 
streams has attracted chemical, rayon, plastics, and 
other modern plants. The South’s minerals include 
the coal, iron ore, and limestone used by Alabama s 
steel mills, phosphates, petroleum and natural gas, 
sulphur, and salt. 

Semitropical and Tropical Coastal Plains 

Along the Gulf of Mexico, lies the Gulf Coastal 
Plain. Here the climate changes to a year-round grow- 
ing season, with abundant rainfall. The lowland fol- 
lows the curve of the Gulf across Texas and southward 
across Mexico and Central America into the full trop- 
ics. From Florida to eastern Texas, ample rainfall sup- 
ports forests, citrus fruit orchards, winter truck crops, 
sugar cane, and rice. The coasts of southern Texas and 
northern Mexico resemble the Great Plains in dryness. 
Irrigated areas near the Rio Grande bear winter crops. 
This part of Mexico is rich in petroleum. 

The Yucatan peninsula receives moderate rainfall 
and is arid in places. It is the world’s leading source 
of henequen, used for cordage. The remaining coast 
of southern Mexico and that of Central America get 
trade-wind rainfall and are covered with a dense, 
tropical rain forest. Few people live on this humid, 
fever-ridden lowland, except where banana plantations 
have been established. 

On the lowlands of the West Indies islands, tne 
plantations grow sugar cane, bananas, cacao, coconuts, 
and other tropical products. The farmers raise tobacco 
and coffee on the higher ground. The leeward sides 
of the islands’ mountains may be too dry for farming 
without irrigation. 


The Appalachians and 
the Coastal Plains 




255 


NORTH AMERICA 


The Central 
Lowlands 






r 




The central low- 
lands occupy about 
three fifths of the 
continent. They are famed alike for 
agricultural and industrial produc- 
tion. The areas adjoining the Great 
Lakes are noted dairy regions and 
contain fruit orchards, vinej’^ards, 
and truck farms. A rich corn belt ex- 
tends from Indiana into Kansas, 

Nebraska, and South Dakota. Here 
farmers feed most of the corn to 
cattle and hogs and sell the stock. 

West and south of the corn belt lies 
the mnter wheat belt. A spring wheat 
belt ranges north and west across 
the Dakotas, and Manitoba, Sas- 
katchewan, and Alberta in Canada. 

Where the high semiarid Great 
Plains are too dry for wheat, stock 
grazing takes the place of farming. 

In the far north evergreen forest and 
tundra sweep across the plains as 
they do across the Shield. 

Manufacturing and Mining 

The great American manufacturing 
belt e.xtends well into the central low- 
lands. Steelmaking and steel-using 
plants are leaders among the varied 
industries. Manufacturing cities and 
towns spread along the low'er lakes 
region, the Ontario peninsula of 
Canada, and across the corn belt. 

. Minerals of the central lowlands 
include the iron and copper of north- 
ern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and hlich- 
igan and petroleum and gas beneath 
me Great Plains, especiallj'^ in Oklahoma and Texas. 
Other deposits include salt and oil in southern Mich- 
igan; limestone in Michigan and Indiana ; coal in Indi- 
ana and Illinois; lead and zinc in the Ozark-Ouachita 
uplands; and gold in the Black Hills. 


CONTRASTING SCENES IN CANADA AND MEXICO 











1 












Cordilleran ’^^E MOUNTAINS of the Cordillera 
Mountains tower boldly at the edge of the Great 
and Plateaus Plains in Canada and the United 

. ~ ; States, and rise from the Gulf Plain 

Ti The continent’s highest peak rises in 

^aska. It is Mount McKinley (20,269 feet). Mount 
, across the border in Canada, is second highest 
i 9,850 feet); while the third in altitude. Mount 
rizaba (18,700 feet), lifts its snoivy cone among the 
Vo canoes of Mexico’s Sierra Madre del Sur. 

Ihe westward-facing slopes of the ivestern ranges 
are drenched by rain and snow' and clothed in forests 
? S’unt evergreens. Lumbering is a giant industry 
R California, Oregon, Washington, and 

ntlsll ColllTnKiQ 4 Tv^ T-» r* Q Ti f. pl] plonBT 


this 


Columbia. Fisheries are important all along 
coast. Alaska is the richest source of salmon. 

_ast of the moist western ranges, the Cordilleran 
®8>on gets little rain. Broad areas in the plateaus 


In the top picture we see tiny White Horse at the head of Yukon River navigation. 
Spring has unlocked the frozen river, and the stem-wheel steamers are ready to 
carry supplies to the scattered mining towns in this bleak, little-developed region. 
At the bottom a Mexican family herds their cattle, sheep, and goats in a warm, 
dry highland valley. Mount Ixtaccihuatl’s snowy cone looms in the distance. 

and basins are barren desert. The higher ridges catch 
some moisture, and the runoff from them and from the 
snow'j' peaks fills large river sj'stems. Engineers 
have dammed the rivers to produce power and w'ater 
for irrigation (see Irrigation). Ranchers graze cattle 
and sheep on land too dry and rough to farm. 

The largest and richest irrigation farming and or- 
chard areas are in California’s valle 3 's and scanty 
Coastal Plain. The section is noted for truck crops and 
citrus and other fruits. Californiafs agriculture and 
industr 3 ' afford employment for the largest population 
in the Cordilleran states. 

The uplands of southern Mexico and the Central 
American countries are more thickly populated than 
the lowlands. Fertile volcanic soil, a long growing 
season, and moderate rainfall permit the farmers to 
raise corn, beans, and vegetables for food and cof- 
fee for export. The people graze cattle, sheep, and 
goats on the rough, dry uplands. Me.xico Cit 3 ' is the 
largest metropolis of the Cordilleran highlands. 

Minerals are the most valuable resources of the 
Cordilleras. Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and other 
ores are mined from Alaska to Central America, and 
huge isolated deposits remain to be developed. 




a 


: ^ 




Principal Mineral 
Products of 

p. NORTH AMERICA 




,4 ^ ^ j 

j m . §^''^1 ^ A 

A / t i!«^ 

Jl L 


_[0 

^§5|:VJ 

jOjoT 


[03 

EiS 

jiai 


Pl^p@ 






bananas 


cattle 


cotton 


dairy products 


furs 

hogs 


^ sugar 
tobacco 


^ chicle 
Q citrus fruit 
coffee 

f 


^ fibers 
(y (except cotton) 

fish, shellfish 

^ fruit 


corn 


lumber 

peanuts 

sheep 

soybeans 


truck crops 


wheat, other 
small grains 


12S7J 



NORTH AMERICA- 


258 


Plant and Animal Life of North America 


'^HE VAST North American continent holds a wide 
range of plants and animals. Naturalists divide it 
into life regions and zones in which various communi- 
ties of plants and animals find suitable temperature, 
rainfall, soil, land surface, and other conditions (-see 
Ecology). The three regions are the Boreal (northern), 
the Austral (southern), and the Tropical. 

The Arctic, or Arctic-Alpine, zone is the northern- 
most division of the Boreal region. It spreads across 
the continent from Greenland to Alaska. Its soil lies 
frozen most of the year, with onlj^ a shallow thaw in 
summer. Howling gales prevent the growth of trees, 
except for stunted willows in sheltered spots. Quick- 


flowering plants spring up in summer, and mosses, 
lichens, and sedges spread over the ground. 

Barren-ground caribou and musk oxen feed on the 
lichens, pawing aside the snow in winter. Many ani- 
mals remain white the year around to protect them- 
selves amid the snowy landscape. Among them are the 
polar bear, arctic fox, arctic hare, snowy owl, and 
gyrfalcon. Others, such as the ptarmigan, weasel, and 
lemming change their coats to white in winter. The 
sea holds riches in fish, seals, wmlrus, and whales. 

The Hudsonian (middle) and Canadian (southern) 
zones of the Boreal region contain the great evergreen, 
or coniferous, forest that stretches across the conti- 
nent from Labrador 
to Alaska. Spruces 
and firs are the chief 
trees, with white pine, 
hemlock, jack pine, 
and balsam fir in the 
east. The myriad ani- 
mals that roam this 
forest include the 
woodland caribou, 
moose, black bear, 
wolverine, Canada 
lynx, marten, fisher, 
mink, and numerous 
species of squirrels, 
rabbits, moles, voles, 
and shrews. Besides 
the birds that live 
here the year around, 
hundi’eds of other 
kinds breed here and 
later migrate. 

Life in the Austral 
Zones 

As the map shows, 
the Transition, Up- 
per and Lower Austral 
zones of the Austral 
region are divided in- 
to humid eastern and 
arid western areas. In 
the west, the rainfall 
is less than 20 inches 
annually, and plants 
and animals differ 
from those of the east. 
The eastern parts of 
these zones are called 
respectively the Alle- 
ghenian, the Caro- 
linian, and the Austro- 
riparian area. The 
western parts are 
the Arid Transition, 
Upper Sonoran, and 
Lower Sonoran. 
Continued on poge S03 



This map shows the broad regions and zones where various types of climate produce corresponding 
types of associated plants and animals. In the Boreal region live those adapted to cold weather. The 
zones of the Austral region have humid areas in the east, where the rainfaU encourages forests and forest 
animals, and drier areas of grassland and desert m the west. These dry areas support animals which 
can exist with little water. The Tropical region stretches over the lowlands of the far south. 



animals of north AMERICA ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOATS 

Above the timberlinc of the northern Rockies, these white-coated animals climb to places where the eagle is their 
only neighbor. On sturdy legs and sharp-rimmed, rubbery hoofs, they run up and down the steep rock walls with 
miraculous agility The young are able to follow their parents when they are but a few days old. Rocky Moun- 
tain goats feed on lichens moss, and the stunted vegetation that pushes up between the rocks. This and other 
photographs in this series are from life-size exhibits in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. 




W'i 

if 




If 








,ijcri^‘ 

»v^ iC 








THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP AND THE PUMA 




The bighorn, or Rocky Mounwin sheep Ctop), range the high altitudes of western mountains from Colorado to British 
The pumas, or mountain lions Cbottom), arc shown against the Grand Canyon, but they once roamed as far north and cast as Main 












)ikP 






\^i 

#5 A 


' ^ 








THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE AND THE BISON 

^th the pronghorn (above) and the bison or 

which exterminated. Notice the cowbird catching insects on the back of the male. 






THE GRIZZLY BEAR AND THE MOOSE 
The top picture shows a family of grizzlies at the rim of a mountain canyon. The mother is turning over a rock to 
uncover grubs for one cub. The other cub, in a playful mood, has climbed a dead stump. Older grizzlies rarely climb 
trees. Below, two gigantic bull moose battle mightily during the mating season. The nearest bull has his 
ponent in an unfavorable position. Usually the weaker bull runs away after hehas been knocked down and trampled. 


1262 ] 


- 263 NORTH AMERICA 


The abundant rainfall in the east encourages tree 
growth. This section was covered with a dense forest 
of hardwood, or deciduous, trees when white settlers 
reached the continent. In the Alleghenian area the 
hardwoods mingled with evergreens in the north and 
on the mountain slopes. The principal hardwoods 
were the beeeh, birch, and maple. 

To the south in the Carolinian area, oaks, chest- 
nuts, walnuts, and hickories were most prevalent. 
Other species were sassafras, tulip trees, hackberry, 
sj'camore, sweet gum, rose magnolia, redbud, and per- 
sinunon. In the warmer Austroriparian area, longleaf, 
loblolly, and slash pines, magnolia, and live oak cov- 
ered the warm, rain-swept higher grounds. Cypress, 
tupelo, red gum, and cane grew in the swampy bottom 
land near the Gulf. 

During 300 years of settlement, most of the north- 
ern evergreens and central hardwoods in the United 
States fell before the settler’s ax and the woodsman’s 
saw. Today the southern cine forests offer the chief 
lumber resource in the east. 

Gone too are most of the wild animals. Typical 
of those in the hardwood forests were the Virginia 
deer, elk, black bear, bobcat, gray fox, red fox, 
opossum, cottontail rabbit, gray squirrel, raccoon, 
and skunk. 

Wild birds vanished by the million with the advance 
of settlement, but bird lists of eastern states often 
name 300 or more species today. Typical of the Alle- 
ghenian area are the bobolink, vireo, and the hermit 
and Wilson’s thrushes. Mingled with them are the 
birds of the Carolinian area — the partridge, Balti- 
more oriole, bluebird, catbird, chewink, thrasher, and 
wood thrush. Other t 3 qpical Carolinian birds include 
the cardinal, Carolina wren, tufted titmouse, gnat- 
catcher, and yellow-breasted chat. The mocking bird, 
painted bunting, red-cockaded woodpecker, and 
chuck-will’s-widow wing through the Austroriparian 
area. Wild water fowl live in the eastern swamps, and 
cormorants, herons, egrets, rails, gallinules, and other 
wading birds feed in the marshes. 

The Tropical zone contains vast stretches of rain 
forest. Most of its myriad species of trees bear leaves 
throughout the year. Mahogany, dyewoods, log- 
wood, -wild coconut, and other palms, rubber trees, 
and chicle trees have commercial value. In the tangled 
jungle, monkeys swing from trees where parrots and 
other bright birds call. Tapirs, armadillos, jaguars, 
ocelots, and wild pigs hide in the underbrush. Sloths 
and anteaters live on the abimdant insects. Alligators 
and other reptiles slither along the streams. 

_ Wild Life in the Arid West 

Rainfall grows lighter toward the west, even in the 
umid areas. The heavy forests disappear; but trees 
Sfow along the water courses and scattered stands of 
oafe are found amid the tall grass of the prairie._ _ 

" of the 100th meridian in the Arid Transition 
p^, short grass and bunch grass flourish on the 
jfeat Plains. In pioneer times huge herds of bison 
p’'opped the grass. The pronghorn antelope and the 
lack rabbit sought safety in speed in a land that lacked 


forest cover. The coyote, the wolf, and the kit fox 
preyed on other wild things and the settlers’ stock. 
Vultures watched for renmants of the kill, and golden 
and bald eagles soared in the blue. Prairie chickens, 
ruffed grouse, quail, turtledoves, pigeons, and wild 
ducks and geese were plentiful. 

Vertical Life Zones in the Cordilleras 

In the Cordilleras a large share of the rugged 
mountains and arid plateaus and basins remain wilder- 
ness. The natural vegetation and wild life are un- 
disturbed and may be seen today. It is not necessary 
to travel from the hot deserts of Mexico to the icy 
peaks of Alaska to see the region’s plants and animals. 
In a climb up a single high moimtain, one may pass 
through most of the continent’s life zones. 

In the Grand Canyon, gashed deep into the high 
Colorado plateau, the plants and animals of the dry, 
hot Lower Sonoran area live at the bottom. Next 
come those of the Upper Sonoran, then those of the 
Arid Transition area, and Anally those of the Cana- 
dian zone at the top. Parts of Glacier National Park 
in Montana lie in the Transition, Canadian, Hudson- 
ian, and Arctic-Alpine zones. 

Desert plants are adapted to conserve the little 
moisture they can sap from the dry soil. They include 
various cacti, mesquite, sagebrush, creosote bush, and 
greasew'ood. Among the animals suited to the desert 
are horned toads, lizards, king and bull snakes, des- 
ert jack rabbits, long-eared desert foxes, and many 
small burrowung animals such as the chipmunk and 
pocket gopher. Characteristic birds are the mocking- 
bird, road runner, cactus wren, and desert thrasher. 

Stunted live oak, scrub oak, and sumac form a 
chaparral belt foimd above the desert shrub in places. 
Black-tailed deer, coyotes, prairie dogs, and black- 
tailed jack rabbits dash through its scant cover. 

Well up the slopes where rain and snow supply abun- 
dant moisture, stand the forests of the Canadian zone. 
Lodgepole pine, Englemann spruce, aspen, black cot- 
tonwood, mountain maple, western hemlock, tama- 
rack, Douglas fir, and blue spruce shade the rocky 
ground. Here dwell moose, elk, mule and white-tailed 
deer, Canada lynx, pumas, red foxes, gray wmlves, griz- 
zly and black bears, and many small scurrying creatures. 

Tall timber disappears in the Hudsonian, or timber- 
line, zone. Trees become dwarfed and wind beaten. 
Masses of bright flowers spread over the summer mead- 
ows. Rocky Mountain goats, bighorn sheep, marmots 
and Alpine chipmunks live in this zone and the even 
more barren Arctic-Alpine zone above. Ptarmigan, 
rosy finches, pipits, siskins, crossbills, white crovmed 
sparrows, and great golden eagles nest here. 

Glaciers and snow fields cover much of the Arctic- 
Alpine zone at the summits. But where the snow melts 
imder the summer sim, Alpine flowers peep through 
the soil and burst into bloom. 

Along the moist northwest Pacific coast, the moun- 
tains rise through humid zones. In the dense forests 
that clothe them, Douglas firs, redwoods, sequoias, 
western hemlock, Sitka spruce. Pacific cedar, and 
other cone-bearing trees tower to great heights. 



HOW NORTH AMERICA TOOK 

According to geologic dating, the best-known por- 
tion of North America’s history began several hundred 
million years ago in the Cambrian period. 

Since that time, the continent has undergone many 
changes. Land has sunk and has been forced upward; 
seas have spread over the land and ebbed away again. 
There have been great eruptions of lava, and glaciers 


SHAPE THROUGH THE AGES 

have covered much of the land. Mountains have been 
built and then worn away. 

This page gives the highlights of this story during 
the three long eras into which the well-known record 
of the North American continent is divided. Bothmaps 
and discussion tell how changes followed each other as 
the continent became more and more like it is today. 



PALEOZOIC LANDS AND SEAS 
This story of North America’s changes be- 
gins with the first (Cambrian) period of the 
Paleozoic era. The continent probably was 
larger than it is now and was almost level. 
Only a few low mountains stood in the East 
and the West. 

Parts of the continent’s lowest (negative) 
region soon sank and became shallow seas. 
For ages those seas shifted to and fro. Some- 
times they almost disappeared; sometimes 
they covered about two-thirds of the conti- 
nent. The seas reached their greatest ex- 
tent in the Ordovician period. At still other 
times, mountains developed. Rivers from some 
of those mountains built deltas in the narrow 
seas. 

Various kinds of rocks were laid down as a 
result. Limestone, shale, and sandstone were 
common. During Pennsylvanian times of the 
Carboniferous period, which came near the 
end of this era, North America’s greatest 
coat beds formed in swamps that spread from 
eastern Canada to central Texas. 

THE MESOZOIC ERA (TIME OF REPTILES) 
The Paleozoic era closed with the Permian 
period. Most of North America became land. 
Mountains formed in Oklahoma and Arkansas, 
and volcanoes erupted farther to the west. 
Narrow seas disappeared forever from the 
East, where rocks were crumpled into the 
early Appalachian Mountains. These may 
have been higher than the Rookies and Sierra 
Nevada are today. 

Then came the Mesozoic era. Reptiles had 
grown common during Permian times and now 
became the dominant animals. Dinosaurs 
walked on dry land and waded in swamps. 
Other reptiles flew in the air and swam in lakes 
and seas. At first those seas were small, but 
in Cretaceous times they covered almost half 
the continent. Toward the end of that period 
they became smaller, however, and finally 
drained away. This was the last great marine 
invasion of North America. 

MODERN (CENOZOIC) NORTH AMERICA 
At the end of the Mesozoic era, most of 
North America became land. Mountains were 
formed from Central America to Alaska. 

In the Eocene period of the Cenozoic era, 
the continent began to look as it does today. 
Then some of the mountains were worn down. 
Shallow seas covered lowlands, northward as 
far as Illinois. Large reptiles disappeared; 
their place was taken by mammals. 

As time passed, seas became smaller and 
smaller. The Rocky and Appalachian moun- 
tains were pushed upward again, and lava 
which poured out of cracks in the ground built 
plateaus in the West. Other lava built the 
great volcanoes of the Cascade Mountains. 

By Pliocene times, just before the Ice Age 
(or Pleistocene), North America was almost as 
we know it. Only a few more changes occurred 
in later times. (The maps are adapted from 
Dunbar, ‘Historical Geology’ [Wiley].) 



264 



265 


NORTH AMERICA 


Ever since the 
beginning, four 
parts of the 
continent have maintained a 
reasonably continuous exist- 
ence. Three are called 'positive 
areas, because parts or most of 
them have usually been land. 

The first is a northern core or 
shield, commonly called the 
Canadian Shield. It has been 
land throughout a large part of 
earth history. \\Tien seas did 
cover parts of it, as Hudson 
Bay does now, they were never 
very deep. 

The east and west margins of 
the continent are somewhat less 
positive areas called borderlands. 

They once extended into what 
now are the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans. Most parts of these bor- 
derlands are now mountainous, and they have been 
mountainous at several times in the past. At other 
times they may have been chains of islands separated 
by narrow seas. The name Appalachia has been ap- 
plied to the eastern borderland and Cascadia to the 
western, with the understanding that each has been 
partly land and partly sea during past ages. 

Between the borderlands and the shield lies a low, 
roughly XJ-shaped region. It is called negative because 
it has sunk many times. At some periods it was low- 
land or swampy. At others it sank so much that it 
allowed seas to spread over the continent. 

During periods of submergence, rivers flowing from 
adjoining ancient land carried worn rock material 


(sediment) into the seas that 
covered the negative region. 
This material settled in layers or 
beds which in due time became 
sandstone, shale, limestone, and 
other kinds of sedimentary rock. 
The beds were thickest and 
heaviest in two narrow belts ad- 
joining the borderlands, where 
most of the sediment was depos- 
ited. It filled the negative re- 
gion almost as rapidly as the 
latter sank. 

At other times, the negative 
region wms arched up into land, 
and parts of it wmre crumpled 
into mountains. As a rule, this 
occurred along the inner edges 
of the borderlands, as though 
they had moved inward, crush- 
ing and folding the adjoining 
sediments. Molten rock often 
forced its way into the cores of the crumpled moun- 
tains and hardened. At other times the molten stuff 
erupted, building volcanoes and lava plateaus. 

During the long march of earth history, several 
great successions of submergence and uplift occurred. 
Outstanding examples of each phase are shown on the 
opposite page. The article on Geology gives a record 
of the successive eras, periods, and epochs, together 
with the most important deposits. 

Today the continent is uplifted. The Canadian 
Shield is above sea level, except for Hudson Bay. The 
Appalachian and Cordilleran mountain systems have 
been formed along the borderlands, and the negative 
area lies between as a broad, level plain. 


STRUCTURE OF NORTH AMERICA 



Here are the borderlands, shield, and negative 
region that compose the continent. The text tells 
how they have changed through the ages. 


Geologic 

Development 


REFERENCE-OUTLINE FOR STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 


!• Location and size N-247, list N-244: location in 
world, map W-204; political divisions, map N-250-1; 
air distances, polar projection map A-531 
II. Structure of the land N-247-8, maps N-245, C-67, 
U-250, M-189, C-172 

A. Principal mountain ranges and plateaus N-247 

1. Laurentian Plateau, or Canadian Shield L-137, 
N-253, map C-67, picture C-70 

2. Appalachian Highlands A-276-7, G-186 

3. Central highlands: Black Hills S-295, picture 
U-292; Ozark-Ouachita Plateau 0-440 

4. Cordilleran System N-255-7, C-171, map C-67: 
Rocky Mountains U-294, R-173-6; western 
basins and plateaus TJ-299-301; Sierra Nevada 
S-177 ; Cascade Mountains C-131; Sierra Madre 
and Mexican Plateau M-188 

5. Alaskan ranges A-130-1, 132, list A-130 
Central lowlands N-255, C-75-6, U-245-6: North 
Central Plains U-284; Great Plains U-291 

C. Coastal lowlands, coast line, and islands N-247, 
254, U-251, M-188, C-171: Alaska Peninsula and 
Aleutian Islands A-132; Bering Sea B-125; Arctic 
regions A-326; Greenland G-213; West Indies 
W-93. See also the Reference-Outlines for Canada, 
United States, and Mexico 


D. Lakes and river systems N-247-8, map U-256-7 

1. St. Lawrence and Great Lakes S-19-21, G-178- 
85: Ontario 0-387; ErieE-392; Huron H-4516- 
452; Michigan M-230; Superior S-457 

2. Yukon Y-348, picture N-255 

3. Mackenzie-Athabaska M-15, picture C-76 

4. Nelson-Saskatchew’an (including Red River of 
the North) C-77, R-88 

5. Columbia C-415a-416, picture 0-410 

6. Mississippi-Missouri M-307-10, M-325-6 

7. Colorado C-414a-415 

8. Rio Grande R-155, picture N-170 

E. How the continent took shape through the ages 
N-264-5, G-59, A-276-7, R-175-6: Coal Age C-361, 
pictures 0362; Ice Age 1-4-7 (effects of moving 
glaciers N-253, G-115, E-190) 

111. Climate N-248: rainfall and wind, maps N-246, 248 

A. Arctic regions A-327, A-132, G-213 

B. Middle latitudes 078, U-246-7: eastern United 
States U-259, 269; southern United States U-277; 
central plains U-284, 291-2; western mountains, 
basins, and plateaus U-295, 299; Pacific region 
U-302, 306-7, B-313-14, A-131 

C. Subtropical and tropical lowlands and uplands 
M-190, 0171, Y-344: West Indies W-97 




NOR'TH AMERICA 


266 


IV. Planf life zones N-258, 263 

A. Boreal (Arctic) plants N-258, A-328 

B. Boreal (Hudsonian and Canadian) coniferous 
trees N-258, E-450 

C. Austral humid (eastern) and arid (western) zones 
N-258, 263 

D. Vertical (altitude) zones of the Cordilleras N-263 

V. Common plants of North America, maps N-246, 257 

A. Coniferous trees E-450: fir F-72; hemlock H-332; 
larch L-102; pine P-257; spruce S-358 

B. Eastern hardwoods, pictures T-180-3: ash A-401; 
beech B-101; birch B-155; chestnut C-226; hick- 
ory H-353; maple M-82; oak 0-319; poplar, in- 
cluding cottonwood P-369; sycamore S-486; wal- 
nut W-5 

C. Western evergreens: Douglas fir F-72; hemlock 
H-332; redwood and sequoia S-101-2; Sitka 
spruce S-358 

D. Fruit trees, bushes, vines, and berries, color pic- 
tures F-307-11. See also articles on fruits 

E. Desert growth N-263, U-300: agave A-56; cactus 
C-9-10, color picture C-11; mesquite M-175; 
sagebrush S-14; jmcca Y-345 

F. Tropical plant life N-263, color pictures F-312: 
bamboo B-42; banana B-43; cacao C-9; coconut 
palm C-374; coffee tree C-376; logwood L-296; 
mahogany M-44; palm P-47; rubber R-237; 
chicle C-227 

VI. Distribution of animals by life zones N-258, 263 

VII. Common animals of North America, color pictures 
N-259-62. See also Reference-Outline for Zoology 

A. Mammals M-60 

1. Deer family D-43: elk E-3346; moose M-389, 
color picture N-262; caribou and reindeer 
C-122, R-97 

2. Ox, sheep, and antelope group S-136: bison 
B-199, color picture N-261; musk ox M-472; 
Rocky Mountain goat and pronghorn antelope 
A-262, color pictures N-259, 261 ; Rocky Moun- 
tain sheep, or bighorn B-143, color picture N-260 

3. Dog family D-110, color pictures D-lll-116b: 
coyote and wolf W-180; fox F-253 

4. Bear family B-85, color picture N-262 

5. Weasel family W-77: marten M-104; badger 
B-15; mink M-275; otter 0-429; skunk S-193 

6. Cat family: cougar or puma P-435, picture 
N-260; jaguar J-290; lynx and bobcat li-355 

7. Rodents : beaver B-89, chipmunk C-287; gopher 
G-140; rabbits and hares R-15; muskrat 
M-473; prairie dog P-406; squirrel S-359; 
ground hog G-219 

B. Birds B-156, color pictures B-161-70 

C. Reptiles and amphibians R-110: frog F-299; 
lizard L-281; snake S-205; toad T-140; turtle 
T-222 

D. Fish F-99, color pictures F-1 13-14 

E. Insects 1-152, color pictures I-154a-d: butterflies 
and moths B-365, color pictures B-365-367a 

VIII. People: where and how the people live N-253-5; pop- 
ulation distribution N-253, map N-245. For detailed 
study of the peoples of North America, see the 
Reference-Outlines for Canada, United States, and 
Mexico; and the articles on the political divisions 
of Central America and the West Indies 

IX. Natural resources and their regional use N-253-5, 
U-316, C-84-8, M-199, 200: Central America C-175; 
West Indies W-97 


X. Transportation and communication: Pan American 
Highway R-158/; Panama Canal P-53-63; air dis- 
tances, map A-531.. See also the Reference-Out- 
lines for Transportation and Communication 

XI. Political divisions of North America, map N-250-1: 
Canada C-65-92; United States U-245-336; Mexico 
M-187-208. See also the Reference-Outlines for 
Canada, United States, and Mexico 

A. Central America C-171-8, map C-172 

1. Independent republics: Costa Rica C-490; 
Guatemala G-222-222d; Honduras H416-17; 
Nicaragua N-232-3; Panama P-51-2; El Sal- 
vador S-32-3 

2. Great Britain: British Honduras (Fact-Index) 

B. West Indies W-93-7, map W-96-96a 

1. Independent republics: Cuba C-526-S; Do- 
minican Republic D-123-5; Haiti H-244-G 

2. Great Britain: Bahamas B-17; Barbados B-54; 
Jamaica J-290, 292; Trinidad (with Tobago) 
T-189-90; Leeward and Windward Islands 
(Fact-Index) 

3. United States: Puerto Rico P-431-5; Virgin 
Islands V-493 

4. France: Guadeloupe G-221; Martinique M-104 

5. Netherlands: Netherlands West Indies, official- 
ly N^etherlands Antilles (Fact-Index) 

6. Venezuela: Nueva Esparta (Fact-Index) 

XII. History A-187-91 : Indians I-108e-110 (Aztecs A-54^ 

4, Mayas M-143a-144); Columbus C-416-19; El" 
grims M-145-7; American Colonies A-192-217. For 
detailed study, see the Reference-Outlines for 
Canadian History, United States History, and Mo-v- 
ico; and the articles on the political divisions of 
Central America and the West Indies 

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR NORTH AMERICA 
Books for Younger Readers 

Anthony, H. E. Field Book of North American Mammals (Put" 
nam, 1928). 

Carpenter, Frances. Caribbean Lands: Mexico, Central Amer- 
ica and the West Indies (Amer. Bk. Co., 1950). 
Coatsworth, E. J. Door to the North (Winston, 1950). 

Heal, Edith. First Book of America (Watts, 1952). 

Quinn, Vernon. Picture Map Geography of Me.xico, Cen r 
America, and the West Indies (Lippincott, 1943). 
Rothery, A. E. Central American Roundabout (Dodd, 
Stefansson, Evelyn. Here Is Alaska (Scribner, 1943). 

White, A. T. Prehistoric America (Random, 1952). 

Books for Advanced Students and Teachers 
American Geographical Society. Readings in the Geograp 5 ® 
North America (The Society, 1952). u 

Arciniegas, German. Caribbean: Sea of the New 
(Knopf, 1946). 

Baity, E. C. Americans before Columbus (Viking, 

Bakeless, J. E. Eyes of Discovery (Lippincott, 1950). 
Burroughs, John. John Burroughs’ America (Dewn- ' 

Butcher, Devereaux. Exploring Our National Parks (Hous 
ton, 1954). . , Mn-th 

Hibben, F. C. Treasure in the Dust; Exploring Ancien 
America (Lippincott, 1951). 

Jaques, F. P. As Far as the Yukon (Harper, 195P. . p 

Krutch, J. W., ed. Great American Nature Writing t 

1950) . 

Peck, A. M. Pageant of Middle American Historj' (Longm 

Sanderson, I.T. How to Know the American Mammals (Lh 

1951) . 

Wilson, C. M. Middle America (Norton, 1944). .|jj 

(.See also bibliographies for Canada, Mexico, and t ic 
States.) 



267 


NORTH CAROLINA 


NORTH CAROLINA, “TARHEEL STATE” 







' ■'' '- '/■ { ' '\“’~ 
^ ■ .. -1 




"it'yyK 



This Daily FanTwith' the Blue" Ridge Mountains in the Background. 


■\T0RTH CAROLINA. This was the spot in the 
New World first occupied by England, and here 
the first Anglo-American child, Virginia Dare, was 


Carolina. The only exceptions are subtropical plants 
such as citrus fruits. The land yielded a great variety 
of foods even 300 years ago. An old account of the 


^ne nrst Anglo-American child, Virgmia Dare, was ux — - 

born. Even today a large part of the state’s white region reports that the Indians gave to the explorers 
nnn..i„x.v_ • J ,;rf T cfnnk. “divers kindes of fruites, melons, walnuts, cucumbers, 


population is descended from English-speaking stock. 

The state holds within its boundaries a bit of almost 
everything that the whole Atlantic coast possesses. 
Along the eastern coastal plain are low sandy lands. 
In contrast to these lowlands. North Carolina’s moim- 
tains are the highest of the Appalachian chain. The 
state has small quantities of many kinds of minerals 
and almost every variety of tree and flower known to 

fVita I f ^ • I . r\Qrf. 


A ~ ~ 

'divers kindes of fruites, melons, walnuts, cucumbers, 
gourdes, pease, and divers rootes, and fruites veiy 
excellent good, and of their countrey come, which is 
very white, faire, and well tasted.” 

Contrasts in Climate, Soil, and Surface 
The diversity of agricultural products within the 
state is due to variations in climate and soil. The 
climate ranges from subtropical in the southeast to 


ana almost everv varietv of tree and flower Known to ir : Vp, •, • . 

IW tempemte Srom G»3a to the soutoem pert tempemto m the northwest. The so.l vanes from sandy 
nf n j ® t/1 Heen red clay. 


of Canada. 

« toff £ North lon'ies't rtote’S it tte Mississippi. Its surface is m 


to deep red clay. 

In extent from east to west North Carolina is the 





NORTH CAROLINA 


268 — 


THE THREE REGIONS OF NORTH CAROLINA 



In the western region of the state are the Appalachian High- 
lands. Here is the highest point in the eastern United States, 
the 6,684-foot Mount Mitchell. From the mountains the land 
slopes down to the Piedmont Plateau. This region covers about 


one half of the state and is its most important farm, factory, 
and trade section. East of the Piedmont is the broad and level 
coastal plain. Along the 320-mile coast is a long string of narrow 
reefs, called banks, enclosing large lagoons. 


incline, sloping from the Great Smoky Mountains, 
with peaks more than 6,000 feet high in the western 
part of the state, to the level of the Atlantic Ocean 
along North Carolina's eastern coast. 

The state’s great length is divided into three dis- 
tinct regions. In the west is a high, cool mountain 
region. Here is typical resort country, unsurpassed 
in eastern America for its beauty. This is a land of 
pure, cold springs, of delicious fruits, and of lovely 
flowers. The worn-down mountains are covered with 
deep, rich soil and with great hardwood forests al- 
most to their tops. Mount Mitchell is the highest 
peak of the Appalachians (6,684 feet). From its sum- 
mit seven states can be seen. 

This “land of the sky” descends suddenly several 
thousand feet to the Piedmont Plateau. Here the land 
changes from mountains and val- 
lej’^s to hills and dales and finally 
to gently rolling country. This 
plateau covers about one half of 
North Carolina and is its im- 
portant industrial region. It pro- 
duces a wide range of agricultural 
and manufactured goods. Among 
the latter are cotton yarns and 
textiles, in which North Carolina 
is a leading state. 

The eastern region consists of 
the coastal plain. It includes 
about two fifths of the state’s 
area. This plain has recently be- 
come one of the great fruit- and 
'■'truck-growing regions of the 
country. It ships fresh food to 
markets of the North. 

North Carolina has two coast 
lines. The inner coast is deeplj' 
indented by Albermarle and Pam- 


lico sounds. The outer coast is a chain of long narrow 
reefs, the Outer Banks. Their main projections are 
Cape Fear, Cape Lookout, and Cape Hatteras. Light- 
houses on Cape Hatteras warn of shoals. The cape has 
dangerous storms, due in part to the meeting of warm 
winds from the Gulf Stream with cooler land breezes. 
Waters off the cape are called the “graveyard of the 
Atlantic.” The Intracoastal Waterway permits safe 
passage of watercraft along the coast. The Outer 
Banks Highway is a scenic drive. On the banks is 
Cape Hatteras National Seashore Recreational Area. 
The valuable coast fisheries yield menhaden, oysters, 
shrimp, clams, and other fish. 

Farming in the “Tarheel State” 
Agriculture ranks next to manufacturing in the 
number of people employed. The chief crop is tobacco. 


LIGHTHOUSE AND PYLON ALONG THE COAST 



Cape Hatteras Lighthouse (left) warns 
treacherous shoals. The 'Wright memorial monu 
(right) is on Kill Devil Hill near Kitty Hawk, ( 
the Wright brothers made the first airplane s 
Continued on page 








North Carolina Fact Summary 



NORTH CAROLINA (N.C.): Named in 
honor of Charles I (Latin, Carolus), 
king of England. 

Nickname: “Tarheel State,” because 
in Civil War North Carolinians had 
stuck to their posts in a fierce battle 
and threatened to tar the heels of re- 
treating soldiers. Also called “Old 
North State,” from its position as the northern and 
older part when Carolina was divided. 

Seal; “Liberty” stands, holding in her left hand a pole 
with cap upon it; in her right hand, a scroll with the 
word “Constitution.” “Plenty” site, her right hand 
held toward “Liberty,” the overfiowing horn at her feet. 

Moffo: Esse Quam Videri (To Be Rather Than to Seem). 

Flag: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Dogwood. Bird: Cardinal. Tree: None official. 
Song: “Old North State” — words by William Gaston, 
adapted to a German melody. 


THE GOVERNMENT 

Capifal: Raleigh (since 1792). 

Represenfafion in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 12. Elec- 
toral votes, 14. 

General Assembly: Senators, 50; term, 

2 years. Representatives, 120; term, 

2 years. Convenes Wednesday after 
the first Monday in January in the 
odd-numbered years. No limit to length of session. 

Constifuflon: Adopted 1868. Proposed amendment must 
be (a) passed by three-fifths vote of legislature and 
(b) ratified by majority vote at a popular election. 

Governor: Term, 4 years. May not succeed himself. 

Other Executive Officers: Lieut, governor, secy, of state, 
attorney general, treasurer, auditor, commissioners of 
agriculture, labor, insurance, all elected; terms, 4 years. 

Judiciary: Supreme court — 7 justices, elected at large; 
term, 8 years. Superior courts — 21 judges; judges 
elected; term, 8 years. County courts — established by 
General Assembly; judges elected; term, 2 to 4 years. 

County: 100 counties, each governed by a board of com- 
missioners of from 3 to 7 members. Boards and officers 
elected; term, 2 to 4 years. 

Municipal: Mayor-and-council and council-and-manager 
types are most conunon. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 1 year; 
in district, 4 months. Literacy test required. 




transportation and COMMUNICATION 

Trwsporfation: Railroads, 4,400 miles. First railroad, 
Raleigh Experimental R.R. (2? mi., from rock quarry 
to site of State Capitol), 1833. Rural roads, 65,300 
miles. Airports, 136. 

Communication: Periodicals, 82. Newspapers, 209. First 
newspaper. North Carolina Gazette, New Bern, 1751. 
Radio stations (AM and FM), 132; first station, WBT, 
Charlotte, licensed April 10, 1922. Television stations, 
4; first station, WBTV, Charlotte, began operation 
July 15, 1949. Telephones, 713,600. Post offices, 1,093. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 4,061,929 (rank among 48 
states — 10th); urban, 33.7%; rural, 66.3%. Density: 
82.7 persons per square mile (rank — 15th state). 

Extent: Area, 52,712 square miles, including 3,615 square 
miles of water surface (27th state in size). 

Elevation: Highest, Mount Mitchell, 6,684 feet near 
Busick; lowest, sea level. 

Temperature (°F.): Average — annual, 59°; winter, 42°; 
spring, 58°; summer, 76°; fall, 60°. Lowest recorded, 
— 21° (Mount Mitchell, Nov. 30, 1929, and other loca- 
tions and earlier dates) ; highest recorded, 109° (Albe- 
marle, July 28, 1940). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 49; winter, 11; 
spring, 12; summer, 16; fall, 10. Varies from about 40 
in northwest to about 84 in southwest. 

Natural Features: Huge shifting dunes, attractive beaches, 
narrow sand shallows (Coastal Plain); rolling farm 
land, thickly settled and highly cultivated region 
(Piedmont Plateau); largest and highest ranges of the 
Appalachian system (Mountain Region). Principal 
rivers: Broad, Cape Fear, Catawba, Neuse, Roanoke, 
Tar, Yadkin. 

Land Use: Cropland, 22%; nonforested pasture, 6%; 
forest, 57%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, waste- 
land, cities, etc.), 15%. 

CROPS PASTURE FOREST OTHER 



Natural Resources: Agricultural — ^long growdng season, 
adequate rainfall, varieties of soils suitable to growing 
many kinds of crops. Industrial — forests for wood- 
using industries; farm products for textile manufacture; 
stone, sand and gravel, tungsten, and clays. Commercial 
— fisheries, w'ater power, scenic vacation land. 

OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 

What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 

Manufacturing 

408,952 

27.9 

Agriculture, forestry, and fishery. . 

363,998 

24.9 

Wholesale and retail trade 

Personal services (hotel, domestic. 

209,439 

14.3 

laundering, etc.) 

Professional services (medical, le- 

106,693 

7.3 

gal, educational, etc.) 

97,847 

6.7 

Construction 

Transportation, communication. 

86,388 

5.9 

and other public utilities 

65,375 

4.5 

Government 

38,469 

2.6 

Business and repair services 

25,896 

1.8 

Finance, insurance, and real estate 
Amusement, recreation, and re- 

24,414 

1.7 

lated services 

10,202 

0.7 

Mining 

3,134 

0.2 

Workers not accotmted for 

22,545 

1.5 

Total employed 

1,463,352 

100.0 


269 


North Carolina 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 14th) 


Value added by manufacture* (1952), $2,013i824,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 


$846,280,000 

1 

Cotton and rayon broad-woven 
fabrics; yarn and thread mills; 
knitting mills 

257.986.000 

102.447.000 
84,127,000 

1 


4 


8 

Sawmills and planing mills 

Food and Kindred Products 

Soft drinks; bakery products 

78,430,000 

27 

Chemicals and Allied Products . 

58,607,000 

21 

Paper and Allied Products 

47,395,000 

18 


•For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 12th) 
Total cash income (1952), $948,959,000 


Products 

Amount Produced 
(10-Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

Statest 

Tobacco 

701,601,000 lbs. 

1 

1 


57,934,000 bu. 

2 

15 

Cotton lint 

579,000 bales 

3 

8 

Milk 

686,000,000 qts. 

4 

23 

Hogs 

288,589,000 lbs. 

5 

17 

Hay 

1,251,000 tons 

6 

29 

Chickens 

112,440,000 lbs. 

7 

13 


76,000,000 doz. 

8 

21 

Peanuts 

3 11, 000,000 lbs. 

9 

2 


♦Rank in dollar value tRank in units produced 



C. Fish (Rank among states — 13th) 

(Marine waters and coastal rivers, 1950), catch, 
172,339,000 lbs.; value, $6,800,000 


D. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 
Annual value (1951), $29,648,000 
Rank among states — 36th 


Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced 

Value 


8.613.000 tons 

7.656.000 tons 

$13,293,000 

4,436,000 

Sand and gravel 

Tungsten* 

1,000 tons 


♦Tungsten is 3d in value; exact figures not available. 


E. Lumber (Rank among states — 6th) 
1,478,000,000 board feet (5-year average) 

F. Trade 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 


$3,145,768,000 

'•2j248,660,OOQ 

1^117,000 

16 


16 

Ser\dce 

19 





Fact Summary 

EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 2,483; sec- 
ondary, 949. Compulsory school age, 

7 through 15. State Board of Educa- 
tion consists of lieut. gov., state 
treas., state supt. of public instruc- 
tion (elected, 4-year term), and 10 
appointed members. General Assem- 
bly appoints county boards of educa- 
tion; 3 to 5 members; 2-, 4r, or 6-year terms. County 
boards appoint county supts. Most city school boards 
appointed by city councils or other city bodies; some 
elected. City boards of trustees appoint city supts. 
Private and Parochial Schools: 88. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges — white, 
22; Negro, 11; Indian, 1. Junior colleges, 25. State- 
supported schools include the Univ. of N. Carolina, 
Chapel Hill, with its Woman’s College at Greensboro; 
State College of Agriculture and Engineering, Raleigh; 
2 Negro colleges. Agricultural and Technical College, 
Greensboro; N. Carolina College, Durham; 1 Indian 
college, Pembroke State College, Pembroke; 6 teachers 
colleges: White — Appalachian State, Boone; East 
Carolina, Greenville; Western Carolina, Cullowhee, 
Negro — Elizabeth City, Fayetteville, Winston-Salem. 
Special State Schools: Caswell Training School, Kinston, 
School for the Deaf, Morganton; School for the Blind, 
Raleigh; School for the Negro Blind and Deaf, Raleigh; 
Vocational Textile School, Belmont. _ mr t j 

Libraries: City and town public libraries riot affihateQ 
with counties or regions, 17; 72 county libraries plus 
19 counties in 7 regions make a total of 91 counties 
with county-wide service; 91 bookmobiles serve 
91 counties. Library Comm, aids in developing pubhe 
library service. Dept, of Public Instruction aids m de- 
veloping school library service; work headed by 
Library Adviser. Noted special library : Sondley Refer- 
ence Library, Asheville. ... 

Outstanding Museums: Asheville Art Gallery, Ashevi , 
Mint Museum of Art, Charlotte; Hickory Museum oi 
Art, Hickory; State Art Galleries, Raleigh. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

State Home and Industrial School for Girls 
cand). Eagle Springs; Eastern Carolina Indus n 
Training School for Boys, Rocky Mount; 

Jackson Manual Training and Industrial School, 
cord; State Training School for Negro Girls, Kms o i 
Morrison Training School for Negro Boys, Ho > 
Central Prison, Raleigh. 

PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Bennett Memorial — near Durham ; site of Gen. J. E. o n 
ston’s surrender to Gen. W. T. Sherman in 1865 ( • 

Bethabara (Oldtown) — first Moravian settlement m s 
(1753); old church (1788) and few houses remain W- 
Biltmore House — George Vanderbilt’s mansion (ISP 
Charlotte — Mint Museum of Art; Independence Squar , 
Tulip Gardens (see Charlotte) (26). , 

Cherokee Indian Reservation — near Cherokee, , 
reservation east of Wisconsin; about 130 sq. nii. 1 
Cupola House — old ship lookout in Edenton (8). 
Fontana Dam — ^highest TVA dam; Fontana L. ; w. o ( ■ 

Fort Armory Remains — ^near James City ; built v 

Fort Bragg — Fayetteville; army training center ("('j 
Fort Defiance — home, near Legerwood, of Gen. ' > 
Lenoir, Revolutionary War leader (10). 

•Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 



270 


North Carolina Fact Summary 



Fort Raleigh National Historic Site — on Roanoke Island; STATE PARKS* 

first attempted English settlement in America (14). BrunswickTown— old port nr. Wilmington at symbol (34) 

umiford Courthouse National Military Park— near Sum- Cliffs of the Neuse— near Goldsboro and symbol (28). 

merheld; scene of a Revolutionary War battle (7). Crabtree Creek— wooded area near Raleigh (13) 

aiawMsee Dam— TVA dam forms lake; s.w. of (21). Fort Macon-fort built 1828-35 nr. Atlantic Beach (31). 

w • D Memorial— IHtty Hawk; site of Hanging Rock— in rugged mountains near Danbury (2). 

nght Brothers’ first successful airplane flights (9). James Iredell House— colonial house of an early member 
ninville Caverns— limestone formations with under- of U. S. Supreme Court in Edenton near symbol (8). 
ground streams and pools near Linville Falls (11). Jones Lake— for Negroes; water sports on lake in forest 
hTt Beaufort; terrapin (turtle) near Elizabethtown and symbol (30), 

ichery; marine museum and aquarium (32). Morrow Mountain — ancient mountains nr. Albemarle (24). 

litres Creek National Military Park— near Castle Mount Mitchell— includes highest peak of Appalachians" 
nayne; site of Whig victory over Tories in 1776 (33). Mount Mitchell, 6,684 feet; near Asheville (19), 
i oravian Brothers’ House — Winston-Salem; built 1769; Pettigrew — old plantation near Creswell; lake (16). 

now a Moravian Church Home for women (6). Reedy Creek — for Negroes; forest near Raleigh (13). 

urton Plantation— near Wilmington; azalea and camellia Rendezvous Moimtain— historic site where Revolutionary 

garden; early colonial mansion built 1725 (34). War soldiers organized near North Wilkesboro (4). 

Capitol; Hall of History, Education Singletary Lake— near Elizabethtown and symbol (30), 

St fS'ir arena (see Raleigh) (15). Town Creek Indian Mound — near Mount Gilead and (24). 

"h -If Episcopal Church — oldest church in state, Tryon Palace — home of a royal governor and first cap- 

mlt in 1734 at Bath, oldest town in N. Carolina (20). itol of the state; in New Bern near symbol (28). 


URGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

(134,042); industrial and commercial hub of 
the Piedmont region; many textile and hosiery mills. 
mston-Salem (87,811): “Twin City"; two cities com- 
Dined by vote in 1913; tobacco, textiles, electronics, 
reensboro (74,389) : industrial city ; life insurance center. 

(71,311): large tobacco industries; cotton-textOe 
and hosiery mills; site of Duke University. 

D eigh (65,679): state capital and educational center; 
A -tli*® c^enter for farm area; textile-mill products. 

5 eviKe (53,000); mountain resort; textiles, furniture. 
H'* (45,043) : port and resort on Cape Fear River, 

t'® (39,973): furniture; hosiery; textiles, 

yetleville (34,715): farm market; textiles; lumber. 

state forest* 

^den Lakes (Bladen County) — 36,000 acres (30). 


NATIONAL PARK AND OTHER AREAS* 

Blue Ridge Parkway — scenic mountaintop drive connect- 
ing Great Smoky Mountains Natl. Pk. in N. C. and 
Shenandoah Natl. Pk. in Va.; 477 miles long (17). 

Cape Hatteras National Seashore Recreational Area 
— 30,000 acres; ocean w'ildemess on Outer Banks; 
shifting dunes; beaches; fishing; lighthouse; at (25). 

Great Smoky Mountains Natl. Park — 272,967 acres in 
N. C. (234,192 acres in Tenn.); highest range of 
Appalachians; virgin forests; varied plant life (17). 

NATIONAL FORESTS* 

Cherokee — 327 acres in state; total 1,204,429 acres in 
N. C. and Tenn.; hdqrs., Cleveland, Tenn. (1). 

Croatan — 294,610 acres; hdqrs., Asheville (29). 

Nantahala — 1,349,000 acres; hdqrs., Franklin (22). 

Pisgah — 1,177,303 acres; hdqrs., Asheville (3, 23). 

•Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


271 


North Carolina Fact Summary 


THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1584 — Queen Elizabeth I of England 
grants Sir Walter Raleigh right 
to estabhsh colony in America; 

Raleigh sends expedition to ex- 
plore coast of America; it lands 
on Roanoke Island. 

1585 — Raleigh’s second expedition 
plants first English colony in 
America on Roanoke Island; Ralph Lane appoint- 
ed governor. Colonists return to England, 1586. 

1587 — Raleigh sends second colony to Roanoke Island; 
led by John White. Virginia Dare is first child 
born of English parents in America, August 18. 

1591 — White, returning from trip to England, finds 
that the Roanoke settlers have disappeared. 

1663 — King Charles II grants what is now North and 
South Carolina to group of 8 “lords proprietors.” 

1701 — First church in North Carolina built at Eden ton. 

1705 — First known school opened in Pasquotank County. 
Bath is first town incorporated in present N. C. 

1711 — ^Tuscarora War begins with massacre of settlers by 
Indians; Indians defeated and dispersed to north. 

1715 — Church of England becomes established church. 

1 729 — ‘ ‘Lords proprietors,” except one, sell their Carolina 
interests to George II; "Granville District” in 
north remains under proprietor until 1775. 

1730 — Carolina divided into two provinces; George Bur- 
rington named governor of North Carolina. 

1749 — James Davis installs printing press at New Bern. 

1768 — Settlers in Orange County form the “Regulation” 
to oppose British rule; Governor Tryon defeats 
them in battle on Alariiance Creek, May 16, 1771. 

1774 — Provincial congress organized at New Bern. 

1 775 — Citizens of Mecklenburg County on May 20 pur- 
ported to have issued declaration of independence, 
first in colonies ; proof exists of their "Mecklenburg 
Resolves,” May 31; royal governor flees colony. 

1776 — Whigs defeat Tories at Moore’s Creek Bridge; 
North Carolina is first colony to direct its dele- 
gates to vote for independence at Continental Con- 
gress; state constitution adopted, December 18; 
capital. New Bern; governor, Richard Caswell. 

1780— Cornwallis occupies Charlotte; British defeated 
at Kings Mountain in South Carolina. 

1781 — Battle of Guilford Court House, March 15, forces 
Cornwallis to begin retreat to Wilmington. 


1784 — State of Franklin organized; collapses, 1788. 

1785— By Treaty of Hopewell, Cherokees cede their east- 
ern N orth Carolina land ; they cede remainder, 1 835. 

1788 — North Carolina rejects Federal Constitution. 

1789 — North Carolina is 12th state to ratify U. S. Con- 
stitution, November 21. Univ. of North Carolina 
chartered ; opens at New Chapel (now Chapel Hill), 
Jan. 16, 1795; first state university to open. 

1790 — North Carolina cedes western lands to U. S. 

1792 — ^Permanent capital site surveyed; named Raleigh. 

1799 — Gold discovered in Cabarrus County. 

1810 — North Carolina militia and Georgians skirmish 
over boundary dispute; accept 35th parallel, 1819. 

1 8 1 3 — ^First cotton mill in South opened near Lincolnton. 

1839 — First public-school law enacted by state; first 
public schools open, 1840. 

1 840 — Wilmington and Raleigh, and Raleigh and Gaston 
railroads completed. 

1 845 — James K. Polk, born 1795 in Mecklenburg County, 
becomes 11th president of U. S. 

1856 — ^North Carolina Railroad completed from Char- 
lotte to Goldsboro. 

1861 — North Carolina secedes from Union, May 20. 

1865 — ^Andrew Johnson, born 1808 in Raleigh, becomes 
17th president of U. S. Wilmington is one of last 
Confederate ports captured; Johnston surrenders 
to Sherman near Durham. Washington Duke 
begins packaging tobacco for sale near Durham; 
American Tobacco Company founded, 1890, under 
James B. Duke, born 1857 near Durham. 

1868 — North Carolina readmitted to Union, July 2. 

1 903 — Orville and Wilbur Wright make 1st flights in self- 
propelled aircraft at Kitty Hawk, December 17. 

1924 — Duke University endowment fund established. 

1930 — Great Smoky Mountains National Park created. 

1933 — State assumes maintenance of public schools. 

1944 — Fontana Dam on Little Tennessee River built. 

1 950 — Atomic Energy Commission authorizes building oi 
nuclear reactor at N. C. State College in Raleigh. 

1951 — Negro students admitted to professional and gran- 
uate schools of University of N.C. for first time. 

1952— John H. Kerr Dam on Roanoke R., flood-control- 

power project for North Carolina-Virginia area, 
completed. _ . , 

1953 — Federal aid given in drought. Legislation passe 
against burning crosses for intimidation, weeing 
masks, and secret meetings. Cape Hatteras Na • 
Seashore Recreational Area ofiicially designate . 






INDEX TO 

TH 

IE MAP 

OF NORTH CAROLINA 


COUNTIES 


Chowan 

12,540 

M 

2 

Halifax 

58,377 

K 

2 

Montgomery 





Clay 

6,006 

C 

9 

Harnett 

47,605 

H 

4 

17,260 

F 4 

Alamance 

71,220 

G 3 

Cleveland 

64,357 

B 

4 

Haywood 

37,631 

D 

8 

Moore 33,129 

G 4 

Alexander 

14,554 

C 3 

Columbus 

50,621 

H 

6 

Henderson 




Nash 59,919 

K 2 

Alleghany 

8,155 

C 1 

Craven 

48,823 

L 

4 


30,921 

E 

8 

New Hanover 


Anson 

26,781 

E 4 

Cumberland 



Hertford 

21,453 

L 

2 

63,272 

K 6 

Ashe 

21,878 

D 6 


96,006 

H 

4 

Hoke 

15,756 

G 

4 

N orthampton 


Avery 

13,352 

C 7 

Currituck 

6,201 

N 

2 

Hyde 

6,479 

N 

3 

28,432 

L 2 

Beaufort 

37,134 

M4 

Dare 

5,405 

O 

3 

Iredell 

56,303 

D 

3 

Onslow 42,047 

L 5 

Bertie 

26,439 

L2 

Davidson 

62,244 

E 

3 

Jackson 

19,261 

D 

9 

Orange 34,435 

G 2 

Bladen 

29,703 

H 5 

Davie 

15,420 

D 

3 

Johnston 

65,906 

J 

4 

Pamlico 9,993 

M 4 

Brunswick 

19,238 

J 6 

Duplin 

41,074 

K 

5 

Jones 

11,004 

h 

4 

Pasquotank24,347 

2 

Buncomb6l24,403 

E 8 

Durham 

101.639 

H 

3 

Lee 

23,522 

G 

4 

Pender 18,423 

K 5 

Burke, 

45,518 

B3 

liidgecombe 51,634 

K 

3 

Lenoir 

45,953 

K 

4 

Perquimans 9,602 

N 2 

Cabarrus 

63,783 

D 4 

h orsyth 

146,135 

E 

2 

Lincoln 

27,459 

C 

3 

Person 24,361 

H 2 

Caldwell 

43,352 

B 3 

Franklin 

31,341 

J 

2 

Macon 

16,174 

D 

9 

Pitt 63,789 

L 3 

Camden 

5,223 

N 2 

Gaston 

110,836 

C 

4 

Madison 

20,522 

E 

7 

Polk 11,627 

A 4 

Carteret 

23,059 

M 5 

Gates 

9,555 

M 

2 

Martin 

27,938 

L 

3 

Kandolph 50,804 

F 3 

Caswell 

20,870 

G 2 

Graham 

6,886 

C 

8 

McDowell 

25,720 

A 

3 

Richmond 39,597 

F 4 

Catawba 

61,794 

C 3 

Granville 

31,793 

H 

2 

Mecklenburg 



Robeson 87,769 

G 5 

Chatham 

25,392 

G 3 

Greene 

18,024 

K 

3 

197.052 

D 

4 

Rockingham 


Cherokee 

18,294 

B 9 

Guilford 

191,057 

F 

3 

i ^litchell 

15,143 

B 

7 

64,816 

F 2 , 


,n 75,410 

3 rford 46,356 

son 49,780 

ind 26,330 

(T 37,130 

s 21,520 

45,593 
, 9,921 


15,194 
5,048 
42,034 
32,101 
136.450 
1 23,539 

gtonl3,180 
-a 18.342 
’ 64,267 

45,243 
54,506 
o'; 1 33 . 


D3 

M 

J4 

G5 

E4 

E3 

D2 

08 

E9 

N3 

D4 

J2 

H3 

J2 

M3 

DO 

J4 

02 

K3 

D2 

F7 


272 


NORTH CAROLINA 


CITIES AND TOWNS 


1,603 


83 

139 

50 

180 

110 

216 

3,579 

50 

415 

1,000 

11,798 

65 

1,200 
885 
100 
600 
53 
116 
250 
50 

1,200 


Abbottsburg 
Aberdeen 
Abner 
Abshers 
Acme 
Adako 
Adams 
Adder 
Advance 
Aioskie 
Alrlle 
Alamance 
Alarka 
Albemarle 
Alert 
Alexander 
Alexander Mills 
Allen 
Alliance 
Allreds 
Alma 
Almond 
Alston 
Altamahaw 
Altamont 
Andrews 
Angier 
Ansonville 
Apex 

Apple Grove 
Arapahoe 
Ararat 
Archdale • 

Areola 
Arden 
Arlington 
Ash 

Asheboro 
Asheville 
Ashford 
Ashland 
Ashton 
Atkinson 
Atlantic 
Atlantic Beach 
Auburn 
Aulander 
Aurora 
Autryville 
Aventon 
Avon 
Avondale 
Ayden 
Aydlett 
Azalea 
Bachelor 
Badin 
Bapley 
Bahama 
Bailey 
Bakersville 
Bald Creek 
Bald Mtn. 

Balfour 
Balm 
Balsam 
Bandana 
Banner Elk 
Bannertown 
Barber 
Barco 
Barnard 
Barnardsville 
BamesvUle 
Barrett 
Bat Cave 
Bath 

Battleboro 
Bayboro 
Bear Creek 
Beargrass 
Beaufort 
Bee Lop 
Beech Creek 
Belcross 
Belhaven 
Bellarthur 
Belmont 
Belvlclere 
Belwood 

BeSIam 
Bennett 
Benson 
BentonTUle 
Berea 

259 

Bgomer City 3,961 

Bests 
Beta 
Bethania 
Bethel 
Bculayme 

Pine 275 

Bp?®®'’® Forest 057 

Black Creek 


1,397 

1,182 

545 

1,065 

50 

273 

37 

1,218 

122 

400 

525 

125 

7.701 

53,000 

291 

50 

200 

294 

844 

49 
100 

1,112 

525 

151 

150 

400 

769 

2,282 

200 

125 

250 

2,126 

27 

150 

743 

428 

200 

50 
750 
175 
600 
240 
462 


175 

425 

100 

500 

100 

40 

120 

381 

329 

453 

200 

128 

3,212 

200 

55 

150 

2,528 

190 

5,330 

147 

300 

SO 


236 

2.102 

9 

100 

259 


55 

ISO 

150 

1,402 

724 


H 5 
G 4 
F4 
C2 
J 6 
B 3 
D 6 
G 4 
E 3 
L2 
K2 
P 2 
D 8 
B 4 
J2 
E 8 
B 4 
D 4 
M 4 
F 4 
G 5 
C 8 
J 2 
G 2 
C 7 
C 9 
H 4 
E 4 
H 3 
D 5 
M 4 
D 2 
F 3 
J 2 
E 8 
*D 2 
J 6 
F 3 
E 8 
B 3 
D 6 
K 6 
J 5 
N 5 
M 5 
H 3 
L2 
M 4 
H 4 
K2 
P4 
B 4 
L4 
O 2 
F 8 
M 5 
E 4 
J 3 
H 2 
J 3 
B 7 
A 7 
A 7 
P 8 
C 6 
D 8 
B 7 
O 7 
D 1 
D 3 
O 2 
E 7 
B 8 
G 6 
D 1 
F 8 
M 4 
K 2 
M 4 
G 3 
L3 
M 5 
A 7 
C 6 
N2 
M 3 
K3 
D 4 
N 2 
B 4 
D 6 
O 2 
P 3 
J 4 
J 4 
H 2 
M 2 
C 4 
D 9 
K4 
D 8 
E 2 
L 3 
K 5 
E 8 
F 8 
D 5 
F 4 
K 3 


Black Mtn. 1,174 

Blackstone 60 

Bladenboro 796 

Blanch 75 

Blounts Creek 300 

Blowing Bock 661 


Bluff 
Boardman 
Bobbit 
Boger City. 
Bogue 

Boiling Sprs, 

Bolivia 

Bolton 

Bonlee 

Bonnerton 

Boomer 

Boone 

Boonford 

Boonvllle 

Bostic 

Bowdens 

Brevard 

Bricks 

Bridgeton 

Bridgewater 

Broadway 

Brookford 


100 

311 


1,733 

150 

1,145 

215 

606 

275 

40 

150 

2,973 

200 

502 

227 

239 

3,908 


805 


469 

768 


Browns Summit 220 


Brownwood 
Brunswick 
Bryson City 
Buck 
Buckner 
Buffalo City 
Buffalo Cove 
Buies 

Buies Creek 
Buladean 
Bullock 
Bunn 
Burmlevel 
Burgaw 
Burlington 
BumsvUle 
Busick 
Butch 
Butters 
Buxton 
Bynum 
Calypso 
Camden 
Cameron 
Cana 
Candler 
Candor 
Cane Kiver 
Canton 
Carbonton 
Caroleen 


45 
190 
1,499 
75 
100 
34 
352 


425 

50 

100 

255 

177 

1,613 

24,560 

1,341 

150 

100 

100 

550 

450 

688 

200 

284 

75 

800 

617 

250 

4,906 

90 

1,712 


Carolina Beach 1,080 


Carpenter 
Carrboro 
Carthage 
Cary 
Casar 

Ceish Comer 
Cashiers 
Castalia 
Castle Hayne 
Catawba 
Catharine Lake 
Cedar Falls 
Cedar Grove 
Cedar Island 


150 

1,795 

1,194 

1,446 

300 

230 

305 

421 

1,000 

506 

75 

650 

100 

215 


Cedar Mountain 134 
Celo 150 

Central Falls 500 
Cerro Gordo 265 
Chadboum 2,103 
Chalybeate Sprs. 

300 

Champion 
Chapanoke 
Chapel Hill 
Charles 


•No 


Charlotte 

Cheoah 

Cherokee 

Cherry 

Cherry Lane 

Cherryville 

Chicod 

China Grove 

Chinquapin 

Chip 

Chocotvlnity 

Cld 

Citron 

Claremont 

Clarendon 

Clark 

Clarkton 

Clarrissa 

Clayton 

Clemmons 

Cleveland 

Cliffside 

Clifton 

Climax 

Clinton 

Clyde 


92 
50 
9,177 
75 

134.042 

200 

500 

73 

104 

3.492 

278 

1,491 

800 


40 
150 
200 
50 
669 
200 
160 
589 
250 
2,229 
500 
580 
1,388 


F 8 
B 2 
H 5 
G 2 
L4 
C 7 
E 7 
H 0 
J 2 
C 4 
M 5 
B 4 
J 6 
J 6 
G 3 
M 4 
C 2 
D 6 
B 7 
D 2 
»B 4 
J4 
E 9 
K 2 
M 4 
B 3 
G 4 
C 3 
P 2 
D 6 
H 6 
D 8 
C 2 
E 7 
O 3 
D 7 
G 5 
H 4 
B 7 
H 2 
J 3 
H 4 
J 5 
F 2 
B 7 
F 8 
B 7 
H 5 
P 4 
G 3 
J4 
N 2 
G 4 
D 3 
E 8 
F 4 
B 7 
E 8 
G 3 
B 4 
K 6 
H 3 
G 3 
F 4 
H 3 
B 3 
M 4 
D 9 
K 2 
K 6 
C 3 
K 5 
F 3 
G 2 
N 5 
E 9 
B 7 
F 3 
H 6 
H 6 


225 

4.414 

S9S 


H 3 
E 6 
N 2 
H 3 
D 3 
D 4 
C 8 
D 8 
M 3 
D 2 
O 4 
L 3 
D 3 
K 5 
F 4 
L 4 
E 3 
E 0 
C 3 
H 6 
L4 
H 6 
B 7 
J 3 
E 2 
D 3 
B 4 
D 0 
F 3 
J 5 
E 8 


Coats 
Cofield 
Coinjock 
Colerain 
Coleridge 
Coiington 
Collettsville 
Coliunbia 
Columbus 
Comet 
Comfort 
Como 
Concord 
Conetoe 
Congo 


1,047 

325 

350 

367 

450 


250 
1,161 
486 
50 
300 
250 
16.486 
172 
75 


Connellys Sprs. 550 


1.164 

618 

1,925 

50 

97 

1,548 

75 

64 

465 

100 

85 

3.211 

852 

425 

50 

75 

240 

303 

218 

75 

160 

150 

500 

500 

250 

60 

200 

150 

150 

2,454 

69 

200 


2,423 

600 

100 

150 

142 

25 

257 

7 

225 


Conover 
Conway 
Cooleemee 
Corapeake 
Corinth 
Cornelius 
Corolla 
Council 
Cove City 
Cove Creek 
Cowarts 
Cramerton 
Creedmoor 
Creswell 
Crisp 
Croft 
Crossnore 
Crouse 
Crumpler 
Cruso 
Culberson 
Cullasaja 
CuUowhee 
Cumberland 
Cumnock 
Cunningham 
Currie 
Currituck 
Cycle 
Dallas 
Dalton 
Danbury 
Darby 
Davidson 
Davis 
Day Book 
Deep Gap 
Deep Run 
Dehart 
Delco 
Dell view 
Deliwood 
Democrat 
Denny 
Denton 
Denver 
Derita 
Devotion 
Dillsboro 
Dixon 
Dobson 
Dockery 
Dover 
Draper 
Drexel 
Dnuuhill 
Dublin 
Duck 
Dudley 
Dulah 
Duncan 
Dundarrach 
Dunn 
Durham 
Dysortville 
Eagle Sprs. 

Earl 

East Bend 
East Flat Rock 1,100 
East Lake 100 

East Laport 240 
East Laurinburg 745 
East 

Lumberton 
East Spencer 
Edenton 
Edgemont 
Edneyville 
Edward 
Edand 
Elams 
Elberon 
Eldorado 
Eldreth 
Eleazer 
Elizabeth City 

12.685 

Elizabethtown 1,611 


100 

766 

415 

600 

40 

198 

75 

609 

600 

638 

3,629 

988 

75 

243 


133 
75 

100 

134 
6,316 

71,311 
100 
350 
300 
475 


H 4 
M2 
N 2 
M 2 
F 3 
O 3 
B3 
N 3 
F 9 
D 6 
K 5 
L 1 
D 4 
K3 
E 6 
B 3 
C 3 
L2 
D 3 
M 1 
G 3 
D 4 
O 2 
H 6 
L4 
E 8 
■ D 8 
C 4 
H 2 
N 3 
K3 
D 4 
C 7 
C 4 
E 5 
E 8 
B 9 
D 9 
D 8 
H 5 
G 3 
H 1 
J 6 
O 2 
D 2 
C 4 
E 2 
E 2 
E 7 
D 4 
M 5 
B 7 
D 6 
K 4 
E 6 
J 6 
*C 4 
D 8 
E 8 
C 2 
E 3 
C 3 
D 4 
D 2 
D 8 
K 5 
D 2 
C 2 
L 4 
F 1 
B 3 
M 1 
H 5 
O 2 
J 4 


Elon College 

Elrod 

Emerson 

Enfield 

Engelhard 

Enka 

Emul 

Envin 

Essex 

Estatoe 

Ether 

Etow,ah 

Eufola 

Eiue 

Eureka 

Everetts 

Evergreen 

Ewart 

Fair Bluff 

Fairfield 

Fairmont 

Pair view 

Faison 

Faith 

Falcon 

Falkland 

Pallston 

Farmer 

Farmington 

Farmville 

Faro 

Faust 

Fayetteville 

Ferguson 

Fig 

Finley 

Flat Rock 

Flats 

Fleetwood 

Fletcher 

Florence 

Folkstone 

Forbes 

Forest City 

Fork 

Fort Bragg 

Fountain 

Foiu Oaks 

Francisco 

Frank 

Franklin 

Franklin ton 

Franklin vUIe 

Freeland 

Fremont 

Frisco 

Fuquay Sprs. 

Furches 

Garland 

Garner 

Garysbiug 

Gaston 

Gastonia 

Gates 

Gatcsville 

Germanton 

Ghio 

Gibson 

Gibsonville 

Gilkey 

Glade Valley 

Glen Alpine 

Glen Raven 


1.109 

G 2 

Hanes 

1.000 

E 2 

135 

G 5 

Harbinger 

250 

O 2 

85 

H 6 

Harkers Island 


2,361 

K2 


1.244 

M 5 

500 

O 3 

Harmony 

374 

D 3 

1,792 

E 8 

Harrells 

147 

J 5 

150 

L4 

HarrelisviUe 

167 

M2 

3,344 

H 4 

Harris 

110 

G 9 

35 

J 2 

Harrisbure: 

300 

D 4 

300 

C 7 

Hassell 

137 

li 3 

60 

F 4 

Hasty 

125 

G 5 

400 

E 8 

Hatteras 

700 

O 4 

150 

D 3 

Havelock 

4,500 

M 5 

200 

M2 

Hav" River 

1,175 

G 2 

192 

K 3 

Hawk 


C 7 

244 

L3 

Hayesville 

356 

.O 9 

245 

H 6 

Hayne 

40 

H 5 


B 7 

Hays 

400 

C 2 

1,056 

H 6 

Haywood 

169 

G 3 

250 

N 3 

Hazelwood 

1.769 

D 8 

2,319 

G 6 

Heathsville 

150 

K 2 

300 

E 8 

Heaton 

50 

C 6 

76 8 

J 4 

Helton 

192 

D 5 

490 

E 3 

Hemlock 

750 

D 5 

245 

H 4 

Henderson 

10.996 

J 2 

174 

K 3 

Hendersonville 


500 

B 4 


6,103 

F 8 

125 

F 3 

Hendrix 

150 

E 7 

300 

D 3 

Henrietta 

1,013 

B 4 

2,942 

K3 

Hertford 

2,096 

N 2 

140 

K4 

Hester 

110 

H 2 

100 

E 7 

Hickory 

14,755 

C 3 

34,715 

H 4 

Hidden! te 

600 

C 3 

50 

C 2 

Higgins 


B 7 

75 

D 6 

High Point 

39,973 

E 3 

100 

D 7 

High Rock 

75 

E 3 

1.000 

E 9 

Hlghfalls 

310 

F 4 

150 

C 8 

Highlands 

515 

D 9 

50 

t) 6 

Highshoals 

875 

C 4 

500 

E 8 

Hildebran 

529 3- 

500 

M4 

Hillsboro 

1,329 

G2 


100 
253 
4,971 
300 
16,000 
451 
942 


25 

1,975 

1,414 

778 

300 

1,395 

100 

1,992 

150 

539 

1,180 

344 

1,218 

23,069 

150 

323 

118 

104 

609 

1,866 


75 

695 

750 


1,106 

2.444 

4,468 

85 

500 

155 

500 

10 

75 


SO 

60 


Elk Park 

EUdn 

Elkton 

Ellenboro 

Ellerbe 

EUiott 

Elm City 

Elmwood 


545 

2,842 


537 

773 

25 

839 

300 


Glendale Springs 200 


Glendon 


110 


K 6 
B 7 
B 4 
E 3 
H 4 
K3 
H 4 
E 2 
C 7 
C 9 
J2 
F 3 
J 6 
J 3 
O 4 
H 3 
E 6 
J 5 
H 3 
K2 
K 1 
O 4 
M2 
M2 
E 2 
F 5 
F 5 
F 2 
B 4 
C 2 
B 3 
G 2 
D 6 
G 4 


Hobbsidlle 
Hobgood 
Hobucken 
Hoffman 
Hollifield 
Hollis 
Hollister 
Holly Ridge 
Holly Springs 
Hookerton 
Hope Mills 
Hot Springs 
HoustonviUe 
Hubert 
Hudson 
Huntdale 
Huntersville 
Hurdle Mills 
Husk 
Icard 
Idlewild 
Indian Trail 
Inez 
IngaUs 
Ingold 
Iron Station 
Ivanhoe 
Jackson 
Jackson Springs 


75 

603 


398 

200 

65 

200 

1,082 

406 

253 

1,077 


M2 
L 2 
N 4 
F 4 
A 3 
B 4 
K2 
L 6 
H 3 
K 4 
H 5 


H 6 

Glenola 

100 

F 3 

H 3 

Glenville 

200 

D 9 

G 5 

Glenwood 


A 3 

H 4 

Globe 

200 

D 7 

H 2 

Gloucester 

130 

N 5 

B 3 

Gneiss 

250 

D 9 

F 4 

Godwin 

145 

H 4 

B 4 

Gold Hill 


E 3 

I) 2 

Gold Point 

132 

L 3 

F 9 

Goldsboro 

21.454 

K4 

N 3 

Golds ton 

372 

G 3 

D 8 

Graham 

5,026 

G 2 

G 5 

Grainger 

168 

K 4 


Grand'view 

75 

B 9 

H 5 

Grandy 

500 

O 2 

E 3 

Granite Falls 

2.280 

O 3 

M2 

Granite Quarry 591 

D 3 

7> 7 

Grantsboro 

1,500 

M 4 

F 8 

Grassy Creek 

500 

E 5 

M4 

Greenmoimtaln 600 

B 7 

G 2 

Greensboro 

74,389 

F 2 

K 1 

Green\’illc 

16.724 

L 3 

,T 2 

Grifton 

510 

L4 

F 4 

Grimesland 

414 

L 3 

T) 5 

Grover 

635 

C 4 

F 3 

Guilford College 500 

F 2 


Gulf 

300 

G 3 

H 2 

Gulrock 

51 

O 4 

H 5 

Gupton 

75 

J2 

C 7 

Halifax 

340 

K2 

TT 2 

Halls Mills 

300 

E 6 

H 6 

Hallsboro 

300 

H 6 

B 4 

Hamilton 

514 

L 3 

F 4 

Hamilton Lakes 882 

F 2 

J 5 

Hamlet 

5.001 

F 6 

K3 

Hampstead 


K 6 

D 3 

Hamptonville 

150 

D 2 


Jacksons Creek 
Jacksonville 
James City 
Jamestown 
Jamesville 
Jarvisburg 
Jefferson 
Joe 
Johns 

Jonas Ridge 
Jones ville 
Joynes 
Julian 
Jupiter 
Kannapolis 
Kelford 
Kelly 

Kenansville 
Kenly 
Kemers ville 
Kerr 
Kill Devil Hills 


721 

E 7 

150 

D 2 

40 

L5 

922 

C 3 
B 7 

916 

D 4 

200 

G 2 

78 

D 6 

1,100 

C 3 

176 

E 6 

308 

D 4 

40 

J 2 

75 

C 7 

350 

J 5 

232 

C 4 

200 

J 5 

843 

igs 

L2 

246 

F 4 

ik 100 

F 3 

3,960 

K 5 

750 

M4 

748 

F 3 

629 

M3 
O 2 

359 

E 6 

200 

E 7 

300 

F 5 
C 7 

1.768 

D 2 

240 

C 2 

300 

F 3 

136 

E 8 

28,448 

D 4 


405 

100 

674 

1.129 

2,396 

40 

125 


KimesviUe 100 

King 1,000 

Kings Creek 300 

Kings Aloimtaln 

’’•206 

Kinston 18,336 


L 2 
J 6 
K 5 
J 3 
E 2 
J 5 
O 3 
G 3 
E 2 
C 3 


Kipling 
KlttreU 
Kitty Hawk 
Knlghtdale 
Knotts Island 
Kure Beach 


101 

189 

300 

461 

400 

228 

1.852 

233 


174 

270 


4,000 


C 4 
K 4 
H 4 
H 2 
O 2 
J 3 
O 2 
K 6 
K 4 
J 5 
O 4 
A 4 
E 9 
J 6 
H 4 


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NORTH CAROLINA 

Samt scale as main map. 


B 


30' 










NORTH CAROLINA — Continued 


Lakeview 

Landis 

Lansing 

Lasker 

Lassiter 

Lattimore 

Laurel Hill 

Laurel Park 

Laurel Springs 

Laurinburg 

Lawndale 

Lawsonville 

Laxon 

Leaks ville 

Leaman 

Leasburg 

Leech\ille 

Ijegerwood 

Leggett 

Leicester 

Leland 

Lemon Springs 


300 

1.827 

280 

177 

35 

286 

400 

302 

250 

7,134 

964 

200 

61 

4,045 

21 

400 

200 

85 

200 

750 

570 

200 


Lenoir 
Letitia 
Lewarae 
Lewiston 
Lesdngton 
Liberty 
Liles\dlle 
LUllnrton 
Lincolnton 
Linden 
Limille 
Lin\dlle Falls 
Linwood 

Little Switzerland 

400 

Littleton 
Locust 
Lola 

Longhurst 
Longisland 
Longview 
Longwood 
Loray 


7,888 

35 

479 

339 

13,571 

1,342 

605 

1,061 

5,423 

194 

500 

350 


Iioulsburg 
Lovill 
Lowe 
Lowell 
Lowgap 
Lowland 
Lucama 
Lumber Bridge 
Lumberton 
Lynn 
^Iabel 
Macclesfield 
Mackeys 
Macon 
Madison 
Maggie 
Maraolia 
Maiden 
Mamers 
Mamie 
Manly 

Manns Harbor 

Manson 

Manteo 

Maple Hill 

Mapleton 

Mapleiille 

Marble 

Margarettsville 

Marietta 

Marion 

Mars Hill 

Marshall 

Marshallberg 

Marshville 

Marston 

Mashoes 

Matthews 

Maury 

Maxton 

Mayodan 

Mays-Ndlle 

McAdenville 

McCain 

McCullers 

McDonalds 

McFarlan 

McGrady 

Mebane 

Mel-v-in HUl 

Merrimon 

Merry Hill 

Merry Oaks 

Mesic 

Method 

Mica-ville 

Micro 

Middlcburg 
Middlesex 
MiddletoAvn 
Midland 


1,173 

216 

150 

1,539 

350 

2,291 

800 

115 

2,545 

75 

2,313 

500 

200 

405 

154 
9,186 

600 

200 

370 

250 

238 

1,789 

585 

1,952 

200 

250 
280 
325 

40 

635 

75 

50 

375 

113 

94 

2,740 

1,404 

983 

784 

1,258 

159 

589 

251 
1.974 
2,246 

818 

1,060 

900 

89 

78 

136 

175 

2,068 

155 
250 
200 

160 
425 
350 
200 
310 
217 
446 
200 
250 


Midway Park 3.703 
Milam 
^lUl Spring 
Mlllbrook 
Millers Creek 
Milton 


50 

100 

500 

317 


G 4 
D 3 
D 5 
L2 
J3 
*B 4 
F 5 
E 8 
E 6 
F 5 
B 4 
E 2 
D 6 
F 2 
F4 
G 2 
M3 
B 2 
K3 
E 7 
J 6 
G 4 
C 3 
B 9 
F 5 
L2 
E 3 
F 3 
F 5 
H4 
G4 
H4 
C 7 
A 3 
E 3 

A 3 
K2 
E 4 
N 5 
G 2 
D 3 
O 3 
J 6 
C 3 
J2 
D 6 
G 5 
C 4 
D 1 
N4 
J3 
G 5 
G 5 
P9 
C 6 
K3 
M 3. 
J2 
P2 
DS 
K6 
03 
G 4 
O 2 
G 4 
O 3 
J2 
O 3 
K5 
L2 
J2 
C 9 
L 1 
G 6 
A 3 
E 7 
E 8 
N 5 
E 4 
F 5 
O 3 
D 4 
k:4 
G 5 
F 2 
L 5 
D 4 
G 4 
H 3 
G 5 
E 5 
E 0 
G 2 
A 4 
ISI 5 
M2 
G 3 
M4 
H 3 
B 7 
J 3 
J 2 
J 3 
O 4 
E4 
L 5 
D 6 
A 4 
H 3 
E 6 
G 1 


Milwaukee 302 

Mineral Springs 135 
'* 100 


Minneapolis 
Mint Hill 
Misenheimer 
Mocksville 
Momeyer 
Moncure 
Monroe 
^lontague 
Montezuma 
Mooresboro 
Moores^ille 
Moravian Falls 375 
Morehead City 5,144 


200 

1909 

200 

600 

10.140 

100 

75 

7.121 


Morganton 
Morrisville 
Mortimer 
Morven 
Mount Airy 
Mount Gilead 
Moimt Holly . . 
Mount Moume 232 
[Mount Olive 3,732 
Mt, Pleasant 1,019 
Mt. Vernon Sprs. 90 


8,311 

221 

13 

601 

7.192 

1,201 

2,241 


Mount Zion 
Moyock 
I^Iurfreesboro 
Murphy 
Nags Head 
Nakina 
Nantahala 
Nashville 


100 

2.140 

2.433 

350 

125 

1,302 


Nathans Creek ’ 75 
500 


Navassa 
Nebo 
Needmore 
Neuse 
New Bern 
New Holland 
New London 
Newhill 
Newhope 
Newland 
Newport 
Newton 
Newton Grove 
Norlina 
Norman 
North Cove 


200 
SO 
15.812 
50 
285 
232 
25 
425 
676 
6,039 
374 
874 
300 
500 


North Harlowe 300 
N. Lumberton 423 
N. Wilkesboro 4,379 


Northside 

Norwood 

Oak City 

Oak Ridge 

Oakboro 

Oakland 

Oaldey 

O era coke 

Old Dock 

Old Fort 

Old Trap 

Olin 

Olivia 

Olyphic 

Orange 

Oriental 

Orrum 

Oteen 

Otto 

Over bills 

Oxford 

Pactolus 

Paint Gap 

Palmyra 

Pantego 

Parker 

Parkersburg 

Parkton 

Parmele 

Parsonville 

Paschall 

Passion 

Patterson 

Peacbland 

Pee Dee 

Peletier 

Pelham 

Pembroke 

Pendleton 

Penrose 

Pensacola 

Peoria 

Phoenix 

Pike Road 

Pikeville 

Pilot Mtn. 

Pine Hall 

Pine licvel 

Pinebluff 

Pinehurst 

Pineola 

Pinetops 

Pinetewn 

Pine^iew 

PineiilJe 

Piney Creek 

Pink Hill 

Pinnacle 


100 

1.735 

518 

500 

631 

200 

68 

600 

300 

771 

3S0 

60 

450 

50 

50 

590 

162 

1,000 

100 

50 

6,685 

265 

200 

67 

275 

50 

114 

527 

406 

250 

75 

190 

195 

485 

200 

200 

1,212 

88 

350 

150 

300 

250 

464 

1,092 

575 

602 

575 

1.016 

350 

1,031 

301 
175 

1.373 

35 

386 

450 


L 2 
D 5 
G 7 
D4 
E 3 
D 3 
J 3 
G 3 
E 5 
K6 
. O 7 
B 4 
D 3 
C 2 
MS 
B 3 
H 3 
B 2 
E 5 
D 1 
F 4 
D 4 
D 3 
k:4 
E 4 
G 3 
D 7 
N 1 
M 2 
C 9 
O 3 
H C 
C 8 
K 3 
E 6 
J 6 
B 3 
C 8 
H 3 
L4 
N 4 
E 4 
H 3 
C 2 
G 7 
M5 
C 3 
J4 
J2 
F 4 
B 3 
M5 
H 5 
0 2 
H 2 
E 4 
L3 
P 2 
E 4 
E 9 
L 3 
O 4 
H 6 
A 3 
O 2 
D 3 
G 4 
H 7 
H 4 
M4 
G 6 
E S 
C 9 
G 4 
H 2 
L3 
B 7 
L 2 
M 3 
D 6 
J 5 
H 5 
L3 
E 6 
J 1 
P 9 
B 3 
E 5 
P 5 
L 5 
G 1 
G 5 
L 2 
E 8 
B 8 
C 6 
J 6 
M3 
J 4 
D 2 
F2 
J 4 
P 4 
F 4 
C 7 
K3 
M3 
G 4 
D 4 
E 5 
K 4 
E 2 


Pisgah 60 

Pisgah Forest 900 
Pittsboro . 1.094 


Pleasant Hill 
Plum tree 
Plymouth 
Point Harbor 
Polkton 
Pollocks ville 
Pomona 
Ponzer 
Poplar 

Poplar Branch 
Pores Knob 
Portsmouth 
Postell 

Powells Point 
Powells ville 
Prentiss 
Price 
Princeton 
Prince ville 
Proctondlle 
Prospect Hill 
Pimgo 
Purlear 
Pur\’is 
Quitsna 
Radical 
Raeford 
RALEIGH 
Ramsaytown 
Ramseur 
Randleman 
Ranger 
Ransomville 
Raynham 
Red Oak 
Red Springs 
Reddies River 
Reese 
Reidsville 
Relief 
Rennert 
Rex 

Reynolda 
Rhodhiss 
Rich Square 
Richfield 
Richlands 
Ridgeville 
Ridgeway 
Ringwood 
Roanoke Rapids 
_ , ^ 8,166 
Roaring Gap 
Roaring River 
Robbins 
Robbins ville 
Roberdell 
Robersonville 
Rockfish 
Rockford 
Rockingham 
Rockw^ 

Rocky ifount 


200 
300 
4,486 
110 
459 
420 
1.500 
110 
575 
325 
150 
16 
120 
375 
250 
100 
175 
608 
919 
232 
110 
200 
60 

210 

60 

2.030 

65.679 

100 

1,134 

2.066 

150 

170 

30 

250 

2,245 

175 

1.450 

11,708 

129 

180 
300 


F 3 
E 9 
G 3 
K1 
O 7 
M3 
O 2 
E4 
L5 
P 2 
N 3 
B 7 
O 2 
C 2 
N 4 
B 9 
O 2 
M2 
D 9 
F 1 
J 4 
L3 
H 6 
G 2 
M3 
E 6 
G 5 
L3 
E 6 
G 5 
H 3 
B 7 
P 3 
F 3 
B 9 
M4 
G 5 
J 2 
G 5 
E 6 
C 6 
P 2 
B 7 
G 5 
H 5 
E 2 


Selma 

Seinora 

Senia 

Seven Springs 

Severn 

Sevier 

Shallotte 

Shannon 

Sharpsburg 

Shawboro 

Shelby 

Sbelmerdlue 

Sherwood 

Shoals 

Shooting Creek 
Shulls MiUs 


2,639 
250 
25 
197 
340 
130 
493 
150 
415 
150 
15,508 
32 
350 
250 
260 
175 


923 *B 3 
971 L2 


237 

877 

45 

250 

60 


350 
1.158 
515 
451 
1.414 
160 
225 
3 356 
852 


Rocky Point 

Rodanthe 

Roles ville 

Rominger 

Ronda 

Roper 

Roseboro 

Rosehill 

Rosindale 

Rosman 

Rougemont 

Rowland 

Roxboro 

Roxobel 

Royal 

Royall Cotton 
Mills 
Ruffin 
Rlifus 
Rural Hall 
Ruth 

Rutherford 
College 


27.697 

450 

86 

288 

200 

545 

793 

1,241 

896 

35 

535 

300 

1.293 

4.321 

394 

250 

250 

530 

80 

1,200 

324 


750 


Rutherfordton 3,146 
Ryland 
Saint Pauls 
Salemburg 
Salisbury 
Salter Path 
Saluda 
Salvo 

Sandy Ridgo 
Sanford 
Sapphire 
Saratoga 
Saxap^aw 

Scotland Neck 2,730 
Scotts 50 

Scotts Hill 150 

Scott^ille 180 

Scranton 125 

Seaboard 745 

Seagrove 319 

Seale vel 


50 
2.261 
435 
20.102 
300 

547 

77 
200 
10,013 
50 


E 4 
K 5 
G 2 
J 2 
K2 

K 2 
D 2 
C 2 
P4 
C 8 
P 5 
L3 
G 5 
D 2 
P 5 
E3 

K 3 
K 6 
P3 
J3 
C 6 
D 2 
M3 
J 6 
K5 
J 6 
E 9 
G 2 
G 5 
H 2 
L2 
M4 

H 2 
F 2 
B 3 
E 2 
A 4 

B 3 
A 4 
M2 
H 5 
J 4 
D 3 
M 5 
F 9 
P 3 
E 1 
G 4 
E 9 


Siler City 2,501 
Siloam 250 

Silverdale 
Simpson (Chicod) 

278 

Sims 207 

Skyland 1,200 

Sly 

Smithfield 5,574 
Smithtown 182 
Smyrna 200 

Sneads Ferry 125 
Snow Camp 90 

Snow Hill 946 

Snowden 85 

Sophia 200 

South Creek 108 

South Mills 500 

S. "Wadesboro 390 
Southern Pines 4,272 


366 *K 3 


660 

200 


No room on map for name. 


G 3 
D 9 
L2 
D 3 
K 6 
E 6 
N 4 
K 1 
P 3 
N 5 


Southmont 

Southport 

Southside 

Sparta 

Spear 

Speed 

Spencer 

Spies 

Spindale 

Spray 

Spring Hope 

Spring Lake 

Springfield 

Spruce Pine 

Stacy 

Staley 

Stanfield 

Stanley 

Stantonsburg 

Star 

State Road 

Statesville 

Stecoah 

Stedman 

Steeds 

SteUa 

Stem 

Stokes 

Stokesdale 

Stone-^ille 

Stonewall 

Stony Point 

Stovall 

Straits 

Stratford 

Stumpy Point 

Sturgills 

Sugar Grove 

Suit 

Summerfield 

Summit 

Sunbury 

Supply 

Surf City 

Swannanoa 

Swanns 

Swanquarter 

SwansDoro 

Sylva 

Tabor City 

Tamarack 

Tapoco 

Tarboro 

Tarheel 

Taylorsville 

Teacheys 

Terrell 

Thomasville 

Thurmond 

Tiller^’- 

Timberlake 

Timberland 

Toast 

Todd 

Toecane 

Toliver 

Tomahawk 

Topia 

Topton 

Townsville 

Traphill 

Trenton 

Trinity 

Triplett 

Troutmans 

Troy 


500 
1,748 
250 
820 
445 
103 
3,242 
100 
3,891 
5,542 
1,275 
3,500 
50 

2,280 

302 

236 

360 

1,644 

627 

677 

476 

16.901 

160 

424 

60 

100 

217 

217 

400 

786 

272 

1.020 

410 

100 


J3 
G 2 
C 7 
K4 
L2 
A3 
J 7 
G 5 
K3 
N 2 
04 
L4 
D 6 
E 2 
O 9 
D 7 
G 3 
D 2 
L 5 

L 3 
J3 
E 8 
D 6 
J3 
E 2 
M5 
L 5 
G 3 
114 
N 2 
F 3 
M4 
N 2 
E 5 
G 4 
£ 3 
J 7 
C 4 
C 1 
C 7 
L 3 
D 3 
F4 
B 4 
F 1 
K3 
H 4 
E 6 
C 7 
N 6 
F 3 
£ 4 
04 
K3 
F4 
D2 
D 3 
C 8 
H 4 
F 4 
L 5 
H 2 
L 3 
F 2 
F 2 
M4 
C 3 
H 2 
M5 


Tryon 

Tunis 

Turkey 

Tumersburg 

Tyner 

Ulah 

TJnaka 

Union 

Union Grove 

Union Mills 

Unionville 

University 

Upton 

Uree 

Vade Mecum 

Valdese 

Vale 

Valle Crucis 

Vanceboro 

Vandemere 

Vannoy 

Varina 

Vass 

Vaughan 

Vein Moimtain 

Verona 

Vilas 

Waco 

Wade 

Wadesboro 

Wadeville 

Wagoner 

WaCTam 

Wake Forest 

Walkertown 

Wallace 

Wallburg 

Walnut 

Walnut Cove 

Walstonburg 

Wanchese 

Warne 

Warren Plains 
Warrens ville 
Warrenton 
Warsaw 
Washington 


1,985 A 4 
200 M2 
223 J4 
75 D 3 
150 M2 
F3 
B9 
340 L2 
125 D2 
200 B 3 
124 B4 
G2 
D7 
A4 
E2 
B3 
03 
06 
L4 


93 

100 

2.730 

200 

200 

753 


475 M4 
25 EC 


593 

757 

181 

75 

125 

60 


H3 

G4 

J2 

A3 

K5 

06 


310 *0 4 


400 

3,408 

200 

397 

3.704 

1.000 

1,622 

165 

450 

1,132 

177 

1,000 

200 

100 

120 

1.166 

1,598 


H4 

E6 

E4 

E6 

G5 

H3 

E2 

J6 

E3 

E7 

E2 

K3 

03 

09 

J2 

E6 

J2 

J4 


9,698 M3 


Washington Pk. 421 M3 


16 

E 5 

300 

0 3 
D 5 

225 

(5 6 

150 

B 9 

923 

F 2 

50 

E 6 

360 

M2 

207 

J 0 

40 

l< H 

1,800 

F 8 

30 

G 4 

212 

N 4 

559 

li 5 

1,382 

1) 8 

2,033 

H 6 

150 

D 6 

100 

K H 

8.120 

K 3 

200 

H 5 

1,310 

C 3 

226 

J 5 

200 

(3 3 

11,154 

E 3 

77 

D 2 

250 

K 2 

200 

H 2 

11 

G 4 

1,401 

D 2 

89 

D 6 

250 

B 7 
D 6 

30 

J 5 

CO 

E 5 

125 

C 9 

219 

J 1 

150 

D 2 

469 

L 4 

704 

F 3 

120 

D 6 

G13 

D 3 

2,213 

F 4 


Watha 
Waves 
Waxhaw 
Waynesville 
Weavervllle 
Webster 
Weeksville 
Welcome 
Weldon 
WendeU 
Wenona 
Wentworth 
West End 
West Jefferson 
Westfield 
Wests MiU 
Whitakers 
White Lake 
White Oak 
White Plains 
Wliitehall (Seven 


222 

65 

818 

5.295 

1.111 

142 

225 

600 

2.295 
1,253 


100 

850 

871 

300 

60 

962 

400 

125 

500 


J5 

P3 

D6 

E8 

E8 

D8 

N2 

E3 

£2 

J3 

M3 

F2 

F4 

D6 

D3 

D9 

K2 

H5 

H5 

D2 


Springs) 
Whitehead 
Whiterock 
White ville 
Whitnel 
VTiittier 
Wilkesboro 
Willard 
Williamston 
Wilmington 
Wilson 
Wilsons Blills 
Windom 


K4 
E6 
E7 
H6 
B3 
DS 
02 
J5 
4,075 JI3 
45,043 J ? 
23.010 
349 
100 


197 

250 

100 

4.238 

1,405 

400 

1,370 


Windsor 

Winfall 421 

Wingate V93 

Winnabow 250 

Winston-Salem ^ 

Winter^ille 870 

Winton 

Wise , 300 

Wolf Mountain 25 
Wood 
Woodard 
Woodland 
Woodleaf 
Woodsdale 
Woodvdlle 
Worthville 
Wrights^ille 
Beach 

Wrights^illo 
Sound 

Yadkin College* 
Yadkin VaUey 
YadMn ville 
Yauceyville 
Yellowcreek 
Youngs^dllo 
Zebulon 
Zionville 
Zirconia 


128 

325 

590 

500 

200 

387 

550 


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H3 
B7 
L 2 
N2 
E5 
J6 

E2 

L3 

LS 

J2 

DO 

J2 

M3 

L2 

D3 

H! 

hi 

F3 


711 K5 


SOO 

S2 

12 

820 

1,391 

4 

619 

1.378 

250 


C2 

D2 

G2 

DS 

J2 

J3 

DC 

£9 


12761 


277 NORTH CAROLINA 

T H E L E A D E R IN TOBACCO MANUFACTURES 



Tobacco manufacturing is one of the most important industries tobacco products. The Ecusta Paper Company at Brevard is one 
in the state. North Carolina leads the states in producing of the largest manufacturers of cigarette paper in the world. 


North Carolina ranks first among the states in the 
production of this crop, raising about 40 per cent of 
the nation's tobacco. Corn, the second most impor- 
tant crop, is grown throughout the state. Cotton is 
grown chiefly in the Piedmont and on the coastal 
plain. Other important farm products are milk, hogs, 
chickens, eggs, hay, peanuts, and potatoes. 

Sawmills and Mines in North Carolina 

Forests cover about two thirds of North Carolina. 
The coastal plain has chiefly pines, but in the Pied- 
mont they are mixed with hardwoods such as oak, ash, 
hickorj’-, and poplar. The trees of the mountain re- 
gion are mainly hardwoods. The production of lumber 
and wood products from these forests is one of the 
state’s important industries. 

North Carolina has many minerals but not in great 
quantities. Its leading minerals are stone, sand and 
gravel, tungsten, talc, pyrophyllite, ground soap- 
stone, olivine, asbestos, and clays. North Carolina 


first in tobacco growing 



CaroUna not only is the first state in tobacco n^u- 
j 4 principal grower of tobacco. Here 

°acco dries in the Smokies before being carried to the bams. 


is the leading producer of feldspar and mica. Until 
the discovery of gold in California, North Carolina 
was the chief gold-producing state, but very little 
gold is now mined. With little fuel deposits, the state 
depends upon other states for coal and petroleum. 

Known for Textiles and Tobacco Products 
In 1900 North Carolina was almost solely an agri- 
cultural state. Since then it has become an important 
manufacturing state as well. About 28 per cent of its 
gainfully employed people now work in factories. 

Today North Carolina ranks 14th among the states 
in the value of its manufactured goods. It is second 
onl 3 ' to Texas among the states of the South. North 
Carolina’s foremost industry is the manufacture of 
textile-mill products. This industry, in which the 
state leads the nation, accounts for half of the total 
manufacturing and employs more than half of all in- 
dustrial workers. The main products are cotton fab- 
rics, yarns, threads, and knitted goods. It is the 
leading state in the manufacture of seamless hosiery. 

North Carohna also ranks first among the states 
in the production of cigarettes and other tobacco 
products. In the manufacture of furniture it is a 
principal state. Other large industries are lumber, 
food products, chemicals, and paper products. 

The state’s development of manufacturing has been 
due in good part to the vast water power of its hun- 
dreds of mountain streams and waterfalls. Hiwassee, 
Fontana, and Apalachia dams are part of the Tennes- 
see Vallej'^ Authority. Cheoah, Santeelah, Glenville, 
and Nantahala dams are privately owned projects. In 
developed water power. North Carolina ranks sixth 
in the nation. 

Largest Cities Are on Piedmont Plateau 
The largest city, Charlotte, is in the south central 
part of the state near the South Carolina border. It 
is the commercial hub of the Piedmont and one of the 
state’s largest textile centers (see Charlotte). 

Winston-Salem, in the north Piedmont, is two cities 
which consolidated into one. It has large tobacco 
manufactures. Durham, in the north central part of 
the state, is noted for its manj’^ cigarette factories 
and is the home of Duke University. Greensboro, 50 
miles northwest, produces cotton and raj-on textiles. 



NORTH CAROLINA 


278 


IN THE FOREFRONT OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE 



wnn pavilion is Suspended on cables between the 90-foot high para- 

on architectoal awards. The roof of this livestock judging bolic arches to give the spectators an unobstructed view. 


Asheville is widely known as a winter and summer 
resort. It is situated in the heart of the mountain 
section where the scenery is impressive. Its chief 
manufactures are textiles and furniture. Raleigh, 
the state capital, lies in the center of the state. 


METROPOLIS OF NORTH CAROLINA 



Charlotte, on the broad, rolling Piedmont Plateau, is a major 
distributing and manufacturing center of the Southeast. 


Its name commemorates the colony’s founder, Sir 
Walter Raleigh. This historic city is also an important 
trade center (see Raleigh), 

High Point, also in the Piedmont region, is noted 
for its furniture factories and hosiery and textile mills. 
Wilmington, near the mouth of Cape Pear River, is 
the state’s chief seaport. Rocky Mount, in the east, 
is a cotton and tobacco market. FayetWille, south 
of Raleigh, has textile and lumber mills. 

Sir Walter Raleigh in the State’s Early History 
English colonization began with the expedition 
sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584. It explored 
the Carolina coast between Pamlico and Albemarle 
sounds. The favorable report led Raleigh the next 
year to send over a party of colonists who settled on 
Roanoke Island. Conflicts with the Indians soon 
caused them to return to England. 

In 1587 Raleigh sent a second party under John 
White as governor. White’s granddaughter, Virginia 
Dare (born Aug. 18, 1587) was the first English child 
born in America. After three years’ absence in Eng- 
land to get supplies. Governor White returned to 
Roanoke. He found that all the settlers including his 
daughter and little granddaughter had disappeared. 
The fate of this colony, the “lost colony,’’ was never 
known. The only clue, which proved useless, was the 
word “Croatan” carved on a tree. 

Carolina Is Divided in Two 
Under a grant from Charles I (for whom Carolina 
was named) further efforts at colonization were made, 
but they failed. Later, in 1663, Charles II granted 
the region to a group of eight “lords proprietors. 
The colony prospered but settlers became discontent- 
ed over feudal laws and neglect by the owners. 
Finally in 1730 North and South Carolina were 
divided into separate provinces. 

During the first half of the 1700’s Scotch-Irish and 
German settlers began to come into the back country 
from Pennsylvania (see American Colonies). In 1710 
Baron Christopher de Graffenreid established a col- 
ony of Swiss emigrants and German Protestant ref- 






279 — NORTH CAROLINA 

A NATIONAL LEADER IN TEXTILES AND WOODEN FURNITURE 





At left is the Hatch Mill near Columbus, one of the modem 
plants that make North Carolina the principal textile state. 

ugees from the Palatinate. He selected a site on the 
Trent River and called it New Bern. The next year 
the Tuscarora Indians killed 130 of the pioneer set- 
tlers and then, moving north, attacked the Albemarle 
Sound Communities. Only after two years of bitter 
warfare were the Indians driven out. Many High- 
land Scots came to North Carolina after their defeat 
at the battle of Culloden Moor in 1746. Along with 
settlers from neighboring colonies, they made up the 
300,000 North Carolina residents who had spread 
from the seacoast to the Appalachians before the 
outbreak of the American Revolution. 

These North Carolina colonists were an independ- 
ence-loving people. Their resistance nullified the 
Stamp Act in the territory {see Stamp Act). In the 
western counties a group of pioneers, known as the 
“Regulators,” rebelled in 1768 against the taxes and 
methods of royal officials. They were defeated by 


At right is one of the many furniture factories in the state. 
North Carolina leads the nation in making wooden furniture. 

Governor Tryon in a battle along Alamance Creek, 
May 16, 1771. Yet the struggle against unfair and 
oppressive treatment continued under such rebel 
leaders as George Durant, Thomas Pollock, Edward 
Moseley, Hugh Waddell, and Cornelius Harnett. 

The Fight for Independence 
In the face of strong opposition from the royal gov- 
ernor, Josiah Martin, North Carolinians organized a 
provincial congress, Aug. 25, 1774. It developed plans 
for a temporary government. When news of the battle 
of Lexin^on came, citizens of Mecklenburg County 
met at Charlotte. According to local history, on 
May 20, 1775, they drew up the first declaration of 
independence in the colonies, the “Mecklenburg Dec- 
laration of Independence.” This date is on the state 
seal and flag. More certain of proof, however, wms a 
meeting on May 31 in Charlotte, which adopted more 
moderate resolutions, the Mecklenburg Resolves. 


beautiful ASHEVILLE IN THE LAP OF THE MOUNTAINS 













X 

■*. 

i 


F • 






: ,i 




- 











NORTH CAROLINA 


280 


North Carolina’s 
militia gained a vic- 
tory over govern- 
ment troops at 
Moore’s Creek 
Bridge, Feb. 27, 

1776. On April 12, 

North Carolina’s 
provincial congress 
directed its dele- 
gates to the Con- 
tinental Congress 
to vote for inde- 
pendence. North 
Carolina was the 
first colony to take 
this important 
step to freedom. 

Following the adoption of a 
state constitution, Dec. 18, 1776, 
Richard Caswell was elected the 
first govei-nor. During the Revo- 
lution there was constant fighting 
between patriots and Tories. 

In 1780-81 Cornwallis led three 
armies into North Carolina. The 
frontier rebels defeated the Brit- 
ish at Kings Mountain in South 
Carolina, October 1780. Corn- 
wallis won the battle of Guil- 
ford Court House, March 15, 1781 ; 
but his losses there helped force 
his surrender at Yorktown. 

North Carolina’s delegates were 
prominent at the federal Consti- 
tutional Convention in Philadel- 


UNIVERSITIES 





phia. Yet the state refused to ratify the new constitu- 
tion until Nov. 21, 1789. This date was after the 
first ten amendments containing the sch-Qalled “bill 
of rights” had been introduced in Congress and six 
months after Washington’s inauguration as president. 

In 1790 the state ceded to the federal gfjvernment 
its western section 
(now Tennessee), 
which had unsuc- 
cessfully tried to 
form the “State of 
Franklin” (see Sev- 
ier). In 1792 the 
city of Raleigh was 
laid out as the per- 
manent capital. In 
the period before 
the Civil War two 
presidents were 
born in the state — 

James K. Polk and 
Andrew Johnson. 

North Carolina 
did not secede from 
the Union and join 


the Confederacy until after the fall of Fort Sum- 
ter in 1861 (see Civil War, American). Then it 
furnished such leaders as Gens. D. H. Hill, 
James J. Pettigrew, and Bryan Grimes. 

Wilmington served as the central landing 
place for supplies run through the Northern 
blockade. It was also the last port closed by 
the Federal navy. The state was the scene of 
the last struggles of the Civil War. On April 2G, 
1865, Gen. Joseph E. Johnston surrendered to 
General Sherman at Durham’s Station. 

Even during the Civil War Gov. Zebulon B, 
Vance took a strong stand for state’s rights 
against attempts of the Confederate govern- 
ment to extend its powers. After 
the war, the state rid itself of the 
“carpetbaggere” and began its 
reconstruction. {See also Recon- 
struction Period; chronology in 
North Carolina Fact Summary.) 

Education and Recreation 

The University of North Caro- 
lina, the first state university to be 
opened (1795), has three units- 
the university proper at Chapel 
Hill, the Woman’s College at 
Greensboro, and the State College 
of Agriculture and Engineering at 
Raleigh. The state also has six 
teaehers colleges. 

Duke University, at Durham, 
is the largest private college in the 
state and one of the most richly 
endowed in the nation. It ii’es 
built around Trinity College 
through gifts of James B. Duke. 
He was a tobacco king and a leader in the water-pouer 

development of the state. , , u .v 

In the early 1900’s Gov. Charles B. Aycock leU a 
campaign for more public schools, including consol 
dated schools. Governor Aycock and his successo 
also built a large network of fine surfaced roads. 

North Carolina is 

ORTH CAROLINA’S GOVERNMENT polled the “variety 

vacationland” f® 
its varied recreation 
spots. The tourist 
trade is a major m 

dustry. In the moun- 
tains are Great 
Smoky iMountainj 
National Park and 
Blue Ridge Park- 
Fishing and 



At top is a view of the Woman’s College 
of Duke University at Durham. At bottom is 
the Graham Memorial Student Building at the 
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 



stal 
There 


coa: 


This is the North Caroli 
ture built 


, State Capitol at Raleigh. It is a substantial struc- 
'1840 of granite from a nearby quarry. 


way. 

beaches are 
attractions, 
are also numerous 

forests, state parks- 
and resorts. (See also 
United States, sec- 
tion “The South. ) 



281 


NORTH DAKOTA 


file WHEAT-CLAD PLAINS of NORTH DAKOTA 



The broad river valleys and vast rolling plains of 
North Dakota contain thousands of fertile farms. 
J'^rge-scale, mechanized farming methods help make 
the state one of the leading wheat producers in the 
nation. The mill at Grand Forks (right) grinds wheat p 
into flour. Both the mill and the elevator in the picture *' 
are owned and operated by the state. 


TS^ORTH DAKOTA. In this state, plains and fertile 
prairies stretch as far as the eye can see. Most of 
the land has fine soil, with few trees or rocks to ham- 
per cultivation. Hence the state looks like one vast 
farm with towms here and there. 

The surface of North Dakota is an almost unbroken 
plain. From east to west the land rises about half a 
mile in three broad steps. The lowest and smallest 
step is the level valley of the Red River. The second, 
about 300 feet higher, is called the Drift Prairie. The 
third and highest step is the Missouri Plateau. This 
covers nearly half the state. 

Features of the Land 

The Red River valley is not a true valley but the 
floor of an ancient glacial lake. Lake Agassiz (see Red 
River). The part within North Dakota is about 40 
miles wide in the north and 10 miles wide in the south. 
The soil is rich and the valley early became famous 
for wheat. The w'heat farms, once much larger, have 
been cut into plots averaging about 400 acres. Today 
there is a variety of crops and hvestock. 

. "^be soil of the Red River valley is much more fer- 
ule than that of the Drift Prairie to the west. The 
Drift Prairie takes its name from the deposits of drift 


left in the Ice Age (see Ice Age). On the Canadian 
border rises a low plateau called the Turtle Moun- 
tains. Just west of them is the big bend of the Souris 
River. Like the Red River, the Souris flo^vs through a 
former lake bed. South of the Turtle Mountains is 
salty De\dls Lake, largest in the state. Hundreds of 
small lakes dot this region. South of Devils Lake is 
Shejmnne River, a tributarj'^ of the Red River. Further 
south is the James River, a branch of the Missouri. 

The Missouri Plateau escaped being covered by 
glaciers. This region is part of the semiarid western 
plains. Almost all of it is underlaid by lignite or brown 
coal. Flahtopped hills, called buttes, rise 300 to 400 
feet above the rolling surface. The Missouri River 
runs diagonally across the plateau from the northeast 
through a deep trenchlike valley. Early French ex- 
plorers named the part of the plateau along the east 
side of the river Coteau du Missouri — the hill of the 
Missouri. 

Rainfall on the plateau is light and the crop yield 
an acre is low. Grazing land alternates with fields of 
forage crops. The average farm covers 800 acres but 
produces only about as much as 400 acres in the east- 
ern part of the state. 




north DAKOTA 


THE VAST LOW PLAINS AND VALLEYS OF NORTH DAKOTA ficient for the 

growth of forests. 
Trees are found 
only along the riv- 
ers and in a few 
low places where 
the roots can tap 
ground water. 

When rainfall is 
subnormal, 
droughts occur. 
Then windstorms 
carry off topsoil. 
A prolonged 
drought began in 
1929 and e.xcept 
for one year con- 
tinued through 
1936. Federal and 
state agencies and 
private groups un- 
dertook soil con- 
servation, plant- 
ing of soil-hold- 
ing grasses, and 
irrigation projects 
{see Drought). 

In the southwest corner of the plateau are the hilly Largest of the water conservation projects is the 
Bad Lands, named by pioneers who found them dif- giant Garrison Dam on the Missouri River {see Mis- 

ficult to cross. Here the Little Missouri River, wind, souri River). It is a key unit of the vast Missouri 

frost, and rain have carved clay and sand into gro- River Basin development program. Its height of 210 

tesque shapes. Fires in the extensive beds of lignite feet and length of 12,000 feet make it the world’s 

coal have burned and melted the surface and pro- largest rolled earth-filled dam. Benefits from the dam 

duced weird colors. In the Bad Lands stands the include flood control, irrigation, navigation, power, 

state’s highest peak, the 3,468-foot high Black Butte, recreation, and wildlife preservation. Other projects 

Mineral Riches from the Earth’s Depths for water resources control are Baldhill Dam on the 

Lignite, called brown coal, underlies about 32,000 Sheyenne River, Dickinson and Heart Butte dams on 

square miles in the western part of the state. Once the Heart River, and Homme Dam on the Park River, 
it was thought to have little value, but today it is Abundance from the Soil 

useful for power and heat. Lignite can be made into North Dakota is primarily an agricultural state, 
small bricks, called briquettes. They have about twice About 90 per cent of its land is in crops and pasture, 

as much heat value for each ton as raw lignite, but Almost half the workers are employed on farms. 



North Dakota has three regions— the fertile grain-growing prairies in the east drained by the Red River, 
•the low plateau east of the Missouri, and the great plains west of that river. The last two are suited for 
grazing. The Turtle Mountains are in the north and the Bad Lands in the southwest. 


less than bituminous coal. The manufacture of bri- 
quettes yields such important by-products as gas, p 


fHE SCENIC BAD LANDS 


oil, and tar. In the lignite-producing districts are 
high-grade clays for pressed bricks, firebrick, and 
pottery. In 1951 petroleum was discovered near Tioga. 
The Williston Oil Basin has prospects of becoming a 
major oil field in the United States. Sand and gravel, 
stone, and natural gas are also of value. 

Temperature and Rainfall Vary 

North Dakota has a wide range of temperature. In 
winter the average is about 10°F., with extremes 
of —40° to — 60°F. In summer the average is about 
67°, with a record high of 121°. The dry clear air 
makes the extreme temperatures not too uncom- 
fortable. The growing season is from 110 to 130 
days, varying in different parts of the state. 

Rainfall averages about 22 inches a year in the 
Red River valley, and about 14 inches in the north 
and southwest. Nowhere in the state is rainfall suf- 



Continued on page ZOl 



North Dakota Fact Summary 


NORTH DAKOTA (N.D.): Named for 
Indians who once roamed territory. 
They called themselves “Lakotas” or 
“Dakotas,” meaning friends or allies. 
Nickname: “Flickertail State,” from 
the “flickertail” ground squirrel once 
common in the state; also “Sioux 
State,” for Sioux Indian tribes. 

Seal: "WTieat bundles around tree trunk symbolize agri- 
culture; Indian on horseback is pursuing a buffalo. 

Molfo: Liberty and Union, Now and Forever, One and 
Inseparable. 

Flag: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Wild prairie rose. Bird: Western meadowlark. 
Tree: American elm. Song: ‘North Dakota Hymn’ — 
words, James Foley; music, C. S. Putnam. 

THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital: Bismarck (since 1883, when 
it became territorial capital). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 2. Elec- 
toral votes, 4. 

Legislative Assembly: Senators, 49; 
term, 4 years. Representatives, 113; 
term, 2 years. Convenes Tues. after 
the 1st Mon. of Jan. in odd years. Session limit: 60 days. 

Constitution: Adopted 1889. Proposed amendment must 
be (a) passed by a two-thirds vote of each legislative 
house, or by initiative action of the people, and (b) ra- 
tified by a majority voting on amendment. 

Governor: Term, 2 years. May succeed himself. 

Other Executive Officers: Lieut, governor, secy, of 
state, attorney general, treasurer, auditor, commissioner 
of insurance, commissioner of agriculture and labor 
and superintendent of public instruction; terms, 2 
years; 3 public service commissioners; term, 6 years; 
tax commissioner; term, 4 years; all elected. 

Judiciary: Supreme court — 5 justices, elected at large; 
term, 10 years. District courts — 6; 15 judges, elected; 
term, 6 years. County courts — 1 in each county; judge 
elected; term, 2 years. 

County: 53 counties, each governed by a board of com- 
missioners, usually of 3 or 5 members. Boards and 
officers elected; term, 2 years. 

Municipal: Mayor and council form most common. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 1 year; 
in county, 90 days; in precinct, 30 days. 





TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 

Transportation: Railroads,. 5,300 miles. First railroad. 
Northern Pacific, Moorhead, Minn., to Fargo, N.D., 
March 1872. Rural roads, 114,000 miles. Airports, 130. 

Communication: Periodicals, 16. Nesvspapers, 128. First 
newspaper. Frontier Scout, Fort Union, 1864. Radio 
stations (AM and FM), 16; first station, WDAY, 
T^nrgo, licensed May 23, 1922. Television stations, 
1> MDAA-TV, began operation June 1, 1953. Tele- 
phones, 140,000. Post offices, 596. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census) : 619,636 (rank among 48 states 
— 41st); urban, 26.6%; rural, 73.4%. Density: 8.8 
persons per square mile (rank — 40th state). 

Extent: Area, 70,665 square miles, including 608 square 
miles of water surface (16th state in size). 

Elevation: Highest, Black Butte, 3,468 feet, near Ami- 
don; lowest. Red River at Pembina County, 750 feet. 

Temperature (°F.): Average — annual, 40'’; winter, 10'’; 
spring, 40'’; summer, 67'’; fall, 43'’. Lowmst recorded, 
—60'’ (Parshall, Feb. 15, 1936); highest recorded, 121'’ 
(Steele, July 6, 1936). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 17; winter, 1; 
spring, 5; summer, 8; fall, 3. Varies from about 22 in 
southeast to about 14 at central part of northern 
boundary and in the extreme southwest. 

Natural Features: From east to west the land rises in 
three broad steps — the level valley of the Red River; 
the low, rolling hills of the Drift Prairie (Glacial Drift 
Plains); and the Missouri Plateau of the Great Plains 
region. Principal rivers: James, Little Missouri, Mis- 
souri, Red River, Sheyenne, Souris. 

Land Use: Cropland, 60%; nonforested pasture, 31%; 
forest, 2%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, waste- 
land, cities, etc.), 7%. 

OTHER 


CROPS PASTURE FOREST.^ | 



Natural Resources: Agricultural — great stretches of 
fertile soil; broad plains for stock grazing; numerous 
artesian wells; long, productive growing seasons. In- 
dustrial— larga lignite coal and oil reserves; sand and 
gravel. Commercial— Game and fish attract tourists. 


OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 

What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 

Agriculture, forestry, and fishery.. . . 

98,949 

44.3 

Wholesale and retail trade 

Professional services (medical, legal. 

39,580 

17.7 

educational, etc.) 

Transportation, communication, and 

18,812 

8.4 

other public utilities 

15,577 

7.0 

Construction 

11,256 

6.0 

Government 

Personal services (hotel, domestic. 

8,336 

3.7 

laundering, etc.) 

7,823 

3.5 

Manufacturing 

6,519 

2.9 

Business and repair services 

6,399 

2.9 

Finance, insurance, and real estate. . 
Amusement, recreation, and related 

4,027 

1.8 

services 

1,575 

0.7 

Mining 

756 

0.3 

Workers not accounted for 

3,933 

1.8 

Total employed 

223,542 

100.0 


283 



North Dakota Fact Summary 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among stales — ISth) 
Value added by manufacture* (1952), $31,201,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Food and Kindred Products 

Flour and meal; dairy products; 
meat products; bakery products 

$21,848,000 

42 

Printing and Publishing 

Newspapers 

4,865,000 

43 


*For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 24th) 
Total cash income (1952), $524,877,000 


Products 

Amount Produced 
(10-Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

Statesf 

Wheat 

137,943,000 bu. 

1 

2 

Cattle 

427,632,000 lbs. 

2 

16 

Barley 

48,604,000 bu. 

3 

1 

Milk 

962,000,000 qts. 

4 

19 

Flaxseed 

9,801,000 bu. 

5 

2 

Oats 

64,394,000 bu. 

6 

6 

Hogs 

235,707,000 lbs. 

7 

20 

Corn 

25,856,000 bu. 

8 

24 


•Rank in dollar value tRank in units produced 


C. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 
Annual value (1951), $10,246,000 
Rank among states — 43d 


Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced 

Value 

Coal (lignite) .... 


3,224,000 tons 


$7,784,000 

Sand and gravel . 


4,573,000 tons 


2,140,000 

D. Trade 

Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 

Wholesale 


$939,420,000 


34 

Retail 


608,182,000 


39 

Service 


30,789,000 


45 


LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

Fargo (38,256); transportation hub of rich agricultural 
area; iron foundries; meat packing; farm machinery. 

Grand Forks (26,836): railroad division and grain-in- 
spection point; milling; meat packing; potato products. 

Minol (22,032): farm market and railroad center; grain 
milling; lignite mining; dairy products and poultry. 

Bismarck'(18,640): state capital on Missouri River; trade 
and shipping center for south-central area of state. 

Jamestown (10,697): railroad, trade center for farm area. 

Dickinson (7,469): livestock, grain market; lignite coal. 

Williston (7,378): railroad center in oil, coal, farm area, 

Mandan (7,298): oil industries; railroad division point. 

Valley City (6,851): agricultural center; milling; dairies. 


EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 2,812; sec- 
ondary, 394; compulsory school age, 

7 through 16. State supt. of public 
instruction elected, 2-year term. 

County supts. elected in each county, 

2-year terms. Boards of education of 
common, special, and independent 
(city) school districts are elected. 

City supts. appointed by district boards of education. 
Private and Parochial Schools: 63. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges, 10; 
junior colleges, 2. State-supported schools include 
University of North Dakota, Grand Forks; State 
Agricultural College, Fargo; State School of Science, 
Wahpeton; State School of Forestry, Bottineau; 5 
teachers colleges — Dickinson, EUendale, Mayville, 
Minot, and Valley City. 

State Schools for the Handicapped: North Dakota 
School for the Blind, Bathgate; North Dakota School 
for the Deaf, Devils Lake; Institution for Feeble- 
minded, Grafton. 

Libraries: City and town public libraries, 83; 2 county 
and 1 township library. State Library Commission re- 
sponsible for promoting library service. Noted special 
library: Masonic Library, Fargo. 

Outstanding Museum: State Historical Society, Bismarck. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

State Training School (boys and girls), Mandan, 
State Farm, Bismarck; State Penitentiary, Bismarck. 

PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Bismarck — State Capitol; T. Roosevelt’s Elkhorn Ranch 
cabin, moved from Bad Lands (see Bismarck) (20). 
Cannon Ball — Sioux live in native surroundings (21). 
Crowley Flint Quarry — in Knife River valley; preserves 
well-marked flint quarry of early Indians (15). 
David Thompson Historic Site — monument to pioneer 
geographer and fur trader; southwest of (7). 

De Mores Historic Site — old chateau of Marquis 
Morfe who came to Medora to build state’s first ^ 

plant; memorial park contains statue of Marquis ( )■ 
Double Ditch — east bank of Missouri River; rums o 
large Indian earth-lodge village (18). 

Elephant’s Pass — narrow cleft in rock along climb “ P 
of Killdeer Mts.; overlooks surrounding country ( ■ 

Fort Abercrombie — site of first U.S. military pos 
state, authorized 1857; restored palisades and bo 
houses; museum exhibit; memorial park (23). 

Fort Rice — established by General Sully, 1864; scene 
peace council with Sioux, 1868; blockhouses (21). 
Garrison Dam — near Riverdale; the world s grea 
rolled earth-filled dam; northwest of (14). _ pVrcc 

Geographic Center of North America — marker m i 
County, 48°10'N. latitude, 100°10'W. longitude 
Grave of Sitting Bull — burial place of great 
at Fort Yates; raided by South Dakotans in 1 
reburial near his boyhood home (24). _ , 

Log Cabin of Joseph Henry Taylor — Washburn, 
built in 1870’s by early North Dakota 
Mountain — Icelandic town; contains one of oldes 
landic churches on continent, built 1886 (6). 

Nishu — Ankara Indian community center; 

hall. Medicine Lodge, for holding ceremonials 1 • 

Pembina Historic Site — on Pembina River; marK 
early Ch aboillez fur-trading post, built 1797-9 1 
•Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 





284 


1 cjfe 


fesilft'-i;'.. 


. f.. tk 




5f' 


0::-^ 
rSfe 




Norfh Dakota Fact Summary 


S A s K A f C H E WA N I 


MANITOBA 


.1 -^-<|5-- 

Bottineau ° Cavalier 


Bottineau 


Williston 


Grafton 


.Devils Lake 


® @ 


^ran^ ° 
Forks \ <o 


Dickinson 


MandanOS' Bismarck 


Jamestown \ 

° Fargol 


Wahpeton 


SOUTH 


D A K O T A 


NORTH DAKOTA State Park Q Interest 


Sully’s Hill National Game Preserve — borders Devils 
^^ke; buffalo, elk, deer, and wild fowl (9). 

Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park — 65,569 
acres in two areas, along Little Missouri R. at Medora 
and south of Watford City; includes colorful features 
of Bad Lands — buttes, petrified forests, burning coal 
mine; grand canyon of Little Missouri; and part of 
Theodore Roosevelt’s Elkhorn Ranch (11, 16). 
verendrye National Monument — near Sanish; includes 
Crow Plies High Butte where it is believed the Ver- 
endryes (first white men to explore interior Northwest) 
camped in 1738 (8). 

alhalla Park — site of fur-trading post located here by 
Alexander Henry, Jr.; contains original log-trading 
„ of Norman Kittson, state’s first postmaster (3). 
destone Hill — west of Merricourt; marks one of most 
important battles W'on against Sioux Indians (1863); 
soldiers’ memorial; museum (25). 
riting Rock — on hill near Grenora; among best exam- 
ples of houlders inscribed by prehistoric Indians (5). 

state PARKS*t 

Tort Lincoln — near Mandan; site of Fort Abraham Lin- 
eoln where Custer drilled his men before tragic battle 
m 1876; also site of earlier post of Fort McKeen and 
I Mandan Indian village; museum (19). 

ernational Peace Garden — half of large area extends 
Cairn (stone monument) on international 
keyed to map. 

° are also 7 state recreational areas. 


boundary bears nations’ pledge to everlasting friei 
ship; formal gardens; amphitheater (2). 

Lake Metigoshe— water sports; large lodge; woods (1) 
Turtle River — in winding valley of Turtle River; foresl 
areas; wild-life sanctuary; near Arvilla (10). 


! PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

Z — Ren5 Robert Cavelier, Sieur 
de La Salle, claims Mississippi 
Valley for France; includes 
Missouri Valley. 

3 — Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, 

Sieur de la Verendrye, granted 
fur-trade rights in Northwest 
by France; he and sons visit 
Mandan Indians on the Missouri in North Dakofc 

! — La Verendrye’s sons return to North Dakota t 
seek the ocean and a route to India. 

! — France cedes land claimed by La Salle to Spair 
land secretly returned to France, 1800. 

I — ^Treaty of Paris gives part of North Dakota t 
Great Britain. 

-Fur-trading North West Company' sends Davi 
Thompson to map area. Charles Chaboillez estab 
fishes trading post at Pembina for the company. 

I— Ale.xander Henry, Jr., builds North West Compan; 
post at Park River; moves it to Pembina, 1801. 

1— Louisiana Purchase gives U. S. possession of mos 
of what is now North Dakota. 




285 




286 


NORTH DAKOTA 

1804— Lewis and Clark expedition spends winter with 
Indians near present Stanton; Indian woman, 
Sacagawea, agrees to guide them to Pacific Ocean; 
they build Fort Mandan. 

1812 — Settlers from Lord Selkirk’s colony in Manitoba 
establish settlement at Pembina. Missouri Terri- 
tory organized; includes most of North Dakota. 

1818 — Great Britain cedes eastern North Dakota to U. S. 
North Dakota-Canadian border fixed at 49° N. 
First school in region opened at Pembina. 

1829 — American Fur Company builds Fort Union at 
mouth of Yellowstone River; builds Fort Clark 
on Missouri, 1831. 

1832 — Steamboat Yellowstone, first up the Missouri 
River, reaches Fort Union. 

1834 — North Dakota east of Missouri and White Earth 
rivers becomes part of Michigan Territory; be- 
comes part of Wisconsin Territory, 1836; Iowa 
Territory, 1838; Minnesota Territory, 1849. 

1837 — Smallpox epidemic reduces Mandan Indian tribe 
from 1,600 to 150 members. 

1 851 — First flour mill in region built at Walhalla. 

1853 — Maj. I. I. Stevens surve3'S route for railroad. 

1854 — Western North Dakota included in Nebraska Ter- 
ritory. 

1857 — First U. S. military post in North Dakota, Fort 
Abercrombie, established on Red River. 

1 858 — Minnesota becomes a state; most of North Dakota 
left without formal government for three years. 

1861— Dakota Territory organized; extends from 43d to 
49th parallels and from Minnesota and Iowa to 
main ridge of Rocky Mountains; Dr. William 
Jayne (President Lincoln’s physician), governor. 

1 862 — First Dakota legislature meets at Yankton (S. D.). 

1 863— Discovery of gold in Montana brings rush of pros- 
pectors through North Dakota. Gen. H. H. Sibley 
and Gen. A. Sully fight Indians in upper Missouri 
Valley; battle of VTiitestone Hill (near Ellendale), 
September 3, is fiercest in North Dakota; upper 
valley opened for homesteading. 

1 864 — Montana and Dakota territories separated. 

1868 — Joseph Rolette locates first homestead in north- 
western Red River Valley. Dakota Territory re- 
duced to present area of North and South Dakota. 
Sioux reservations established by Laramie Treaty. 


1871 —Telegraph links Fort Abercrombie with Winnipeg, 
Canada. 

1873 — Fort Abraham Lincoln built near Bismarck. 

1876— Col. George Custer leaves Fort Abraham Lincoln 
to fight Indians on Little Bighorn River, Mont. 

1878 — In southwest North Dakota, Deffenbach brothers 
establish one of first cattle ranches in state. 

1879 — Northern Pacific Railway begins building west 
from Bismarck; line reaches West coast, 1883. 

1880 — Lignite mining begins in western North Dakota. 
Great Northern Railway begun across state; 
reaches West coast, 1893. Military reserves of 
forts Abercrombie and Seward opened to home- 
steading. 

1883 — Territorial capital moved from Yankton to Bis- 
marck. University of North Dakota chartered at 
Grand Forks. Theodore Roosevelt becomes ranch- 
er near Medora; remains there until 1886. 

1 886— Bank of Hamilton, later first state bank, founded. 

1 887 — Dakota residents vote to divide territory. 

1 889 — Constitution for North Dakota approved, October 
1 ; admitted to Union as 39th state, November 2; 
capital, Bismarck; governor, John Miller. 

1907 — Workmen’s Compensation Act passed. 

1 909 — Child Labor Act passed. 

191 5 — Nonpartisan League organized; favors state-OOTcd 
elevators, mills, etc., also government and tax rfr 
form; victorious in 1916, 1918, 1920 elections; it 
declined in power thereafter. 

1 920 — Recall adopted by constitutional amendment. 

1929— Long drought devastates state’s farms; ends 1936. 

1932— International Peace Garden dedicated. 

1937— Water Conservation Commission established. 

1 946 — Construction on Garrison Dam on Missouri Kiver 
begins; to be largest rolled-earth dam in world. 

1948 — State law bans teachers in religious garb from 

public schools. _ , 

1 949 — Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park ded- 
icated at Medora. 

1951 — Oil discovered in North Dakota south of Tioga. 

1952 — North Dakota ranks next to Utah in percentage 
of voters in national election (79.3%). 

1953 — South Dakotans raid grave of Sitting Bull to rfr 
bury him near his home. Garrison Dam dedicate 
by President Eisenhower; begin closing dam. 



THE WHEAT FIELDS OF NORTH DAKOTA 





Pictured at the left is one of the many oil derricks rising in the 
rolling country of North Dakota since oil was discovered in 
1951 near Williston. The map shows the Williston Oil Basin, 


— 4 --— 



which centers in the state. The basin extends into South D jj 
Montana, and Saskatchewan and Manitoba m 
promises to become one of the nation’s great oil nelos. 



COUNTIES 


Adams 4,910 F 7 

Bames 16,884 O 5 

Benson 10,675 M 3 

Billings 1,777 D 5 

Bottineau 12,140 J 2 

Bowman 4,001 C 7 

Burke 6,621 E 2 

Burleigh 25,673 J 6 

Cass 58,877 R 5 

Cavalier 11,840 N 2 

Dickey 9,121 N 7 

Divide 5,967 C 2 

Dunn 7,212 E 5 

Eddy 5,372 N 4 

Emmons 9,715 K 7 

Foster 5,337 N 5 

Golden 

Valley 3,499 

Grand Forks 39,443 
Grant 7,114 

Griggs 5,460 

Hettinger 7,100 

Kidder 6,168 

La Moure 9,498 

Logan 6,357 

JIcHenry 12,556 

McIntosh 7,590 

McKenzie 6,849 

Mc^«an 18,824 

Mercer 8,686 

Morton 19,295 

Mountrail 9,418 

Nelson 8,090 

Oliver 3,091 

Pembina 13,99C 

Pierce 8,326 

Ramsey 14,378 

Ransom 8,876 

Renville 5,40£ 

Richland 19,86J 

Rolette 11,105 

Sargent 7,61( 

Sheridan 5,255 

Sioux 3,69( 

Slope 2,31! 

Stark 16,135 

Steele 5,14! 

Stutsman 24,151 

Towner 6,36( 

J^Ul 11,35' 

^alsh 18,85! 

Ward 34,78; 

Wells 10 , 41 ' 

Williams 16.44; 


7,114 G 6 
5,460 O 5 
7,100 E 7 
6,168 L6 
9,498 N 7 
6,357 L 7 
12,556 J 3 
7,590 L 7 
6,849 D 4 
18,824 G 4 
8,686 G 5 
19,295 H 6 
9,418 E 3 

8.090 O 4 

3.091 H 5 
13,990 P 2 

8,326 K3 
14,373 N 3 
8,876 P 7 
5,405 G 2 
19,865 R 7 
11,102 L2 
7,616 P 7 
5,253 K 4 
3,696 H 7 
2,315 C 7 
16,137 E 6 
5,145 P 4 
24,158 M 5 
6,360 M 2 
11,359 R 5 
18,859 P 3 
34,782 G 3 
10,417 L 4 
16,442 C 3 


CITIES AND 
Abercrombie 
Absaraka 
Adams 
Adrian 
Agate 
Akra 
Alamo 
Alexander 
Alfred 
Alice 
Alkabo 
Almont 
Alsen 
Alta 

Ambrose 

Amenia 

Amidon 

Anamoose 

Aneta 


TOWNS 


192 D 2 
302 C 4 
150 N 6 
162 P 6 
70 C 2 
190 H 6 
114 N 2 
6 J 5 
286 D 2 
127 R 6 


Anselm 22 

Antelope 23 

Antler 217 

Appam 55 

Ardoch 137 

Arena 8 

Argusville 126 

Armourdale 7 1 

Arndt 3 j 

Amegard 206 

Arthur 380 

ArvHla 115 

Ashley 1,423 ] 

Auburn 39 

Aurelia 18 

Aylmer 35 

Ayr 104 

Backoo 46 

Baker 42 

Baldwin 70 

Balfour 162 

Balta 196 

Banks 9 

Bantry 125 

Barlow 43 

Barney 145 

Bartlett 61 

Barton 102 

Bathgate 209 

Battleview 60 

Beach 1,461 

Bedford 8 

Belcourt 524 

Belden 26 

Belfleld 1,051 

Benedict 127 

Benson 10 

Bentley 66 

Berea 6 

Bergen 51 

Berlin 124 

Berthold 459 

Berwick 71 

Beulah 1,501 

Big Bend 207 

Blnford 309 

Bisbee 365 

BISMARCK 

18,640 

Blabon 37 

Blackwater 20 

Blaisdell 80 

Blanchard 60 

Bloom 10 

Bluegrass 7 

Bonetralll 20 

Bordulac 75 

Bottineau 2,268 

Bowbells 806 

Bowdon 348 

Bowesmont 150 

Bowman 1,382 

Braddock 175 

Brampton 90 

Brantford 78 

Breien 30 

Bremen 80 

Brinsmade 136 

Brisbane 24 

Brocket 212 

Buchanan 80 

Bucyrus 111 

Buffalo 261 

Buffalo Springs 23 
Buford 61 

Burlington 240 

Bumstad 68 

Burt 65 



NORTH 

DAKO 

22 

R 6 

Butte 

272 

J 4 

23 

F 6 

Buttzville 

18 

P 6 

217 

H 2 

Buxton 

387 

R 4 

55 

C 2 

Caledonia 

150 

S 5 

137 

R 3 

Calio 

102 

N 2 

8 

K 5 

Calvin . 

152 

N 2 

126 

R 5 

Cando 

1,530 

M 3 

7 

M 2 

Cannon Ball 

200 

J 7 

3 

M 2 

Canton(Hensel) 139 

P 2 

206 

D 4 

Carbury 

37 

K 2 

380 

R 5 

Carpenter 

25 

L 2 

115 

P 4 

Carpio 

194 

G 3 

1,423 

M 7 

Carrington 

2,101 

M 5 

39 

R 2 

Carson 

493 

H 7 

18 

G 3 

Cartwright 

35 

C 4 

35 

K4 

Cashel 

20 

R 3 

104 

P 5 

Casselton 

1,373 

R 6 

46 

P 2 

Cathay 

209 

M 4 

42 

L 3 

Cavalier 

1,459 

P 2 

70 

J 5 

Cayuga 

178 

R 7 

162 

J 4 

Center 

492 

H 5 

196 

K3 

Chaffee 

125 

R 6 

9 

D 3 

Chama 


C 6 

125 

J 3 

Charbonneau 22 

C 4 

43 

M 4 

Charlson 

25 

E 3 

145 

S 7 

Chaseley 

41 

L 5 

61 

N 3 

Christine 

150 

S 6 

102 

K 2 

1 ChuTChs Ferry 223 

M 3 

209 

P 2 

1 Clement 

4 

O 7 

60 

E 2 

1 Clementsville 23 

O 5 

1,461 

C 6 

Cleveland 

181 

M 6 

8 

P 5 

Clifford 

158 

R 5 

524 

L 2 

Clifton 

7 

K 4 

26 

F 3 

Clyde 

110 

N 2 

1,051 

D 6 

Coburn 

3 

R 6 

127 

H 4 

Cogswell 

393 

P 7 

10 

0 7 

Coleharbor 

315 

H 4 

66 

F 7 

Colfax 

116 

S 7 

6 

0 6 

Colgan 

31 

C 2 

51 

J 3 

Colgate 

72 

P 5 

124 

O 7 

Columbus 

525 

E 2 

459 

G 3 

Concrete 

54 

P 2 


Considlne 5 

Conway 107 

Cooperstown 1,189 

Corinth 30 

Coteau 100 

Coulee 75 

Courtenay 229 

Crary 235 

Crete 50 

Crocus 20 

Crosby 1,689 

Crs’Stal 429 

Crystal Springs 25 
Cuba 7 

Cummings 102 

Dahlen 75 

Danzig 23 

Davenport 150 

Dawson 280 

Dazey 196 

De Lamere 120 

Do Sart 6 

Deep 

Deering 136 

Deisem 20 

Denbigh 27 

Denhoff 170 

Derrick 12 

Des Lacs 180 

Devils Lake 6,427 

Dickey 155 

Dickinson 7,469 

Dodge 251 

Donnybrook 207 

Dore 25 

Douglas 236 


Dover . 4 

Doyon 98 

Drake 831 

Drayton 875 

Dresden 165 

Driscoll 225 

Duane 
Dundas 

Dunn Center 246 
Dunning 4 

Dunseith 713 

Durbin 34 

Dwight 129 

Easby 12 

East Fairview 202 


Eastedge 

Eckelson 

Eckman 

Edgeley 

Edinburg 

Edmore 

Edmunds 

Egeland 

Elbowoods 

Eldridge 

Elgin 

Ellendale 

Elliott 

Elsberry 

Embden 

Emerado 

Emmet 

Emmonsburg 

Emrick 

Enderlin 

Englevale 

Enloe 

Epping 

Erie 

Esmond 

Everest 

Fairdale 

Fairfield 

Fairmount 

Falkirk 

Fallon 

Fargo 3 

Fayette 

Fero 

Fessenden 
FUlmore 
Fingal 
Finley 
Flasher 
Flaxton 
Flora 
Fonda 
Forbes 
FordviUe 
Forest River 
Forfar 
Forman 
Fort Clark 
Fort Ransom 
Fort Rice 
Fort Totten 
1 Fort Yates 
Fortuna 
Foxhoim 
Freda 
Fredonia 
Fried 
Fryburg 
Fullerton 
Funston 
Gackle 
Galchutt 
Galesburg 


14 

175 

55 

943 

343 

458 

60 

248 

215 

62 

882 

1,759 

87 

2 

64 

125 

7 

g 5 
20 
1,504 
100 
2 
158 
148 
475 
14 
131 
6 

660 

46 

3 

38,256 

7 

4 
917 

75 

210 

671 

413 

436 

35 

16 

204 

376 

236 

4 

466 

30 

1 200 
27 
250 
825 
181 
180 

8 

268 

26 

100 

206 

10 

604 

73 

169 


Gardar 

Gardena 

Gardner 

Garrison 1, 

Garske 

Gascoyne 

Geneseo 

GUby 

Gladstone 

Glasston 

Glen Ullin 1 

Glenburn 

Glenfleld 

Glover 

GoldenvaUey 

Goldwin 

Golva 

Goodrich 

Gorham 

Grace City 

Grafton 4, 

Grand Forks 

26 

Grand Harbor 

Grand Rapids 

Grandin 

Grano 

Granville 

Grassy Butte 

Great Bend 

Greene 

Grenora 

Griffin 

Gronna 

Guelph 

Guthrie 

Guyson 

Gwinner 

Hague 

Haley 

Halliday 

Hallson 

Hamar 

Hamberg 

Hamilton 

Hamlet 

Hampden 

Hample 

Hankinson 1, 

Hanks 

Hannaford 

Hannah 

Hannover 

Hansboro 

Harlow 

Harmon 

Hartland 

Harvey 2, 

Harwood 

Hastings 

Hatton 

Havana 

Havelock 

Haynes 

Hazelton 

Hazen 1, 

Heaton 

Hebron 1, 

Hell 

Heimdal 

Hensel 

Hensler 

Hesper 

Hettinger 1,' 

Hickson 
Hillsboro 1,: 

Holmes 
Honoyford 


I 


1287 ] 






















NORTH DAKOTA — Continued 


Hong 

4 

L3 

Lonetree 

24 

G 3 

New Salem 

942 

G 6 

Rogers 

150 

O 5 

Thorne 

37 

L2 

Hoople 

447 

P 2 

Loraine 

70 

G 2 

Newburg 

105 

J 2 

Rohrville 

10 

N 3 

Timmer 

6 

H7 

Hope 

470 

P 5 

Lostwood 

30 

F 3 

Newtown 


P 4 

Rolette 

451 

L 2 

Tioga 

456 

E3 

Horace 

190 

S 6 

Lucca 

37 

P 6 

Newville 

20 

M 2 

RoUa 

1,176 

L 2 

Tokio 

100 

hM 

Hoving 

5 

P 7 

Ludden 

96 

O 7 

Niagara 

163 

P 4 

Rosebud 


H 6 

Tolley 

248 

G2 

Huff 

52 

J 6 

Lundsvalley 

11 

E 3 

Nicholson 

3 

P 7 

Roseglen 

40 

G 4 

Tolna 

281 

04 

Hull 

50 

K 7 

Luverne 

154 

P 5 

Niobe 

78 

F 2 

Ross 

85 

E 3 

Tower City 

292 

P6 

Hunter 

417 

R 5 

Lynchburg 

27 

R 6 

Nome 

217 

P 6 

Roth 

29 

J2 

Towner 

955 

K3 

Hurd 

2 

H 2 

Maddock 

741 

L4 

Noonan 

551 

D 2 

Rugby 

2,907 

L3 

Trenton 

150 

C3 

Hurdsfleld 

223 

L 5 

Maida 

35 

O 2 

Norfolk 

2 

K4 

Ruso 

37 

J 4 

Trotters 

2 

C5 

independence 

30 

O 7 

Makoti 

219 

G 4 

Norma 

100 

G 2 

Russell 

51 

J 2 

Truro 


H2 

Inkster 

304 

P 3 

Mandan 

7,298 

J 6 

Northgate 

85 

P 2 

Rutland 

309 

P 7 

Tunbridge 

12 

K3 

Ives 


C 7 

Mandt 

20 

R 2 

North wood 

1.182 

R 4 

Ryder 

330 

G 4 

Turtle Lake 

839 

J4 

Jamesto^vn 10,697 

N 6 

MaMred 

74 

L 4 

Norton 

3 

O 3 

Saint Anthony 75 

H 6 

Tuttle 

368 

L5 

Jessie 

83 

O 4 

Manitou 

13 

E 3 

Nortonville 

112 

N 6 

Saint John 

451 

L 2 

Tyler 

18 

87 

Johnson 


N 6 

Manning 

85 

E 5 

Norwich 

70 

J 3 

Saint Michael 56 

N 4 

Underwood 

1,061 

H5 

Johnstown 

50 

R 3 

Mantador 

138 

R 7 

Oakdale 

6 

E 5 

Saint Thomas 566 

R 2 

Union 

23 

02 

Jollette 

66 

R 2 

Manvel 

278 

R 3 

Oakes 

1,774 

O 7 

Sanborn 

324 

O 6 

Upham 

403 

J2 

Josephine 

8 

M 4 

Mapes 

30 

O 3 

Oakwood 

66 

R 3 

Sanger 

' 24 

H 5 

Urbana 

12 

06 

Juanita 

98 

N 4 

Mapleton 

169 

S 6 

Oberon 

238 

M 4 

Sanish 


E 4 

Valley City 

6,851 

P6 

Jud 

175 

N 6 

Marion 

272 

O 6 

Odessa 


G 7 

Sarles 

285 

N 2 

Vang 

10 

02 

Judson 

75 

H 6 

Marmarth 

469 

B 7 

Olga 

145 

O 2 

Saunders 


S 6 

Vashtl 

15 

JI 5 

Karlsruhe 

282 

J 3 

Marmou 

9 

C 3 

Olmstead 

24 

M 2 

Sa^vyer 

264 

H 3 

Velva 

1,170 

J 3 

Kamak 

18 

O 5 

Marshall 

12 

F 5 

Omemee 

60 

K 2 

Schefield 

20 

E 6 

Venlo 

50 

K 7 

Kathryn 

200 

P 6 

Martin 

171 

K 4 

Oriska 

135 

P 6 

Schmidt 

2 

J 6 

Venturia 

190 

L 7 

Keene 

17 

B 4 

Max 

465 

H 4 

Orr 

67 

P 3 

Scranton 

360 

D 7 

Verendrye 

35 

J 3 

Keith 

4 

N 3 

Maxbass 

259 

H 2 

Orrin 

179 

K 3 

Searing 

5 

C 4 

Verona 

189 

0 7 

KeUys 

9 

R 4 

Mayvilie 

1,790 

R 4 

Osgood 

2 

S 6 

Selfrldge 

343 

J 7 

Veseleyville 

65 

K3 

Kelso 

26 

R 5 

Maza 

82 

M 3 

Osnabrock 

284 

O 2 

Selz 

200 

L4 

Voltaire 

72 

J 3 

Kelvin 

10 

K 2 

McCanna 

41 

P 3 

Oswald 

2 

S 7 

Sentinel Butte 229 

C 6 

Voss 

60 

K 3 

Kempton 

55 

P4 

McClusky 

850 

K 4 

Otter Creek 


G 5 

Sharon 

312 

P 4 

Wabek 

15 

G 4 

Kenaston 

50 

P 2 

McGregor 

120 

D 2 

Overly 

90 

K 2 

Shaw'nee 


P 4 

Wahpeton 

5,125 

8 7 

Kenmare 

1,712 

G 2 

McHenry 

189 

N 4 

Page 

482 

P 5 

Sheldon 

267 

P 6 

Walcott 

296 

B 6 

Kensal 

376 

N 5 

McKenzie 

81 

K 6 

Palermo 

150 

F 3 

Shell Creek 

40 

F 3 

Walden 

8 

P6 

Kermit 

25 

D 2 

McLeod 

125 

R 7 

Park River 

1,692 

P 3 

Shepard 

3 

O 5 

Wales 

235 

N2 

Kerry 


P 3 

McVille 

626 

O 4 

Parshall 

935 

F 4 

Sherwood 

421 

G 2 

Walhalla 

1,463 

P 2 
05 
86 

Kief 

135 

J 4 

Medberry 

5 

N 7 

Pekin 

221 

O 4 

Sheyenne 

469 

M 4 

Walum 

52 

Killdeer 

698 

E 5 

Medina 

564 

M 6 

Pelto 

21 

O 3 

Shields 

124 

H 7 

Warren 

10 

Kindred 

504 

R 6 

Medora 

180 

C 6 

Pembina 

640 

R 2 

Silva 

40, 

L 3 

Warsaw 

89 

B 3 

E3ntyre 

102 

L 6 

Mekinock 

100 

R 4 

Penn 

67 

M 3 

SUverleaf 

7 

0 7 

Warwick 

155 

N 4 
J5 

EJoten 

120 

O 4 

Melville 

60 

M 5 

Perry 


R 7 

Simcoe 

24 

J 3 

Washburn 

913 

Knox 

190 

L 3 

Menoken 

45 

J 6 

Perth 

124 

M 2 

Sims 

11 

H 6 

Watford City 

D4 
F7 
N2 
N3 
L4 
F5 
*8 6 
■K7 
H2 
B6 
03 
E3 
03 
86 
02 
03 
E 5 
K2 
J6 

05 
N6 
K5 

07 
F2 
03 
H3 
B6 
M 5 
B7 
03 
H6 

06 
C2 
G5 

08 
06 

Kongsberg 

14 

J4 

Mercer 

214 

J 5 

Petersburg 

318 

P 3 

Skaar 

2 

C 5 


1.371 

Kramer 

198 

J 2 

Merricourt 

105 

N 7 

Pettibone 

187 

L 5 

Solen 

300 

J 7 

Watrous 

12 

Kilim 

707 

N 7 

Menifield 

27 

R 4 

Pick City 

294 

G 5 

Sonora 

15 

S 7 

Weaver 

Kuroki 

20 

H 2 

Michigan 

486 

O 3 

Pickardville 

25 

J 5 

Souris 

206 

J 2 

Webster 

96 

La Mars 

5 

S 8 

Millarton 

31 

N 6 

Pickert 

20 

P 5 

South Heart 

100 

E 6 

WeUsburg 

42 

La Motire 1,010 

Lake Williams 50 

O 7 
L 5 

Milnor 

Milton 

674 

322 

R 7 
O 2 

Pierce 

Pillsbury 

5 

119 

D 7 
P 5 

South West 
Fargo 

1,032 

*S 6 

Werner 

West Fargo 

63 

159 

Lakota 

1,032 

O 3 

Minnewaukan 443 

M 3 

Pingree 

161 

N 5 

Southam 

85 

N 3 

Westfield 

52 

LaUie 

5 

M 4 

Minot 22,032 

H 3 

Pisek 

215 

P 3 

Spiritwood 

105 

N 6 

Westhope 

575 

Landa 

132 

J 2 

Minto 

592 

R 3 

Plaza 

389 

G 3 

Spring Brook 

51 

D 3 

Wheatland 

134 

Langdon 

1,838 

O 2 

Mofflt 

178 

K 6 

Pleasant Lake 45 

L3 

Stady 

7 

C 2 

Wheelock 

101 

Lankin 

Lansford 

287 

352 

P 3 
H 2 

Mohall 

Mona 

1,073 

10 

G 2 
O 2 

Portal 

Portland 

409 

641 

E 2 
R 5 

Stampede 

Stanley 

1,486 

E 2 
F 3 

White Earth 
Whitman 

218 

90 

Larimore 

1,374 

P 4 

Monango 

138 

N 7 

Portland Jet. 

2 

R 4 

Stanton 

571 

H 5 

Wild Rice 

42 

Lark 

9 

H 7 

Montpelier 

105 

O 6 

Powers Lake 

565 

E 2 

Starkweather 

229 

N 3 

Wildrose 

430 

Larson 

59 

E 2 

Mooreton 

161 

S 7 

Preston 

4 

R 5 

Steele 

762 

L 6 

WilHston 

7,378 

Lawton 

211 

O 3 

Mortimer 

8 

R 5 

Price 

7 

H 5 

Sterling 

88 

K 6 

WiUmon 

20 

Leal 

72 

O 5 

Mose 

20 

O 4 

Prosper 

37 

R 6 

Stiles 

8 

R 7 

Willow City 

595 

Leeds 

778 

M 3 

Moselle 

13 

R 7 

Raleigh 

125 

H 7 

Still 

3 

J 5 

Wilton 

796 

Lefor 

150 

F 6 

Mott 

1,583 

F 7 

Ramsey 

12 

M 3 

Stirum 

85 

P 7 

Wimbledon 

449 

Lehigh 

38 

E 6 

Mount Carmel 40 

O 2 

Rangeley 

3 

J 3 

Strasburg 

733 

K 7 

Windsor 

100 

Lehr 

394 

M 7 

Moimtain 

219 

P 2 

Raub 

50 

F 4 

StraubvUle 

22 

O 7 

Wing 

312 

Lieith 

160 

G 7 

Munich 

248 

N 2 

Rawson 

32 

C 4 

Streeter 

602 

M 6 

Wlshek 

1,241 

lieonard 

325 

R 6 

Munster 

4 

M 4 

Ray 

721 

D 3 

Surrey 

175 

H 3 

Woburn 

17 

Leroy 

70 

P 2 

Murray 

3 

R 5 

Reeder 

339 

E 7 

Sutton 

125 

O 5 

Wolford 

140 

Leverich 

4 

L3 

Mylo 

110 

L 2 

Reeves 


N 6 

Svold 

5 

P 2 

Wolseth 

16 

Leyden 

15 

P 2 

Nanson 

18 

L 2 

Regan 

129 

K5 

Sweetbriar 

5 

H 6 

Woods 

3 

Lldgerwood 

1,147 

R 7 

Napoleon 

1,070 

L6 

Regent 

405 

E 7 

Sydney 

22 

N 6 

Woodworth 

207 

Lignite 

230 

F 2 

Nash 

43 

P 3 

Revere 

22 

O 5 

Sykeston 

272 

M 5 

Wyndmere 

627 

Lincoln Valley 79 

K4 

Neche 

615 

P 2 

Reynolds 

335 

R 4 

Taft 


R 5 

York 

220 

8 

Linton 

1,675 

K7 

Nekoma 

140 

O 2 

Rhame 

340 

C 7 

Tagus 

101 

G 3 

Youngtown 

Lisbon 

2,031 

P 7 

New England 1,117 

E 6 

Richardton 

721 

P 6 

Tappen 

379 

L 6 

YpsUanti 

120 

Litchvllle 

408 

O 6 

New Hradec 

64 

E 5 

Rising 

3 

J3 

Taylor 

258 

F 6 

Zahl 

105 

425 

Livona 

6 

K 6 

New Leipzig 

447 

G 7 

Riverdale 

2.551 

H 5 

Temple 

20 

D 3 

Zap 

ix)gan 

Loma 63 

*No room on map for 

H 3 
O 2 

name. 

New Rockford 

1 2,185 

N 4 

Robinson 166 

1 Rocklake 385 

[2901 

L 5 
M 2 

Temvlk 

Thompson 

71 

270 

K 7 
R 4 

Zeeland 

Zenith 

484 



291 


NORTH DAKOTA 


North Dakota’s greatest crop is wheat (see Wheat). 
It produces more of this grain than any other state 
except Kansas. In recent times North Dakota’s wheat 
crop — ^both winter and spring varieties — has averaged 
about 140 million bushels a year. In spring wheat, 
North Dakota leads the nation. This type of wheat is 
best adapted to the state’s climate and soil. 

Among all the states, North Dakota produces the 
most barley. It also ranks high in the production 


Resentment at practices in the grain trade led the 
farmers in 1915 to organize the Nonpartisan League. 
The league was successful in gaining control of the 
state government. Then the legislature passed an 
amendment to the state constitution which per- 
mitted the state to engage in any kind of business in 
the interest of its residents. 

Under this amendment, the state legislature estab- 
lished state-owned terminal elevators and flour mills, 
a state bank, a system of 
rural credits, hail insurance, 
and assistance to cooperative 
stores. The legislature ex- 
empted from taxation all im- 
provements on farm land, and 
taxed heavily all unused 
lands to force them into pro- 
ductive use. This economic 
program is among the most 
far-reaching adopted by any 
American state. North Da- 
kota also has a mother’s pen- 
sion law and very exacting 
pure food and drug acts. 

A large number of North 
Dakota’s residents are foreign 
born or of foreign parentage. 
Norwegians, Russians, Ger- 
mans, Canadians, Swedes, 
and Danes predominate. Settlements of Finns and 
Icelanders were drawn there by the northern latitude. 
Schools and Colleges 

Because North Dakota is so largely a rural state, 
the people have taken great pride in making their 
rural schools efficient. In most parts of the state the 
rural schools provide free bus transportation to pu- 
pils. They have educational advantages that are 
equal to those enjoyed by children in the towns and 
cities of the state. As a result of rural and urban edu- 
cational opportunities, the state has a very low 
percentage of illiteracy. 

Among the institutions of higher education in North 
Dakota are 13 colleges and universities, including two 
junior colleges. The state-supported schools are the 
University of North Dakota at Grand Forks; the State 
Agricultural College at State College near Fargo; 
the State School of Science at Wahpeton; and the State 
School of Forestry at Bottineau. There are state 
teachers colleges at Valley City, Mayville, Minot, 
Ellendale, and Dickinson. Jamestown College at 
Jamestown and Wesley College at Grand Forks are 
private institutions. The state also has three special 
schools for handicapped persons- 

The State’s History 

What is now the state of North Dakota was for cen- 
turies the home of many different Indian tribes. Some 
of these tribes engaged in farming long before the 
coming of white settlers. They included the Mandan, 
Hidatsa, and Ankara tribes, who carried on agricul- 
ture in the Missouri River valley. The Wan- 
dering Dakotas, or Sioux, the Chippewas, and the 


NORTH DAKOTA’S MODERN CAPITOL 



This handsome State Capitol is at Bismarck. The 19-story skyscraper tower at the east end 
houses the state office building. The chambers of the Senate and the House of Representatives 
occupy the unit at the west end of the building. 


of oats, rye, and flaxseed. Cattle, milk, hogs, corn, 
hay, and potatoes are other products that yield a 
large part of the state’s farm income. 

There was a time when great cattle and sheep 
ranches covered a large part of the state. Now most of 
these have been divided into farms. Yet the abundance 
of natural grasses, alfalfa, and other feeds have en- 
abled North Dakota to continue as an important 
stock-raising and dairying state. 

Manufacturing and Cities 
Only about one-fourth of the people of North 
Dakota live in towns and cities. Many of them are 
engaged in wholesale and retail trade and in factories 
that process food products. The most valuable food 
products manufactured in the state are creamery but- 
ter, flour and feed, meat, and bakery products. 

Fargo, on the Red River, is the largest city in the 
state. It is also the principal distributing point for 
farm products. One of its largest industries is 
printing and publishing. Fargo is also noted for its 
meat-packing plants and dairies. Grand Forks, also 
eu the Red River, is one of the largest grain ternu- 
uals between Spokane and Minneapolis. It is a rail- 
road division point. Minot, on the Souris River, is 
the main center of trade for the north central part 
of the state. Bismarck, the capital, on the Missouri 
River, is a shipping point for the south central sec- 
lon of the state (see Bismarck). 

_ The Government and People 

The state constitution allows the initiative, refer- 
onduni, and recall. The governor may not veto any 
ogislation initiated by or referred to the voters. 




1. The University of North Dakota at Grand Forks heads the state’s system of education. 2. These calves are 
large herds that contribute to North Dakota’s agricultural wealth. 3. Potato farms such as this one in the Red River 
put the “Flickertail State” among the leading potato-prooucing states. 4. North Dakota and Minnesota together raise w 
than three fifths of the nation’s fiaiseed. S. Lignite coal is the most valuable mineral. Here it is mined at an open pit at 






293 


NORTH DAKOTA 


Pacific crossed the Red River at Fargo in 1872, and 
James J. Hill’s Great Northern reached Wahpeton 
in the 1880’s. These rival railways pushed their 
steel across the state, vying vdth each other for 
settlers who would ship great grain crops back east. 
The roads advertised far and wide in Europe and 
America the free lands offered by the government 
under the Homestead Act (see Lands, Public). Rail- 

WHERE RUNNING WATER BUILT A PYRAMID 







Rugged buttes stud the Missouri Plateau of western North Dakota where the waters of myriad 
streams have cut away the soft sandstone, leaving the harder rock in many fantastic shapes. 


Assiniboines, however, raised only a few small crops. 
They spent their time chiefly in hunting. 

Valuable furs collected by Indian hunters brought 
the first white men to the Dakotas. Canadian and 
American fur companies contested bitterly for the 
valuable pelts found there. La Verendrye, a French- 
man, and his sons made two trips into North Dakota 
in 1738 and in 1742, in their effort to find a water 
route to the Pacific. They 
paid their expenses by fur 
trading. They set up trading 
posts, and other traders fol- 
lowed. The first map of the 
area was made by David 
Thompson about 1797 for 
the fur-trading North West 
Company. Pembina was es- 
tablished in the northeast in 
1801 by Alexander Henry, 

Jr., an agent for the North 
West Company. It became 
a leading trading post. {See 
Furs and Fm’ Trade.) 

Explorers and Colonists 
Following the Louisiana 
Purchase by the United 
States, Lewis and Clark 
made their way up the Missouri, and camped in a 
Mandan village during the winter of 1804-5. They 
found there the Indian woman, Sacagaw'ea, who guided 
them westward (see Lewis and Clark Ex-pedition). 

About 1812, a party of Scottish colonists from Lord 
Selkirk’s settlement in Manitoba came to Pembina, 
where they set up a fort and increased the fur trade. 
Scientists came to study the natural wonders of the 
new country — John Bradbury and Henry M. Breck- 
enridge in 1811, Prince Maximilian and Carl Bodmer 
in 1832, and John James Audubon, the great Amer- 
ican naturalist and artist, in 1843. 

Finally the wdldemess was no longer left to the 
fur hunters; ranchers and farmers entered and began 
to build homes. Steamboats, plying up and down 
the Red River and the Missouri, replaced the old 
oxcart. The government then set up military posts 
protect the travelers and inhabitants from the 
Sioux Indians, who were making a last fight for 
their rich hunting grounds. 

From Fort Abraham Lincoln, on the Missouri, Gen. 
Mfred H. Terry, Col. George A. Custer, and Maj. 
Marcus A. Reno set out on May 17, 1876, to crush the 
Sioux uprising under Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and 
^^11. Custer and his men w'ere slaughtered at the 
battle of the Little Bighorn River in Montana. Major 
ffeno’s battahon, besieged on a cliff, wms saved from 
the same fate by the approach of General Terry’s force 
Wc Custer). Captain Grant Marsh, one of the hardy 
pioneer steamboat pilots, carried Major Reno’s many 
'bounded men back to the fort on his steamer. 

the railroads reached North Dakota, settlers 
^Dged into this rich wheat land. The Northern 


roads sold at a low rate the vast acres which the 
government had given them beside their rights-of- 
way. Sod houses dotted the prairies, as land-hungry 
folk from many nations sought a better chance in 
this open country. Oliver Dalrymple and other capi- 
talists secured great tracts of land in exchange for the 
stock of the Northern Pacific when it failed, or pur- 
chased it from homesteaders. These “bonanza” farms 
w'ere cultivated by the newly invented agricultural 
machinery and they often made large profits. Specu- 
lation drove land values sky-high. 

West of the Missouri vast ranches numbered their 
herds by the thousand. In the early 80’s, the Marquis 
de Mores with 8,000 acres built the town of Medora 
and the state’s first packing plant. Theodore Roose- 
velt arrived in search of health and adventure in buf- 
falo hunting and bought two ranches, which he man- 
aged between 1883 and 1888. Irrigation and dry 
farming have replaced some ranches with farms. 

North Dakota became a state in 1889, when the 
territory of Dakota was divided and admitted into 
the Union as North and South Dakota. Before that 
it had been included in many territories. The eastern 
part, drained by the Red River, was claimed by 
Canada until the treaty of 1818 placed the boundary 
at the 49th parallel. Then it became a part of Mis- 
souri Territory. Later divisions placed it within Mich- 
igan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota territories. 
Dakota Territory, formed in 1861, included North and 
South Dakota. It is named from the Indian word Da- 
kotas (meaning “allies”), of the Sioux Confederation 
whose tribes roamed these plains. (See also chronology 
in North Dakota Fact Summaiy; United States, sec- 
tions “North Central Plains” and “Great Plains.”) 



NORTHMEN 


294 


The NORTHMEN in the VIKING AGE 


N orthmen. Late in the 8th century strange ships 
appeared here and there in the bays along the 
coast of Europe. Some of these ships were quite long 
for those days. They were strongly built of oak, and 
from forty to sixty oarsmen sat on the rowers’ benches. 
Each ship had a single mast \vith a square sail which 
was often striped in brilliant colors. Bright shields 
overlapped along the gunwale. The ships were pointed 
at each end so that they could go forward or back- 
ward without turning around. They had tall curved 
prows, usually carved in the shapes of dragons. 

These dragon ships, as they were often called, usu- 
ally appeared in a bay about dawn. As soon as they 
reached the beach, there sprang from them men of 
giant size, with bright blue eyes and long yellow hair. 
Armed with swords and battle axes, and shouting bat- 
tle cries, they attacked the sleeping villagers. They 
killed many of them, captured some of the youths and 
maidens, and gathered all the loot which their ships 
could carry. Then they sailed away. 

These marauders, or pirates, came from what is now 
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The people who 
lived there were Northmen, or Norsemen. Those 
Northmen who took part in these swift cruel raids 
along the coast were called vikings. Their expression 
for this type of warfare was to “go a-viking.” Vik in 
Norse means harbor or bay. The word “viking” prob- 
ably came from that word. At any rate, the vikings 
came to be the most feared raiders of their time and 
were the only Northmen with whom most Europeans 
came in contact. Their name was given to an era 
which we call the Viking Age, which covered the years 
from about a.d. 740 to around 1050. 

At first these viking attacks were made by small 
bands. Later there were more men and more ships, 
which roamed farther and farther from their home- 
lands. To the north and east they harried the Lapps, 
Finns, and Russians. To the west they conquered and 
held for generations large parts of Britain and Ireland. 
To the south they occupied northern France. The 
Northmen did not actually conquer any country south 
of France. But their ships sailed along the coasts of 
Spain and Portugal. They plundered Sicily and the 
northern shores of Africa and attacked Constanti- 
nople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. 

To the west the Northmen did not stop with the 
British Isles but crossed the Atlantic Ocean to take 
Iceland away from the placid Irish monks who had 
settled there. In 874 they began to colonize Iceland. 
And during the years that followed, many freedom- 
loving people came to Iceland as settlers. About the 
year 982 Eric the Red sailed west from Iceland. He 
landed on the coast of Greenland and gave the island 
its name. Later he founded the first colony there. 
His son, Leif Ericson, sometimes called Leif the Lucky, 
is believed by most historians to have been the first 
discoverer of the North American mainland. About 
the year 1000 he landed at a place which he called 
Vinland. Vinland was probably along the coast of 


the St. Lawrence gulf or in Nova Scotia, although 
some people believe it may have been much farther 
south. (See also Ericson, Leif.) 

While the Northmen were discovering lands and 
waging war, they were telhng each other those adven- 
ture tales which later were known as sagas. The word 
saga comes from the Icelandic and means “story.” 
Poets also were singing the praises of Norse heroes 
and gods and describing the Norse way of life. So 
the Northmen preserved important parts of the early 
history of the Scandinavian countries and of Russia, 
Germany, Britain, and Ireland. 

Why the Northmen Were Powerful 

Who were these supermen? AAdience came their 
power? Few in number, how were they able to con- 
quer civilized lands with populations greater than 
those of their own homelands? The Northmen are 
thought to have been of a blue-eyed and blond stock 
which, in ages past, had come up from the south and 
invaded the section later known as Scandinavia. There 
they found and conquered a short, dark-haired race. 
Remnants of these dark folk are to be found among 
Scandinavians today, especially in Denmark and 
northwestern Norway. 

Long-limbed and muscular, with flaxen or red hair 
hanging below their shoulders, Northmen were trained 
from childhood to be strong and self-reliant. Run- 
ning, jumping, and wrestling took the place of read- 
ing, writing, and arithmetic. Their other subjects 
were skating, skiing, snowshoeing, swimming, romng, 
and riding horseback. As soon as a youngster could 
carry a weapon, he was taught to thrust a sword, to 
swing a battle ax, and to throw a spear. 

A part of their success was due to their religion, for 
the Northmen’s gods were warriors too. Thor the 
Thunderer made constant war on the ice and snow 
giants of the North. The chief god, Odin, was god o 
war. (See also Mythology.) Death in battle was t e 
most honorable death. Only by that death could a 
Northman enter Valhalla, the warrior’s heaven, o 
the Northmen battled unafraid and joyous, cal ng 
upon their gods to help them. 

The Northmen were the most skilled and daring sea 
men of their day. The compass was still unknown, an 
they navigated by sun and star. VTien fog md o 
stars, their ships drifted- until the weather ' 
Not fearing death, they took great chances. So 7 
gained -wide experience and discovered 

The N orthmen dared not risk open fires aboard a 
wooden ships, and in those days there were no s 
So, unless they were on a long sea voyage, they , 
anchor in a quiet bay each evening. Then they pi a 
tents on the shore, kindled fires, and cooked their o • 
Porridge with dried meat or fish was the ' 

Sometimes they had bread, butter, and cheese, 
spent the night aboard ship, they unrolled their 
sleeping gear and stretched out on the rowers 
A successful viking expedition might bring for ’ 
fame, and even noble rank to those who took p 









NORTHMEN 


296 


So from the time they were 15 or 16, Norge boys were 
eager to try their swords and their luck in battle. 

Trade Is Developed 

The early viking voyages were mostly raids in 
which Christian churches and monasteries were robbed 
and burned and peaceful villages plundered. But in 
later times piracy was often combined with trading. 
A pirate expedition might stop off to do a httle quiet 
trading, and a trading expedition might turn into a 
httle pirating. The Northmen were good businessmen, 
and they often brought prosperity to the places with 
which they traded. 

As time went on, trade between the Scandinavian 
countries and with the rest of Europe grew. Norway 
sent herring and salt to Sweden. Treeless Iceland 
imported timber, first from Europe and later from 
North America. Denmark received sheep from the 
Faroe Islands. Greenland imported timber from Lab- 
rador and grain and iron from Europe. It paid for 
these in walrus and narwhal ivory, furs, live falcons, 
and even five polar bears. A bear was considered a 
magnificent gift, fit for a king. 


Norwegian viking expeditions started in the spring 
after the seed was sown or in the autumn when crops 
were harvested. When at home the Northmen were 
mainly farmers and stockmen. They also hunted and 
fished. After a successful voyage or two, many North- 
men retired from the sea. They were often succeeded 
by their sons, who begged to “go a-viking” long before 
they were old enough. 

During wars and raids, those not killed by the vi- 
kings were often taken as slaves. These slaves were 
called thralls and were usually Irish, Finns, Germans, 
or Slavs. A free' Northman might be enslaved for a 
debt or crime but this was rare. Many slaves were 
voluntarily freed by their masters, especially after 
the introduction of Christianity, and there was much 
intermarriage. This was especially true m Iceland, 
where noblemen often married women who had been 
freed. Many of these women were Irish and are said 
to have been very beautiful. 

Houses of the Northmen 

The houses of the Northmen differed according to 
the resources of each country. In Norway houses were 
built of rough pine logs. The roofs w'cre 
usually covered with turf or straw. In 
Iceland, which had few trees, houses 
were built of turf, rocks, and driftwood. 
Both in Iceland and Greenland hea\’y 
timbers needed for the frames of build- 
ings were brought from Norway and 
later also from North America. 

A house had only one room and was 
built with a pitched roof. A poor man 
might have two or three huts. The es- 
tate of a rich man looked like a village, 
so numerous were its buildings. In 
later centuries, several of these build- 
ings were often connected by passage- 
ways. ., 

The houses were plain on the outside. 

All the decoration was indoors where mos 
of the woodwork was carved, painted, 
and touched with gilt. On festive oc- 
casions, brightly embroidered tapestries 
made by the women would be hung on 
the walls, and long tables were set np 
feasting. Everything from a key to e 
largest piece of furniture was covere 
with beautiful designs. 

Food Was Plentiful 
The Northmen had a great vanety o 
foods and beverages. They t 

meats. Mutton and beef were plentiim. 
Until its use was forbidden, 

favored meat was horsemeat. ^ 

men also used fish and eereals, e^s r 
wild and domestic fowl, and imUc pr 
nets. Their vegetables were few. 11° 
was the only sweet, and bees were 
help out the supply of wild honey, 
and fish were often dried, smoke , 
pickled. Many foods were preserve 


THE COLONY AT VINLAND 



About three years after Leif Ericson discovered Vinland, Thorfinn Karlsefni 
estabUshed a coiony there. But the natives soon drove the white men away. 



NORTHMEN 


- 296a 



Here a chief sits on the high seat beneath his shields. The picture shows a corner of one of the benches which line the wall. The 
entertainer is a shald, or minstrel poet. The small harp was probably brought from Ireland by some viking raider. 


brine or in sour whey, a preservative still in use among 
modem Scandinavians. Butter was never salted. It 
Was eaten fresh or was fermented for use like cheese. 

The Northmen liked both fresh and sour milk and 
buttermilk too. The favorite drink was whey. They 
had a food named skyr, much like our cottage cheese. 
Apples and berries were their only fruits. Porridge 
was cooked in enormous kettles over an open fire. Al- 
though boiling was favored for most foods, meat was 
sometimes baked in hot ashes. Bread was baked in 
2shes or in clay ovens. 

At feasts the Norse drank quantities of ale. They 
made from honey a fermented drink called mead, and 
the wealthy imported wine from France. There were 
long and sometimes rowdy drinking festivals, at which 
®ogas were told and poems were recited. 

How the Northmen Dressed 
All Northmen who could afford it dressed gorgeously 
or occasions like weddings, funerals, and for things, 
^ the parliaments, or assemblies, were called. Skins 
*md furs of tame and wild animals were used, but the 
most common material was a woven woolen cloth, 
*^Ued vadmal. Dyes were expensive so poorer folk 
l^od vadmal in its natural color. The rich wore it in 
hght colors, often striped and patterned in weave. 


Silk and linen, which were imported and costly, were 
used mostly for underwear. 

Since the Northmen traded with so many countries, 
they often brought back new ideas for dress and adorn- 
ment. The native dress of men and women in early 
times was quite similar. The main garment was a long 
tunic, which might be narrow or wide. If wide, a belt 
gathered it around the waist. It was customary to 
wear a gown of one color and a cloak of another. A 
man’s tunic was usually sleeveless, perhaps to show 
off his arm muscles and gold arm rings. There were 
no buttons. A garment had an opening which was 
slipped over the head and was tightened with a brooch. 
Girls and young women wore their hair long and 
caught round the forehead with a band, sometimes 
made of pure gold. Noble and wealthy men also wore 
their hair long with a band to keep it in place. 

Amusements and Sports 

The young Northmen loved games, especially those 
which helped to develop strong bodies. They played 
a game of ball in which many players took part. In 
this game there was a hard ball, knottr, and a bat, 
knailre. The games were played either on ground or 
on ice. Wrestling and fencing were popular sports. 
Young Northmen skated on skates made of the bones 





NORTHMEN 

of animals. These skates they called ice-bones. These 
and many other Norse games and sports were similar 
to our own, but they had some interesting ones of 
which modern young people know nothing. 

A Norwegian historian tells of a sport in which 
a young man would walk on oar blades while a boat 
was being rowed. He says that this was most difficult 
and required a great deal of practise. Then there 
were leaping in armor and a game in which two or 
three small swords were thrown in the air and then 
caught. To play with three swords at once without 
injuring oneself required great skill. 

Northmen loved music and dancing. They had a 
fidla, or fiddle, a horn made from a buck’s horn, and 
also a kind of harp. The high point at a feast was the 
performance of a skald. The skalds were professional 
poets. They were always welcome at the households 
of chiefs and at the courts of kings. 

Education Was Informal 

There were no public schools. All education was 
given at home, with parent, nurse, or visitor acting 
as teacher. Children were 
often sent to the home of 
a rich man, sometimes a 
relative, to be educated. 

More attention was paid 
to the education of boys 
than to that of girls, but 
girls were not neglected. They learned to spin, weave, 
and dye wool; to sew, knit, and embroider. They 
were taught to wash and to cook; to make butter and 
cheese. Even the noblest young ladies learned these 
things. There was no stigma attached to work, and 
a guest might be served at the table by the wife of 
a chieftain. Both girls and boys learned to sing, to re- 
cite and compose poetry, and to tell sagas. Some girls 
and most boys learned to read and cut runes. 

Writing on Stone 

Runes were the letters of the ancient alphabet used 
by the Northmen. Just as we call ours the ABC’s, 
they called theiTS futh or k after the first letters. The 
early Norse alphabet had 24 letters. The later Norse 
alphabet, which is reproduced in this article, had 
sixteen letters. 

At first runes were used for scratching names on 
personal belongings or for simple memorials. Later, 
as the art developed, these memorials grew more elab- 
orate. Thanks to the lasting qualities of stone, people 
have been able to follow the trails of the icings 
and to read the runes which were carved so many 
centuries ago. Thousands of these memorial stones 
have been found on the Scandinavian Peninsula and 
in Denmark. North of Upernivik, in Greenland, a 
little rune stone was found, and so we know that some 
Northmen traveled more than 400 miles north of the 
Arctic Circle. Others carved runes on the statue of 
a lion in Athens, Greece. 

There is some doubt as to whether any of the runic 
stones found on the North American continent are 
genuine. These include the runic stone which was 
found near Kensington in Minnesota. This stone was 


I 2965 ■ 


discovered in 1898 when someone pulled the stump of 
a tree from the groimd. 

Government and Laws 

In the early history of the Northmen there too 
no nations as we know them today. People lived 
in what might be called tribal communities. These 
communities were quite independent of each other 
and they banded together only when they had some 
common need. 

When the title konungr, or king, was given to the 
chief or head man of a community it did not carry the 
same meaning that it has now. There were many 
kings. Often one would rule over a small section of 
land no larger than one of our counties, and some of 
the kings were war chiefs who had no land. 

Each community had a thing, or assembly, which 
acted as both a court and a legislative body. Only 
those who owned land could be members of things. A 
king could hold his position only as long as the people 
wanted him. Before a new king could take office, he 
had to have the consent of the members of the thing, 

Next in rank were the 
RUNIC ALPHABET javls, who often had about 

b 5b I 'b H 'f' Y ^ A as much power and land as 

r A-n 1 " • L . ^ the kings. Both kings and 

I U th O r k h a 1 n S t.d p.b m 1 r(y) Jg^rls had to rule accord- 

The 16 letters of the Norse runicalphabet appear here with their Ja^ No laWS Were 

EngUsh equivalents. Note how letters are adapted for carving. ^‘^6 j 

written down until around 
1100. Before then the laws were really traditions and 
opinions of the majority of the people. The peope 
elected law men who had to know these uiiwritten 
laws. They explained them to the kings and to t e 
men who sat in the things. , 

Later in Sweden and in Denmark people began 
unite under one king. In 872 Norway had a single kmg, 
known as Harald the Fairhaired. But Harald did no 
attempt to organize a thing for the whole of Norway. 
He also undid much of Norway’s unity by 
each of his numerous sons the title of king. 
Norway remained divided for some time. , 

A\Tien Harald became king of all Norway, some 
the people did not like it. Many of them went m c 
land and founded a colony there, "^ile 
of Iceland did not unite under one king at that i i 
Iceland was the only country to form a • 

during the Viking Age. This was called the A * • 

It met first in 930 and is the oldest national 
in the world. In 1930 the United States and o^^^^ 
governments that have parliaments and 
joined with Iceland to celebrate the thousan 
niversary of the founding of its Althing. At t ^ 
the United States Congress presented to lee 
Althing a statue of Leif Ericson, the discover 
the North American mainland. 

Christianity Is Accepted , 

A handsome young king, Olaf Tryggvesson o 
way, became a convert to the Christian religion 
years before 1000. His passion for the new rnnS'® 
backed by a military force which 

tlic 


refused baptism. Some Northmen were 
tians, mainly through Irish influence, thoug o 



297 


NORTHMEN 


whole, these rough warriors were content with their 
own gods. Gradually Norway was Christianized, then 
the Faerae Islands and Iceland and finally Greenland. 
The first Christian missionaries in Greenland were 
brought there from Norway by Leif Ericson. 

From the Graves We Learn about the Northmen 
A chieftain was buried with everything he might 
need to get to Valhalla. One thhd of his property 
might be used in this way (a third went to his widow 
and a third to his 
children). His grave 
contained weapons, 
horses, chariots, 
boats, and even ships. 

Money, tools, and 
changes of clothing 
were buried with him. 

AVomen’s graves con- 
tained the things they 
might need, such as 
needles and thread, 
weaving looms, kitch- 
en utensils, and cook- 
ing vessels. 

Sometimes a dead 
warrior would be put 
aboard his ship. Then 
the ship was set afire 
and drifted out to sea. 

Less wealthy people 
were buried in boat- 
shaped coffins which 
were covered with 
earth mounds. For- 
tunately, ships and 
other property were 
often not burned, and 
a few ships have been 
preserved to our time. 

Next to the sagas, 
the graves have been 
our best sources of in- 
formation about the 
Northmen. In Scan- 
dinavian museums there are examples of almost every 
art known to the Viking Age. Among these are jewel- 
ly, weapons, furniture, and bronze and silver utensils. 
Most of these have survived because they were made 
of durable materials, such as stone, metal, and hard- 
wood. But woolen clothes in good condition have been 
recovered in parts of Greenland where the soil has 
remained frozen for thousands of years. 

History from the Sagas 

The Northmen, like the Greeks of Homer’s time, 
were storytellers and poets. At all gatherings of par- 
liaments, at weddings, funerals, and so forth, those 
skilled at storytelling and in the reciting of verses 
Would perform. 

When Christianity came to the mainland of Scandi- 
ha\da, folk poems and stories were frowned upon by 
the cle^gJ^ But Iceland was protected by distance 


from the influence of Europe. So, long after Christian- 
ity became the official religion, the Icelandic people 
strove to preserve their historical and literaiy her- 
itage. Bishops and other religious leaders enjoyed 
the storytelling and saw in it nothing which would 
offend God. 

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the clergy and 
scholars of Iceland wrote many manuscripts. All were 
written as the saga tellers related them. Some were 

true and some were 
pure fiction. Among 
the serious historical 
records are sagas 
which tell of the kings 
and of viking con- 
quests. They tell of 
the discovery and 
colonization of Ice- 
land and Greenland 
and of the discovery 
of the American 
mainland. 

Two important 
manuscripts dealing 
with the religion and 
philosophy of the 
Northmen were w'rit- 
ten in Iceland. These 
we know as the Elder 
Edda and the Young- 
er Edda. The first is 
in poetry; the second 
is in prose. Much of 
what we know of ear- 
ly Norse mythology 
came from the Eddas. 

In modern times, 
the Eddas and many 
of the sagas have 
been published in 
book form in Iceland 
and elsewhere. Most 
of them have been 
translated into mod- 
em Scandinavian and other European languages. 
These are studied by students in many universities 
and are read in nearly every comer of the world. 

Viking Age Ends 

As has been said, the early religion of the North- 
men was partly responsible for their love of war. As 
Christianity spread, the Northmen made fewer and 
fewer raids upon other peoples. And so passed the 
Viking Age. The descendants of the Northmen are 
called Scandinavians and live mainly in Denmark, Nor- 
way, Sweden, and Iceland. Millions of them are scat- 
tered in many countries, including the United States 
and Canada. In Iceland much of the old Norse lan- 
guage has been retained. In Norway, Sweden, and 
Denmark the languages are as different from the old 
Norse as modem English is from early Anglo-Saxon. 
(See also Denmark; Iceland; Norway; Sweden.) 


RUNIC STONE MONUMENTS 





Such ruiiic 'stoneTas theseLa't Jening'in Jutla^r Denmark, were caijed 
W Norse craftsmen about the 10th century. They were monuments to 
th^4 defd and w^“e placed in the B^avey^ds No^ the elaborate conven- 
fional desiens around the figure. 



NORTHMEN 


298 


BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR NORTHMEN 
Books for Younger Readers 

Aulaire, I. M. d’ and E. P. d’. Leif the Lucky (Doubleday, 1951). 
Brown, A. F. In the Days of Giants (Houghton, 1902). 
Coatsworth, E. J. Door to the North (Winston, 1950). 

Coblentz, C. C. Falcon of Eric the Red (Longmans, 1942). 
French, Allen. Story of Grettir the Strong (Dutton, 1950). 
Sellew, C. F. Adventures with the Giants (Little, 1950). 
Shippen, K. B. Leif Eriksson (Harper, 1951). 

Weir, R. C. Leif Ericson, Explorer (Abingdon-Cokesbury, 
1951). 

Books for Advanced Students and Teachers 
Brodeur, A. G. Prose Edda (American-Scandinavian Founda- 
tion, 1916). 

Craigie, W. A. Icelandic Sagas (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1913). 
Hermannsson, Hallddr. Problem of Wineland (Cornell Univ. 
Press, 1936). 

Hermannsson, Halldor, ed. Vinland Sagas (Cornell Univ. 
Press, 1944). 

Shute, Nevil. Vinland the Good (Morrow, 1946). 

North sea. One of the most treacherous seas in 
the world for ships to navigate is the North Sea. 
It is often rough, stormy, and covered by thick fogs. 
It is shallow and laced by swift, tangled currents. 
Yet at all times the North Sea teems with ships. 
Freighters move constantly along its sea lanes. 
Smaller vessels roll and pitch over its fishing 
grounds, probably the richest that have ever existed. 
Commerce and fishing make the North Sea one 
of the most important bodies of water in the world. 

Except for two long arms the North Sea is roughly 
rectangular in shape, some 600 miles long and 400 
wide. It lies between Great Britain and Scandinavia. 
The Low Countries and parts of the German and 
French coasts close it in at the south. At the north 
it lies open to the Atlantic. One arm reaches south- 
ward and connects it with the Strait of Dover and the 
English Channel beyond. Another, formed by the 
narrow Skagerrak and Kattegat, hooks around Den- 
mark to reach the Baltic Sea. 

Most of the North Sea lies on the continental 
shelf of Europe (see Earth). This area was dry land 
until after the Ice Age. Then flooding formed the 
present shallow sea, which averages only 312 feet 
in depth. Dogger Bank, off the British coast, is an 
ancient plateau. Here at one point the water is no 
more than 40 feet deep. A deep trough, the Norway 
Deep follows the curve of the Norwegian coast and 
enters the Skagerrak. Parts of this Nonvay Deep are 
more than 2,000 feet in depth. 

Shallowness partially accounts for the North Sea’s 
rich fisheries. Storm waves stir the bottom and 
bring up the minerals on which tiny plants and ani- 
mals called plankton live (see Ocean). Plankton are 
food for a large fish population. Certain fish also 
thrive in a mixture of warm and cold water and of 
fresh and salt water. The many rivers emptying in- 
to the North Sea help supply such a mixture. Fish- 
ermen take great catches of cod, herring, mackerel, 
and others. The best grounds are along the British 
coast, especially on Dogger Bank where shallow 
water makes trawling easy. (In the Dutch language 
dogger means cod.) The bays of the North Sea abound 
in lobstere, oysters, and other shellfish. 


This sea and its connecting waters wash the shores 
of powerful commercial countries. Most of the great 
port cities of western Europe are on these waters. 
London, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Copen- 
hagen, and Oslo are a few of these. Ships continually 
cross the North Sea, carrying cargoes of timber from 
Norway; iron from Sweden; farm products from Den- 
mark and the Netherlands; and manufactures from 
the United Kingdom, Belgium, and Germany. At 
the southern end of the North Sea, where the mouths 
of the Thames, Scheldt, Meuse, and Rhine converge, 
is the densest sea traffic anywhere in the world. 

Since the early Middle Ages North Sea trade has 
been important. For centuries it was dominated by 
the powerful Hanseatic League of cities (see Hanse- 
atic League). Since then, many battles have been 
fought for the control of its strategic waters. Most 
important of these was the great battle of Jutland 
in World War I. 

Northwest territories, Canada. About one 
third of all Canada is comprised in the huge wilderness 
known as the Northwest Territories. This consists 
of a plain stretching north from the Prairie Provinces 
to the Arctic Ocean and continuing wdth a great 
group of islands, the northernmost of which extends 
to within 475 miles of the North Pole. 

The total population was only 16,004 in the 1951 
census, mostly Indians, half-breeds, and Eskimos. A 
few white people live near the mines and at the trad- 
ing posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company (see Hudson s 
Bay Company). In recent years mining has come to 
rival the fur trade as the most important industry. 
The mine at Great Bear Lake is one of the world s 
chief sources of radium and uranium. Silver, gold, 
and petroleum are also being exploited. Most of the 
area is still unexplored and is uninhabitable for white 
men because of the severity of the climate. About 
half is comprised in the great plain known as the 
Barren Lands. In the west, along the valley of the 
Mackenzie River, the soil is fertile and the climate 
somewhat more moderate so that vegetables and 
hardy cereals are raised at the trading posts. 

Until 1869 aU the region was part of the immense 
possessions of the Hudson’s Bay Company. It 
administered by a commissioner appointed by the 
government of Canada and by the Royal Canadian 
Mounted Police and is divided into the provisiona 


districts of Mackenzie, Keewatin, and Franklin. 
Northwest territory. When the 13 Amer- 
ican Colonies won their independence from England, 
six of the old states, on the basis of their old sea-to- 
sea grants, elaimed sections of the great unsettled 
regions between the Allegheny Mountains and the 
Mississippi River. The state of Maryland had no 
western lands and felt “that the back lands, claimed 
by the British crown, if secured by the blood and 
treasure of aU, ought in reason, justice, and policy to 
be considered a common stock.’’ Therefore, it 
fused to ratify the Articles of Confederation unti 
the other states had given their western lands to the 
federal government. 



299 » 


NORWAY 




Having acquired this territory, Congress had next 
to devise some means for governing it, and in 1787 
an ordinance was passed which has been declared 
to be second in importance only to the Declaration 
of Independence and the Constitution. It provided 
that the region should be divided into not less than 
three or more than five states; that it should be 
governed at first by ofiicers appointed by Congress; 
that after it had 5,000 free male inhabitants a house 
of representatives should be elected, which could 
select a delegate to Congress with the right to debate 
but not to vote; and that when any of the divisions 
of the territory had 60,000 free inhabitants it should 
be admitted to the Union “on an equal footing 
with the original states.” The law also allowed free- 


dom of religion, habeas corpus privileges, and jury 
trial. It declared that "schools and the means of 
education shall be forever encouraged,” and finally, 
it prohibited slavery in the region “northwest of the 
river Ohio.” The means of encouraging education 
had already been provided in an ordinance originating 
with Jefferson in 1785, which provided for the survey 
and sale of the land, and for the giving of of the 
national domain to the new states for the support of 
public schools. 

The plan of government worked out by Congress 
for this region was followed in all later “territories” 
of the United States. Out of the original Northwest 
Territory were carved the states of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. 


rhe Rugged LAND of the MIDNIGHT SUN 



^ORWAY. The beauty of this rugged, northern 
land is world famous. Deep, slender bays, called 
fiords, pierce its jagged coast. Their green waters re- 
flect high, steep, rocky walls and sparkling waterfalls. 
Forests climb up the mountain slopes to ridges cov- 
ered Mth snow and ice. But beautiful Norway has 
ttle feriile land, and the short, cool summers make 
poor growing weather for crops. It also lacks coal and 
”iany raw materials. Yet its frugal, persevering people 
e^n earn a living by making the best of their few 
natural resomces. They have created a sturdy and 
^pected nation. 


The farmers till every inch of the small fields 
between the fiords and the cliffs. They plant crops 
that ripen in the short s umm ers. To save the low- 
land grass for hay, they drive their cattle to the high 
mountain meadows for summer pasture. By fall the 
log storehouses are full of produce for winter use. 
After the harvest, farmers and their sons work in 
logging camps or on fishing vessels. 

The people make the sea give them much of their 
food and provide a living for thousands of men. Norse 
fishermen get huge catches of fish from the cold 
waters to supply home tables and sell abroad. Fear- 



NORWAY 

less Norse seamen and 
stmdy ships carry car- 
goes to every port in 
the world. 

From their forests the 
Norwegians get the logs 
to build snug houses, 
wood for fires, and tim- 
ber for shipbuilding and 
pulp and paper factories. 

The loggers chop the 
trees on the mountain- 
sides in winter and float 
them to the sea when 
the rivers thaw. 

The people use the 
money earned by their 
ships and by selling 
timber and fish to other 
countries to buy foreign 
foods they cannot raise 
at home. They also im- 
port raw materials and coal for their factories. To 
cut down the need for imported coal, engineers have 
biult huge power plants that take electric energy from 
the country’s waterfalls. This supply of power and 
the skill and industry of Norwegian workers have 
helped make Norway a manufacturing nation. 

A Mountainous Northern Land by the Sea 

Norway occupies the western coast of the Scandi- 
navian peninsula in northwestern Europe. On the 
map we see that it extends about 300 miles beyond 
the Arctic Circle to 71° N. latitude. Here the sun 
stays above the horizon for about two months in sum- 
mer, making night as fight as day. This gives the 

GAY COSTUMES OF N ORWEGIAN CHILDREN 


300 


Extent. — Southwest to northeast, about 1,100 miles; east 
to west 60 to 250 miles. Area, about 125,000 square 
miles; coast line, including fiords and islands, about 
12,000 miles. Population (1950 census), 3,278,546. 

Natural Features. — Surface a rugged tableland, with nu- 
merous isolated mountain masses, snow fields, and gla- 
ciers. Chief ranges; Kjolen or Keel, between Norway and 
Sweden (highest point, Jaeggevarre, 6,283 feet); Dovre 
Field (Snehaetta, 7,615 feet); Rjondane Fjeld (Hogron- 
den, 6,929 feet); Jotun Fjeld or Jotunheim (Galdhopig- 
gen, highest mountain in Scandinavia, 8,160 feet). 
Largest glacier in Europe, Jostedalsbrae (area, 580 
square miles). Principal fiords: Oslo, Bokn, Hardanger, 
Sogne, Nord, Trondheim, Geiranger, Vest (West), 
Lyngen, Varanger. Chief rivers; Glomma, Drammen. 
Numerous lakes. 

Products. — ^Hay, oats, barley, rye, wheat, potatoes; cattle, 
sheep, and dairy products; cod, herring, mackerel, and 
other fish; whale oil; iron, copper, nickel, silver; lumber 
products, chemicals, paper, and food products. 

Cities. — Oslo (capital, 434,047); Bergen (112,845); Trond- 
heim (56,669); Stavanger (50,647); Drammen, Kristian- 
sand, Haugesund, Alesund, Moss, Skien (over 15,000). 







country the name, “Land 
of the Midnight Sun.’’ 
Even in southern Nor- 
way summer daylight 
lasts far into the eve- 
ning. But winter days 
are brief; and for about 
two months in winter, 
the sun fails to rise along 
the far north coast. 

The Kjolen Mountains 
and related ranges make 
a rocky backbone for the 
country. For most of 
their length the central 
ridges form the Swedish 
boundary. From this 
crest the surface con- 
tinues into Norway as a 
high plateau. Short, 
swift rivers have gashed 
deep canyons in the pla- 
teau, and here and there peaks rise to altitudes of 
from 6,000 to 8,000 feet. Heavy snow on the peaks 
and plateau feeds the most gigantic glaciers in all 
Europe. One of them, the Jostedalsbrae, covers 580 

square miles and 
is 1,400 to 1,600 
feet thick. It 
thrusts giant 
arms of ice into 
the neighboring 
valleys. In some 
of them the ice 
reaches asfar 
as the sea. The 
sharp western 
edge of the table- 
land drops ab- 
ruptly into the 
ocean in high 
cliffs. Along 
this edge, the 
ocean flows into 
the valleys, 
making the long, 
narrow bays 
known as fiords. 
Some 150,000 rocky islands, called 
the Skjaergaard (“skerry fence h 
follow the coast fine. They guard an 
inland passageway of calm 
waters against the fury of Nort 
Atlantic storms. The islands an 

The ’small girl in the top plctoje 
to a tribe of Lapps who pasture their ® 
deer herds in the cold interior 
Norway. Her suit and cap ^f* ^he 
skin are trimmed with bright 
upturned toes of her moccasins -Ky 

with moss to keep her feet 
children in the lower picture are « 
up** in traditional peasant costunie* 
red vests and embroidered caps* 





NORWAY and 
SWEDEN 

SCALE OF MILES 

0 50 TOO T50 20 0 

1 ineh-about 154 Slotute Miles 

CAPITAL© HIGH POINTA CANAL 

NORWAY 




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> Afoc. ‘"i. '- ' ’W,.. r" • , Bornholm 

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C,Sc«"4u~, -Suffen ^S'v- j- VqY- ,; =- 

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C G«rr of v 

,-■■ Riga ! 


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peninsula’s rivers flow southeast across the Swedish plains that slope gently to tne GuU ot Botnma and the Baltic Sea. 
^ Norway short swift rivers olunae down the sharp descent of the mountains to the ragged coast fringed by thousands of 
’islTnL aLu“ oie-foSh of fhe Scandinavian peninsula lies north of the Arctic Circle. 


301 




NORWAY 


302 


the jagged indentations of the fiords make the coast 
line measure about 12,000 miles— or half the circum- 
ference of the earth. 

Since mountains and rock-bound coasts make up 
most of the surface of Norway, we can see why the 
country is almost three-quarters unproductive. Less 
than 4 per cent is suitable for farms or even meadow- 
land, and about 24 per cent is forested. 

Three regions account for most of the cultivated 
land and a great part of the forests. The first is in the 
south where the Swedish boundary falls away from 
the mountains, leaving their eastern slope to Norway. 
This is the Oslo region, which slopes gradually down 
toward the Oslofjord. Rivers flow into this great fiord 
from all directions. Farms fill the valleys, and timber 
covers the slopes and the dividing ridges. The second 
good farming region is the Trondheim depression, the 
single break in the mountain backbone. Here a low 
valley provides easy travel into central Sweden. The 
soft limestone has been eroded into rolling plains, 
where hardy crops flourish. The third farming region 
lies around the southernmost bulge of Norway, where 
the mountains stop short of the sea, leaving a region 
of low hills and marshland. Forests grow on the 
lower slopes and some of the land is suitable for grain 
and dairy farming. 

Sea Winds Temper the Climate 
Since Norway lies far north in about the same range 
of latitude as Greenland, Siberia, and the Alaskan 
mainland, it might be supposed that its climate would 
be equally frigid. Instead, temperatures along the 
coast are quite moderate and the harbors are ice-free 
far into the Arctic. This is because the warm ocean 
current known as the North Atlantic Drift flows past 
the coast. The prevailing winds from the west blow 
over this warm water and temper the Norwegian cli- 
mate. Average temperatures for February on the 
Arctic coast are 25°F., and on the coast below Trond- 
heim they are above freezing. Because the mountains 
prevent the sea winds from reaching Oslo, it gets 
colder there. In the bleak Arctic interior the ther- 
mometer may fall to — 46°F. Summers are cool with 
averages along the west coast ranging from 55° to 65°. 

Rainfall and snowfall are heavy because the sea 
winds drop their moisture as they rise above the moun- 
tain wall. The southwest gets the heaviest rains — 
measuring 87 inches a year at Bergen. The moisture 
diminishes on the eastern slopes, and Oslo receives 
about 24 inches. 

How the People Live 

With a population of only 3,277,000, Norway is 
the most sparsely populated of the European nations. 
The tall, blond people of Teutonic stock have lived 
here since Viking days when their fierce sailor an- 
cestors scoured the northern seas (see Northmen). 
They are industrious and hardy. Their average per 
capita savings are normally greater than those in the 
United States: health standards are high; and they 
are a long-lived people. 

_ Because a great many Noru'egian farm families 
live in isolated valleys or deep within the fiords, they 


retain their old ways of life. The typical farm home is 
snugly built of brown logs. Its steep-pitched roof is 
covered with sod, where grass and flowers bloom in 
summer and a layer of snow gives extra warmth in 
winter. Inside, quaint wood carvings decorate door 
panels, cupboards, and the mantel above the big fire- 
place. Barns and other buildings cluster around the 
house. The stahhur, or storehouse, is filled with food 
to supply the table for months, since shopping trips 
are rare, especially during the long winter. 

The family must work hard to fill the larder. Spring 
comes late, and the men must hurry to dig out the 
rocks pushed up through the soil by the frost, so the 
crops can be planted. The schools have a long spring 
vacation so the children can help with the planting, 
and another in the fall when the potato crop is har- 
vested. Boys and girls enjoy such tasks as caring for 
the lambs, • calves, and kids, and journeying to the 
woods to pick juicy cloudberries and blueberries. 

On Midsummer Day, June 24, the household loses 
the help of two members, for it is time to drive the 
cows, sheep, and goats up the steep mountain trail to 
the meter, or high pasture. An older daughter takes 
charge as milkmaid, and a young brother goes along 
to watch the grazing stock and bring it in at milking 
time. The milkmaid churns butter and makes cheese 
from the goat milk. 

Harvest time is the most strenuous. Men and boys 
swing the scythes, and even use sickles to get the 
stalks that have grown in rocky corners, for the fields 
are too small for machine reapers. After the hay is 
cut and raked, it must be hung to dry on wires strung 
between poles. If piled in stacks, it would mold in the 
cloudy rainy weather. 

Housewives keep busy, for their families eat four or 
five hearty meals a day to provide heat and energy 
for outdoor work in this cool climate. The task of 
feeding the stock that must be kept in the barn during 
the winter usually falls to the women and the sturdy 
youngsters of school age, for the farmer and his older 
sons seek work away from home. Most of what the 
farm produces is needed to feed the family and the 
stock. So the money for clothes and other supplies 
must be earned elsewhere. 

Lumbering and fishing provide most of the e.xtra 
jobs. Groups of men spend the winter weeks in log- 
ging camps, and other groups from the fiord coin- 
munity may jointly own a motorboat or steam crHt m 
which they sail to the northern fishing waters. Here 
they brave the cold stormy seas to put out nete or 
long lines equipped with many hooks and catch huge 
cargoes of codfish. Part of the catch is sold and par 
is dried and brought back for the families of the cren. 

Entertainment, Sports, and Education 

Though the Nonvegians work hard, they 
for sports and festivities. Midsummer Eve calls o 
gay parties to honor the girls who leave next day e 
the high pastures. Christmas brings gifts and feasting 
Every child, boy or girl, puts a dish of holiday pi* 
ding in the barn for the Yulenisse, or Christmas e , 
who is expected to eat the food and leave a gift ° 





«2.rte.'-p?,';n„; s‘i”Ks£“2as.'S^^^^^ p™-- ...b»-..»rw./. ■„«., „> -m.!. 


303 












At upper left st^ds the hmldmg m which Norway’s Storttng, or parUament. holds its sessions. At upper right, Karl , 
gate, Oslo s leading sbeet, slopes upward toward the Ionic porUco of the Royal Palace. In the center picture we see a pan ^ 
wharves he some of the ships of Norway’s great merchant marine. The bottom 
group of students standing between classes on the steps of one of the buildings of the University of Oslo. Young Korwes-"* 

are generally tall, strong, and serious about their work. 


304 




NORWAY 


"304fl* 


MARKETING F ISH FROM COASTAL WATERS 




Here on the wharf at the great fish export city of Bergel, fishermen sell their catch to dealers and housewives. The spars in the 
background would indicate that they still use sailing vessels, but since most of Norway's fishing fleet is power-driven the craft 
probably carry motors as well as sails. Ocean freighters are moored in the harbor at the left. 


children ■w'ho have been good. At weddings, the 
people of some communities bring out the traditional 
pedant costumes. The bride wears a black wool 
skirt worked with colorful embroidery, a red vest, and 
a sheer white blouse and apron. On her head rests the 
bride’s gilt crown with its black streamers. Fiddlers 
lead the bridal procession from the flower-strewn 
church, and the guests crowd into boats for a trip 
across the fiord to the wedding party. 

Skating and skiing are favorite winter sports, and 
skis are used for the trip to school and other practical 
journeys. Giant ski-meets draw entrants from all 
over the world. Visitors also come from other lands to 
join in summer sports, such as sailing, fishing in the 
^vift mountain streams, mountain climbing, and 
hiking. 

Elementary schools are free and compulsory in Nor- 
^’ay, and illiteracy is almost imknown. Pupils may 
attend the middle schools and the gymnasiums (high 
Schools) in the towns and cities only if they pass spe- 
cial entrance examinations. The University of Oslo, 
the Technical College at Trondheim, and the Agricul- 
ural College at Aas offer college courses. The state 
church is Lutheran. Libraries, museums, and scien- 
ific societies encourage learning in Norway. Outdoor 
Museums display old houses and their furnishing to 
modem folk the way their ancestors lived, 
rougfi centuries Norwegians have made ouL 
^®^_ing contributions to Scandinavian art, music, 
literature; and Norway’s scientists are eminent in 


many fields, notably polar exploration (see Scandi- 
navia; Polar Exploration). 

Harvest from Farm and Forest 

Farming and lumbering employ about 38 per cent of 
the people of Nonvay. The farms are small — most of 
them under five acres — ^and nearly all owned by the 
men who farm them. Expert cultivation produces 
high 3 delds. Hay occupies the greatest acreage. Oats 
are the chief grain, with barley second, then wheat and 
rye. Potatoes flourish in the cool, moist climate. 
Cattle and sheep are raised throughout the country 
and dairy products constitute the only agricultural 
export. The farmers have formed cooperative socie- 
ties to build creameries, cheese factories, and slaughter- 
houses, to sell eggs and timber, and to purchase sup- 
plies. 

Timber is Norway’s most important raw material, 
and wood products its most valuable ex-port. The 
heaviest forests grow in the Oslo region. Three- 
quarters of the trees are evergreens. 'They are felled in 
the winter and floated dowm the melting streams in 
spring to sawnnills, pulp mills, and paper factories at 
the mouths of the rivers. 

Wealth from the Sea 

The generosity of the sea has helped make up for 
the niggardliness of Norway’s land. With skilled sea- 
men, safe harbors, and ample timber for shipbuilding, 
Norway has throughout history been a seafaring 
nation. In modem times it has ranked among the 
four leading countries in its merchant tonnage! 'The 



■ 3045 > 


NORWAY — 

HAMMERFEST, NOR THE R N M O ST TO W N I N E U R OPE 







to a 4 * • t « ! 1 1 b?i^' 

,,, -, „ __, Jsiiaj *>• ->** .-... , 



Though Hammerfest is in the land of the midnight sunt it is an ice-free port. Arctic Ocean 
fishing fleets market their catch here. Like many northern Norwegian towns, Hammerfest 
was burned by the Germans in the second World War. This is a main street in the rebuilt city. 

earnings of this fleet in carrying cargoes for the coun- 
tries of the world have helped maintain the trade 
balance of this country, which must import both food 
and raw materials. The tourists which the liners 
bring to see the country’s beauty also contribute to 
its income. 

The Norwegians have always depended upon fish 
from their icy coastal waters for food and for sale as 
exports. Their catch is usually the largest in Europe. 

Fishery products make up their second largest export, 
and 16 per cent of the people make their living from 
fisheries. Motorized fleets sail to the fishing grounds 
off the Lofoten Islands in the northwest to catch the 
huge runs of cod that appear there in January, and 
later follow the codfish around into the Arctic Ocean. 

The cod is cured and shipped as “stockfish” which is 
cleaned and hung to dry in the air, and as “clipfish” 
which is salted and spread on rocks to dry. Cod-liver 
oil is pressed from the livers. Herring, mackerel, and 
brisling are seined in huge quantities along the coast. 

The brisling are canned as sardines. Halibut, ling, 
lobsters, shrimps, crabs, and prawns are also taken 
from the sea. Much of the catch is frozen for export. 

The whaling fleets that formerly hunted in north- 
ern waters must now sail to the Antarctic to find 
their prey, but Norway continues to lead the world in 
whaling (see Whale). 

Hydroelectric Power Operates Factories 

Lacking coal, the Norwegians have harnessed their 
streams to supply the greatest amount of hydroelec- 
tric power per capita of any country in the world. 

So abundant is this power that they specialize in such 
current-consuming processes as the manufacture of 
aluminum and nitrates. Twenty-eight per cent of 
the people are engaged in manufacturing. Impor- 
tant industries include pulp and paper mills, fish 
canning, and shipbuilding. 


Mining is relatively unim- 
portant. Iron ore, copper, zinc, 
sulphur pyrites, nickel, and 
silver are found. Norway’s 
only source of coal is its colony 
of Svalbard, 400 miles north 
in the Arctic Ocean. This 
colony, which consists of the 
Spitsbergen Archipelago and 
Bear Island, also has iron, cop- 
per, and lead deposits. The 
colony was acquired in 1920 by 
international treaty. 

Manufacturing is concen- 
trated around Oslo, but wide- 
spread development of water 
power has permitted industries 
to spring up in many valley 
towns and in the fishing ports 
that fringe the coast. Oslo is 
the economic as well as the 
political capital of the coun- 
try (see Oslo). Bergen, the 
second city in size, has been 
an important fishing and commercial center since the 
days of the Hanseatic League. Trondheim, the ancient 
capital, is famous for its magnificent Gothic cathedral 
where the kings of Norway are crowned. The north 
Atlantic port of Narvik is the outlet for the rich iron 
ores shipped by rail from northern Sweden. Tromsb 
and Hammerfest are Arctic Ocean fishing ports where 
whaling, fishing, and Arctic exploring expeditions 
are fitted out. Fifty miles to the north tower the gray 
barren cliffs of the North Cape. 

History of Norway _ _ 

Out of its dim past as a land of the Vikings (sff 
Northmen), Norway emerged in the 11th century as 
a united Christian kingdom. In 1397 it wasjoine 
with Denmark and Sweden in the Union of Kalmar. 
Sweden later seceded from this union, but for more 
than 400 years Norway was little more than a , 
ency of Denmark. Because Denmark sided "i 
France in the Napoleonic wars (1796-1815), the op 
posing powers backed Sweden in taking Norway 


the Danes after Napoleon was overthrown in 


For nearly a century Norway was ruled by the Sue ^ 
ish king, although it retained its separate 2°'^™ 
ment. In 1905 Sweden yielded to the request of 
way’s storting (parliament) to dissolve the ‘ 
Prince Charles of Denmark was elected king an ' 
crowned Haakon VII in 1906. Norway flounshe 
a peaceful, progressive constitutional 
Norway tried to remain neutral in the 
War, as it had in the first. But on April 9, 
peace was shattered by a German invasion (s^ _ 
War, Second). Traitors, headed by Vidkun 
an army major, aided the enemy and set a ^ 
government. Britain and France came to Nor" 7 
aid, but Germany’s overwhelming power bro 
surrender in 62 days. King Haakon with his ca i 
escaped to London and put Norway’s merchan 



305 - 


— NOSE 


in the Allies’ service. In Norway a strong under- 
ground harried the Germans by sabotaging railwa 5 '^s, 
mines, and factories. After the war, in 1945, King 
Haakon returned. In 1946 Trygve Lie, foreign minis- 
ter, resigned to become the first secretar 3 ''-general 
of the United Nations. Norway began to get American 
aid from the European Recovery Program in 1947. 

In 1949 Noramy gave up its traditional neutrality 
and signed the North Atlantic Treaty. Nomay sent 
iioncombat aid to South Korea. In 1951 Oslo became 
northern headquarters for NATO. 

The government tightened control of all Norway’s 
industrj^ in 1953 by passing a law regulating prices 
and competition. It also began developing thinly 
settled northern Noramy and built a hydroelectric 
steel mill. By 1954 an increase in shipbuilding put 
it third in world tonnage. (For Reference-Outline 
and Bibliography, see Europe.) 

Nose. Lung-breathing animals must have an air 
intake on the outside of the body. In man this struc- 
ture is called a nose. Similar parts for other animals 
are called snout, muzzle, or trunk. The nose has 
two main jobs. It is part of our breathing apparatus, 
and it holds the olfactory nerve endings that detect 
smells. The nose is the outer end of the respiratory 
tract. It filters, warms, and moistens incoming air on 
its way to the lungs. It also serves as an outlet for 
exhaled air. The mouth may also be used for breath- 
ing, but it is needed only when the nose cannot sup- 
ply enough air to the lungs. This happens when we 
have a cold or when we are “out of breath” and have 
to pant for air. 

_ The nose is a paired structure. Every part on one 
side has a similar part on the other side. The dividing 
line on the outside, called the bridge, is the nose 
bone and its extension, the nasal cartilages. Car- 
tilages on each side give the outside of the nose its 
shape. Inside, the division is made by the septum. 
This is a wall of bone and cartilage that divides 
the nose into two cavities. The septum extends from 


the nostril openings, nares, to the nasal part of the 
pharynx, or nasopharynx. 

In general the longer caxdties are called the respira- 
tory areas and the upper, the olfactory areas. Here 
the olfactory nen^e endings are located. The nerves 
lead to the under surface of the brain. Inhaled air 
passes up and across these nerve endings, but exhaled 
air passes through the respiratory area only. Thus 
we can smell incoming air but cannot detect an odor 
in our own exhaled breath. I\Tat we call the taste 
of food also includes its smell. Wien the nose is 
“stopped up” bj-^ a cold, many foods seem tasteless. 
{See also Smell; Taste.) 

Just inside the nostrils, or nares, groiv short, 
coarse haiis. These filter out large dust particles 
from the incoming air. The remainder of each nasal 
cavity and the sinuses around the nose are lined with 
a special kind of tissue, called mucous membrane. 
The glands in the tissue secrete the stick}'^ mucus 
which traps fine dust particles. Alinute hairlike parts 
called cilia grow from the surface and are in constant 
motion. Thej’- push the dust-laden mucus so that it 
moves toward and drains into the throat. The mucus 
also kills some germs and stops the growth of others. 
In the olfactory area, the nerve endings grow through 
the mucous membrane. 

Inside each cavity are three ridges that e.xtend 
from the lateral walls (the sides towards the cheeks). 
These are the turbinates, or conchae. Their work is 
to radiate heat, warming the incoming air so that it 
arrives in the lungs at the proper temperature. The 
passages between the turbinates are called meati 
(singular, meatus). Warm fluids from various glands 
including the tear glands evaporate in the meati and 
humidify the air. Incoming air pauses briefly in the 
meati and then, warmed and moistened, it passes to 
the lungs in measured quantities. 

The Sinuses Around the Nose 

The sinuses are cavities in the bones of the skull 
that have openings into the nasal cavities. There 


I — 


THE COMPLEX STRUCTURE OF TH E NOSE 


Opening of 
frontal sinus 
into nose 


; Opening of 
I maxillary 
1 sinus 


Nostril 



Cr<vX 



Pituitary gland (cut in half) 
Sphenoid sinus 


Sphenoid bone 
at base of skull 


■Adenoids 
{tonsils of nose) 

Eostdchion tubes 



p (right) (left)— 




■■ Nasopharynx 

I/A. 



"First vertebra 


, of spine ' 


, \y ‘I-t » n ‘ Roof of mouth (palate) Tooth 

[ ^ lower turbinate' middle turbinate Cr(TxVk*.^A- Oi sp 

the“rightlateral wau of the nose - seen - 

the etlmcad^s^us^^. At^^^e rigM we see me septum («n.r^ that lead into the nasal caviUes. 



306 


NOSE 

are four sets of sinuses: the frontal, in the lower 
forehead, just above the eyes; the maxillary, in the 
cheekbones; the ethmoid (or ethmoidal), between the 
nasal cavities and the e3"e sockets; and the sphenoid 
(or sphenoidal), behind the ethmoids, near the center 
of the head. 

The sinuses are filled with air and act as sounding 
chambers which make the voice more resonant. 
Their hollow construction makes the skull lighter 
without loss of structural strength. Otherwise the 
sinuses seem to have no function or use. Sinus dis- 
orders are called sinusitis. They arise from a number 
of causes and often result in a great increase in the 
secretion of mucus and in the swelling of the mem- 
branes, which clogs the small openings of the sinus 
into the nose. {See also Lungs; Respiration.) 

Noun. A noun is a word that names. It may 
name anything of which anybody may think or 
speak — as school, America, kindness, justice, children. 
If it is the name of one particular person or object 
or place, it is called a proper noun. In this sense 
“proper” means “belonging exclusively to.” Your 
name, Frank or Mary, is a proper noun, because it 
belongs to jmu and distinguishes you from other 
persons. Fido, Chicago, America, Saturday, The 
Mauretania, Paradise Lost are proper nouns. Some 
proper nouns also denote groups of persons, or a 
member of a group — Americans, Frenchmen, Dem- 
ocrats, Baptists. Any noun that is not a special 
individual name is a “common” noun — as kindness, 
cloth, city, book. Such nouns are called “common” 
because they belong to more than one person or 
thing. A special kind of common noun is the “col- 
lective” noun, which stands for a group of things 
or persons — class, grove, flock, jury. 

Most nouns in English have two forms, according 
to whether they mean one object or more than one. 
The form which denotes one is called the singular 
number; that form which denotes more than one is 
called the plural number — bird, birds; woman, 
women. The plural is generally formed by adding 
s to the singular. Sometimes the s plural changes 
the spelling of the singular — city, cities; self, selves. 
When adding s, nouns ending in y after a consonant 
change the y to ie; and several nouns ending in / or 
fe change the / to v. Some nouns ending in o add es, 
others add s only — cargo, cargoes; piano, pianos. 
Nouns that end in a sound difficult to pronounce with 
a final s add es — church, churches. A few nouns form 
their plurals by adding en or by changing the internal 
vowel — child, children; tooth, teeth. This was the 
common way of forming plurals in Old English, or 
Anglo-Saxon. There are also some foreign plurals in 
common use — stratum, strata; crisis, crises. A few 
nouns make no change for the plural — deer. 

How Nouns Become Possessive 

Many nouns, especially those denoting persons or 
animals, have another form called the possessive case 
because it is chiefly used to denote possession, like 
the genitive case in Latin. Singular nouns, and all 
plurals not ending in s, add the apostrophe and s to 


form the possessive — lady’s, ehildren’s. Brown’s. 
Plurals ending in s add the apostrophe only— ladies’, 
boys’. In formal use, most names of things are 
not used in the possessive; instead of the book’s 
cover, the chair’s back, the usual form is the cover of 
the book, the back of the chair. But nouns denoting 
time are often found in the possessive — as o day's 
work, a night’s lodging, a seven days’ journey. 

Besides the possessive case, nouns, like pronouns, 
have two other cases, according to the construction 
in which they are used. Nouns do not change their 
form to distinguish these cases, though most pronouns 
do. Nouns and pronouns used as the subject sub- 
stantive of a verb are said to be in the nominative 
(“naming”) case. Nouns and pronouns used as the 
direct or indirect objects of verbs (see Verbs), as 
the objects of prepositions, and as the subjects of 
infinitives are said to be in the objective case. A 
noun or pronoun in apposition with another (that 
is, used to modify or explain the meaning of another 
noun or pronoun meaning the same person or thing— 
as “Caesar, the conqueror”) is put in the same case as 
the word it modifies. It is called an appositive. 

To give in order the various forms which a noun 
or pronoun may take, indicating different meanings 
or uses in the sentence, is called “declining” it, or 
giving its “declension.” Thus the declension of child 
is: singular, nominative and objective, child; posses- 
sive, child’s. Plural, children, children’s. 

In addition to number and case, nouns, like pro- 
nouns, have two other properties: gender and per- 
son. (For a discussion of grammatical person, see 
Pronouns.) Nouns, except those in direct addrps, 
are always in the third person. Gender, in English, 
denotes male, female, or the absence of sex- 
prince, princess, table. Nouns denoting males are 
masculine; those denoting females, feminine; and 
those denoting things without sex, neuter. Nouns 
which refer to both sexes are said to be of common 
gender— as people, birds, etc. 

The Work That Nouns Can Do 
Some of the chief constructions in which nouns may 
be used are illustrated in the following sentences. 
Subject and . predicate noun: A dollar saved is a do or 
earned. 

Direct object: He saved a dollar a week. .. 

Object of a preposition: He kept account of eveiy o 
that he spent. U „ 

Indirect object: Association gave that dollar a pecu 

Secondary or complementary object: I will make y 
wages a dollar a day. 1 1 ne 

Subject of an infinitive: I want my dollar to last o • 
Possessive modifier: Give me a dollar’s worth of ^^ 8 ®. jn 
Adnominal use (like an adjective): This is a J 

Appositive; His pay — a round silver dollar see 
enormous. .j slip 

Nominative of address: Oh, dollar, why did 

. , (ijgt 

Nominative of exclamation; A dollar! What does 
amount to? . , g,,,. 

Nominative absolute; He turned away, his precious 
clutched tightly in his hand. 



NOVA SCOTIA 


NOVA SCOTIA— “DOORSTEP of the CONTINENT” 


ajova SCOTIA, Canada. 

This maritime pro-vdnce of 
Canada is called “the doorstep 
of the continent” from its lo- 
cation at the entrance to the 
St. Lamence River, the high- 
way into the interior. It occu- 
pies the southeastemmost 
peninsula of Canada and near- 
by Cape Breton Island. The 
Atlantic Ocean lies to the 
south and east. On the west 
is the Bay of Fundy. It is 
joined to New Brunswick on 
the northwest by the Isthmus 
of Chignecto. The Strait of 
Canso, one mile wide, sepa- 
rates the peninsula from Cape 
Breton Island on the north- 
east. Northumberland Strait 
separates it from Prince Ed- 
ward Island on the north. To 
the north and west of Cape 
Breton Island is the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence. It is the second 



The Officers’ Quarters of Fort Anne at Annapolis Royal, now a museum, were built by the 
English in 1798. The fort was built by the French m 1702 on the site of an earlier fort. 


smallest of the Canadian provinces (21,068 square 
miles), somewhat smaller than the state of West 
Virginia. 

The peninsula of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton 
Island are a part of the Appalachian Mountain system 
of North America. The highest area is in the north- 
ern part of Cape Breton Island. It is a great table- 
land about 1,200 feet high, with bold crags rising 
1,500 feet above the sea. The most spectacular section 
has been set aside in the Cape Breton Highlands 
National Park (see Cape Breton Island). 

The peninsula is divided into several sections — 
the farmlands along the Bay of Fundy and North- 
umberland Strait; the rocky Atlantic coast whose 
people are occupied with fishing, shipping interests, 
and manufacturing; and the hilly, forested interior, 
thinly settled, with large areas set aside as game 

sanctuaries. 


lies the Annapolis-Comwallis Valley. It extends 
southwest for about 100 miles and is 10 to 15 miles 
wide. This is the garden of Nova Scotia and one of 
the leading fruitgrowing regions in Canada. Other 
important farmlands border the shores of Minas 
Basin and Northumberland Strait. 

The entire Atlantic coast, for a distance of 30 to 
50 miles inland, is underlaid by ancient pre-Cambrian 
rocks. Except for a few' short river valleys, it is 
poor farming country and from the beginning of the 
pro^dnce’s history its people have turned to the sea 
for a livelihood. In the many coves and baj's are 
fishing villages, fish canneries, and processing plants. 
Halifax, the capital of the province, is Canada’s 
chief eastern seaport when the St. Lawuence River 
is closed by ice (see Halifax). Yarmouth, on the south 
coast, has been a shipping center since the days of 
wooden sailing vessels. Lunenburg has the w'orld’s 


Oji the peninsula, the Cobequid Mountains extend 
across Cumberland County from the head 
Th ^ of Fundy almost to Northumberland Strait, 
i hey are about 900 feet above sea level. Along the 
margin of the Bay of Fundy, North Mountain extends 
Northeast by south w'est for 120 miles. It is a lava 
mnge about 550 feet above sea level. The in- 
enor of the peninsula is 


broken with low, forests 
covered^ hills, most of 

direct' in an east-west 

Between the steep, 
straight wall of North 
;^iountain and South 
• muntain, farther inland, 


£xfenA-North to south, 381 miles; east to west, SO to 150 milM; 

Area 21,068 square miles. Population (1951 census), 642,584. 
Natural features.— Mountains part of Appalachians; Cobequid 
Mountains; highest point. Worth Mountam on Cape Breton 
Island I S50ft.;lowestpoint,EeaIevel. Aunapohs-Comwalhs Val- 
llyT^Bras d’Or salt-water lakes (Cape Breton), Lake Rossignol. 
Products —Fish processing, iron and steel, lumber and other wood 
woducts. pulp and paper, shipbuildmg, railway rolUng stock, 
butter and cheese, bakery goods; coal, gyps^, sand and Br^el, 
clay, salt; milk, hay and clover eggs, potatoes, poultry, field 
roots, oats, apples; lobsters, cod, haddock. 

Ci/icJ.-HaUfax (caoital, 85,589); Sydney (31,317). 


largest fleet of deep-sea fishing vessels. Liverpool 
and Shelburne are manufacturing centers. 

A Moderate Oceanic Climate 
The nearness of the sea, never more than 50 miles 
from any point, gives Nova Scotia a moderate climate. 
Conditions var 3 ' between the Atlantic coast, the Bay 
of Fundy shores, and the interior valleys and ridges. 

The average annual pre- 


cipitation is betw’een 35 
and 45 inches, except 
along the southern coast, 
where it is about ten 
inches greater. 

The mean temperature 
in July is 64° F.; the 
.lanuary mean tempera- 



308 


NOVA SCOTIA 

ture is 25°. The interior ridges are colder and the 
valleys warmer than these averages. Prevailing winds 
are from the southwest in the summer and from the 
northwest in the winter. 

Natural Resources and Industry 

Agriculture ranks next to manufacturing in number 
of people employed. The Annapolis-Cornwallis Valley 
produces as much as 3 million barrels of apples in a 
year. It also grows pears, plums, strawberries, 
and raspberries in lesser quantities. Stock raising 
and dairying are important in the farmlands along 
Northumberland Strait and in the Margaree Valley 
of Cape Breton. The chief field crops are hay, oats, 
field roots, and pota- 
toes Fur farming is 
also important. 

The fisheries are 
second in value to 
those of British Co- 
lumbia. The industry 
falls into two divi- 
sions: the inshore 
and the offshore, or 
deep-sea. Mackerel, 
herring, tuna, and 
lobster are the chief 
inshore fish. Cod, hali- 
but, haddock, and 
pollock are the lead- 
ing deep-sea fish. 

Sports fishermen visit 
the province for tuna, 
swordfish, trout, and 
landlocked salmon. 

In the International 
Tuna Cup Match, 
held every summer 
off Wedgeport, huge 
tuna are taken with 
rod and line. 

Coal accounts for about 95 per cent of the 
total mineral production and is second in 
quantity and value to that of Alberta. It 
is a hard, bituminous grade, much of it ex- 
cellent for coking. The chief fields are at 
Sydney and Inverness, Cape Breton Island, 
and Pictou and Cumberland on the mainland. 

Nova Scotia’s gypsum deposits are the largest 
in Canada. There is a salt mine and one of 
the world’s greatest deposits of barytes. 

Forests cover about 55 per cent of the land 
area of the province. “Christmas trees” are 
exported in considerable .numbers. 

Fish curing and packing leads in value 
among manufactures. Iron and steel produc- 
tion is second in rank. The steel mills are at 
Sj'dney. Coal is near at hand and iron and 
limestone are shipped from Newfoundland. 
Sawmills, pulp and paper mills, and ship- 
building are also leading industries. Nova 
Scotia built wooden sailing vessels from the 


beginning of its history, and the world’s fastest sailing 
schooners, such as the Bluenose, are still built in 
Lunenberg. Halifax and Shelburne also have large 
shipyards. Other manufactured products are railway 
rolling stock, butter and cheese, and bakery goods. 

The People, Education, and Government 
Of the total population of 642,584 (1951 census), 
three fourths are of British descent. The French 
constitute about 10 per cent; the Dutch and German 
somewhat less. The Micmac Indians were the earliest 
inhabitants of the region, and some 2,700 of their 
descendants still live in the province. The popula- 
tion density is 30 persons to the square mile, and 
more than half live in urban areas. 


FARMERS AND FISHERMEN 



Nova Scotia has been a leader 
in the trend toward the larger 
school administrative unit and 
the building of rural Composite 
High Schools. Dalhousie Uni- 
versity in Halifax is the largest 
institution of higher education. 
Acadia University, at Wolfville, 
and St. Francis Xavier, at An- 
tigonish, are also important. 

Nova Scotia's govermnent is 
headed by a lieutenant governor. 
Actual government, however, is 
in the hands of the legislature of 
37 members, elected for a term 
of five years, and an executive 
council, or cabinet, consisting of 
the premier and other cabinet 
ministers. 

History of Nova Scotia 
The first European settlement 
was Port Royal on the shores of 



The apple pickers ^at top) are working in an orchard in the 


beautiful 
of the 


IS typical or tne Atlantic coast. Lobster crates lie along me si*-— „ 

picturesque sailing vessels and nets drying in the sun attract 1““ 
artists to Nova Scotia in the summer. 


« 309 


-NOVA SCOTIA 


Annapolis basin in the Bay of Fundy. It was founded 
in 1605 by Sieur de Monts and Samuel de Champlain. 
They gave the name Acadia to the region, which now 
includes modem Nova Scotia, New Bmnsvuck, Prince 
Edward Island, and parts of Maine. 

For more than 150 years Acadia was a battlefield 
in the long stmggle between England and France for 
possession of the New World. In 1613 the English 
captured and destroyed Port Royal. In 1621 King 
James I of England granted Acadia to Sir William 
Alexander and named it Nova Scotia, meaning New 
Scotland, for his native land. The province stiU uses 
the coat of arms created in 1625. 

In 1632 Charles I, successor to James I, returned 
Acadia to France, and Port Royal was resettled by 
the French. It wms repeatedly captured by the 
English and returned to France until in 1710 the 
English took it for the last time and renamed it 
Annapolis Royal. By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) 
England gained possession of “all Nova Scotia or 
Acadie” except lie St. Jean (Prince Edward Island) 
and lie Royale (Cape Breton Island). 


In 1717 France started constiuction of the powerful 
Fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island to 
protect the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
m 1749 England founded the city of Halifax and 
ortified it to offset this threat to its safety.^ Lcmjs- 
3ourg was captured bj’^ Gen. James Wolfe in 1758, 
^nd two years later it was destroyed. By the Treaty 
Paris (1763) Cape Breton Island, together wdth 


practically aU Canada, was ceded to England. 
Alemorials to those dramatic days remain in the re- 
construction of Port Royal Habitation on its original 
site, old Fort Anne in Annapolis Royal, and the 
Fortress of Louisbourg; in the Citadel of Halifax; and 
in the memorial park at Grand Pre. This park recalls 
the exile of the French in 1755, immortalized by Long- 
fellow' in his poem ‘Evangeline’ (see Acadia). 

Prince Edward Island and New Bmnsw’ick, origi- 
nally a part of Nova Scotia, became separate provinces 
in 1769 and 1784 respectivelj'. Cape Breton was re- 
annexed to Nova Scotia in 1820. 

With the founding of Halifax in 1749 many English, 
Irish, and New Englanders arrived. About 20,000 
United Empire Loyalists came from the United 
States in 1783. Between 1791 and 1828 about 50,000 
Scottish Highlanders settled in the north peninsula 
and on Cape Breton Island. Germans, Sw'iss, and 
Huguenots early settled- in Halifax, and in 1753 more 
than 1,400 of these people founded Lunenburg. 

The first elective assembly in Canada convened in 
Halifax in 1758. Real pow'er, how'ever, w'as in the 
hands of the governor and an appointive 
council. The struggle for responsible 
government was led by Joseph Howe, 
through his new'spaper, the Novascotian. 
In 1847 the Reformers won the elections, 
and in the new administration, formed in 
1848, Howe was provincial secretary. From 
1860 to 1863 he w'as premier. 

Difficult times began in the second half 
of the 19th century. Industrial expansion 
w’ent to the large provinces of Ontario 
and Quebec, from w'hich Nova Scotia was 
isolated by geographical barriers. Its 
natural trade southward to New England 
W'as cut off by political barriers and high 
export duties. An intercolonial railwaj' 
was needed to unite the three Maritime 
Provinces, but no one province could afford 
to build it. Solution of these problems 
seemed to lie in a union of the Maritime 
Provinces. In 1863 Howe and the Liberals 
lost the elections and Dr. Charles Tupper 
became premier (see Tupper). Dr. Tupper 
arranged a convention of delegates to meet 
at Charlottetow'n, Prince Edward Island, 
in September 1864 to consider plans for 
union. The convention took on w'ider sig- 
nificance when Canada West and Canada 
East (Ontario and Quebec) sent delegates 
and proposed a union of all Canada. As a 
result of a series of conferences, the Domin- 
ion of Canada was formed in 1867. Nova Scotia be- 
came one of the four original prox'inces. 

Economic development proceeded more slow'ly than 
in other parts of Canada. Railway, highway, and air 
transportation, however, improved. New industries 
developed during and after the second World War, 
and the tourist trade grew. (For Reference-Outline 
and Bibliography, see Canada; Canadian Historj'.) 


HALIFAX AS SEEN FROM THE AIR 



agxiew of Nova Scotia’s capital city shows the , 

front Halifax is Canada’s leading winter seaport. In the upper right c 
may be seen the Citadel, the fortress built by England in I74P. 



NOVEL 


- 310 


Recording LIFE in 

N ovel. Everyone likes a good story. A short story 
often satisfies, but sometimes it seems to end too 
quickly. We want to know more about the people; we 
want to see how they react to further events. A stage 
play gives us dramatic moments in the lives of the 
characters, but only a little physical action can be 
shown on the stage. Thus for a full picture of in- 
teresting people involved in a number of incidents 
that lead to a satisfactory ending, we turn to a good 
novel. 

A novel may be about 100,000 words long, although 
this figure varies greatly. Several famous novels are 
more than a million words long. “Detective” novels 
run about 65,000 words. A novelette, actually a long 
short story, runs about 20,000 words. The modern 
short story, as printed in the popular magazines, 
has about 5,000 words and a “short short” story is 
only about 1,000 words in length. 

Fiction and Real Life 

Fiction, as in the short story or the novel, may 
be close to real life. The author writes his story 
out of the raw material of his own direct experiences 
or from what he has observed or read about the lives 
of others. A good writer gives his characters the 
appearance and personality of real people. He places 
them in a scene where they might very likely live 
and involves them in a train of events that could 
easily happen to such people. “Believeableness” is 
one test of a good story. 

The novelist often bases his tale on real life, 
but a mere chronicle of life does not make a novel. 
Our daily lives are filled with routine events, but 
these are common to all of us and not necessarily 
worth recording in a story. We often start actions 
that seem important but which come to nothing. In 
a novel these actions would have no point. Our con- 
versations, even those that bring important changes 
in our lives, are often cluttered with hems and haws 
and statements which have little to do with the out- 
come of the talk. In a novel such conversation — or 
dialogue — would be rambling and dull. 

The work of the novelist is to select and arrange 
materials from hfe. He tells enough, but only enough. 


FICTIONAL Form 

to give his characters the appearance of reality and 
to account for their actions. The scene is similarly 
sketched. He gives us an idea of the time and place 
and adds only the details that become part of the 
story. He selects significant events in the lives of 
his characters and cuts out all action and talk which 
do not advance the story. 

Moreover, the novelist provides contrasts that 
may not exist in real life. He may contrast a weak 
character with an energetic one to emphasize the 
strength or weakness of each. He sets a dismal scene 
in one chapter so that a bright scene in the next 
will seem all the sunnier. The novelist may have 
two characters involved in a perilous adventure; the 
death of one character makes the escape of the 
other more exciting. 

Thus a good novel consists of facts from real life, 
filtered through the novelist’s imagination to become 
a well-organized and vital human story. The facts 
may be distorted to heighten the story, but in a good 
novel, they seem to remain true. In such a novel we 
learn what happens — the action; and we learn why it 
happens — the plot. We see the story come to a satis- 
fying, but not necessarily happy, ending. Perhaps 
most important of all, we see the characters grow and 
change, or if they remain unchanged, we end by 
understanding them more fully. 

The Beginnings of Fiction 

Modern fiction has its roots in the age-old love of 
storytelling. Long before men could write they told 
stories of adventure and valorous deeds. Many 
these stories were in verse. The rhythms of the poetry 
made the stories easier to remember and to hand doun 
from generation to generation. One of these o 
verse stories is ‘Beowulf’, written down many centuries 
after it was first told (see Beowulf). Homer chan e 
his famous Greek tales of adventure, the ‘Iliad an 
the ‘Odyssey’; and succeeding generations of stoiy 
tellers retold them until they were at last preserve 
in writing (see Homer). . , 

In the Middle Ages the minstrel was a 
storyteller. The upper classes liked his • 
romances and tales of chivalry, because in them 


FIVE IMPORTANT AMERICAN NOVELISTS 


— r-| 



Ameri^ novelist to earn his Uvlng by writing. H^ietBWcher Stowe 
® American winners of the Nobel prize fo^Jiter^re folio 

Lewis (‘Babbitt/ ‘Mam Street/ and many others)- Pearl Buck (‘The Good Earth» and other novels about China), ana 
raulkner ( The Sound and the Fury’, ‘Requiem for a Nim’, and others). 


311 - 


found an idealized picture of their own lives (see 
Eomance). The poor people liked stories that poked 
fun at valiant knights and pious churchmen and stories 
that told of life as they knew it. 

A verse tale of ordinary life was called a fabliau 
(fable). A similar story in prose was called in Itahan 
novella, meaning “new story,” from which the English 
word “novel” comes. Another type of story arose in 
Spain. It told of the adventures of a rogue, or picaro, 
and so was called a picaresque novel. Somewhat like 
the picaresque novel, yet different than anything 
that had appeared before, was Cervantes’ burlesque 
romance 'Don Quixote' (see Cervantes). 

The First Novel in English 
Many interesting books preceded what is consid- 
ered the first English novel. T\vo of them are John 
Bunyan’s ‘Pilgrim’s Progress’ and Daniel Defoe’s 
‘Robinson Cinsoe’ (see Bunyan, John; Defoe). Both 
make exciting reading, but they do not qualify as 
novels because of their loose, episodic construction. 

The first novel came into being somewhat acciden- 
tally. Samuel Richardson w'as commissioned by a Lon- 
don publisher to prepare a volume of letters that 
would serve as models. Richardson decided that they 
would be more interesting and instructive if they w'ere 
to tell a love story and point a moral. The result was 
‘Pamela’, a sentimental novel in letter form that won 
great popularity, especially among young women. 

Types of Novels 

Novels can be classified in several ways, but many 
novels do not lie wholly within one classification. 
One general distinction is between realislic and 
romantic novels. The realistic novel generally deals 
with life as it is and depicts characters and events 
that could be real. Extreme realism is sometimes 
called naturalism. The romantic novel gives greater 
freedom to the imagination, deals with the more 
unusual aspects of life, and is usually more concerned 
with telling an exciting story than with analyzing 
character. 

How^ever, as we have seen, no novel can tell of life 
as it e.xists day by day or of people taken directly 
from life without change. In a real sense, all novels 
are imaginative; and they all tell some kind of a 
story for an effect. Thus in many ways the definitions 
of realism and romanticism tend to merge. Under each 
definition there may be many varieties. The cool and 
humorous realism of Jane Austen’s ‘Pride and Prej- 
udice is very different from the sordid naturalism of 
Emile Zola’s ‘Nana’. The dreamy, faraw'ay romanti- 
cism of IV. H. Hudson’s ‘Green Mansions’ is in marked 
contrast to John Buchan’s swdft-paced romantic 
tore, ‘The Tlrirty-Nine Steps’. 

The historical novel is another type. These^ may 
. .frankly romantic. Their appeals lie in their e.x- 
citing and suspenseful narratives, their colorful 
descriptions, and their adventurous heroes and beau- 
tiful heroines. Sir Walter Scott’s ‘Ivanhoe’ is a 
good example. Another t 3 ''pe maj’’ use a historical set- 
U'g to dramatize certain truths which applj^ equally 
"e todaj’. por e.xample, the novelist may tell of an 


NOVEL. 

ancient tyrant who has his counterpart in a modern 
dictator. Thomas Mann’s ‘Joseph’ series are based 
on the Old Testament story of Joseph, but the hero’s 
problems, apart from the story settings, are completely 
modem. 

A novel that concentrates on character analysis 
may be called a psychological novel. In it, the ■ 
novelist uses the action and dialogue to laj-^ bare 
the inner Mfe of his people. He maj'^ also allow a 
character to reveal himself by the “stream of con- 
sciousness” method, in which everj’thing that sup- 
posedly passes through the character’s mind is set 
dowm without order or restraint. This method is not 
new. In the 1760’s Laurence Steme in ‘Tristram 
Shand 3 '’ used it wdth great success. 

The modem science of psychology has made the so- 
called psychological novel very popular. Yet it must 
be remembered that great novehsts of every age have 
grasped the principles of ps 3 mhology and have used 
them effectively. Such 19th-century novelists as 
Gustave Flaubert, in ‘Madame Bovary’, and Feodor 
Dostoyevsky, in ‘Crime and Punishment’, were pro- 
found students of psychology long before it became 
systematized into a science. 

Another broad class is the humanitarian novel. 
Here the novelist’s general purpose is to excite 
sympathy for the plight of his characters. Charles 
Dickens w’as a master at making such appeals. In 
‘Nicholas Nickleby’ he told of cmelties practiced 
on small boys at certain schools. In the early part 
of ‘David Copperfield’, he exposed the evils of child 
labor. Sometimes the humanitarian novel becomes 
an instrament for effecting immediate social reforms. 
Harriet Beecher Stow'e’s ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’ did 
much to bring the slavery issue in America to a crisis. 

Novelists sometimes express their humanitarian 
ideals by writing of what life may be in the future. 
Edward Bellamy, in ‘Looking Backward’ (written 
1888) gives an idealistic picture of society in the 3 'ear 
2000 as contrasted to his own time. Other writers 
have not been so hopeful. Aldous Huxley, in ‘Brave 
New World’ paints a pessimistic picture of how in- 
human technological efficiency might one day rule 
the world. George Orwell’s ‘Nineteen Eight 3 '-four’ is 
an equally grim picture of what societ 3 ’' might be like 
if totalitarianism triumphs throughout the world. 

Allegorical novels offer meanings beyond the con- 
crete facts of the stor 3 ^ Characters and other ele- 
ments of the novel may be symbols for certain abstract 
concepts. For example, in Herman Melville’s ‘Moby- 
Dick’, Captain Ahab’s furious search for the white 
whale that had maimed him may be read simply as an 
exciting adventure story. Melville also meant the 
whale, Moby Dick, to stand as a sy'mbol of evil, and 
Ahab to s 3 Tnbolize all humanity. In the novelette, 
‘The Heart of Darkness’, Joseph Conrad uses the 
colors black and white in many ways to s 3 Tnbolize the 
changing concepts of good and evil in the stor 3 % 

Great humorous novels are rare, for man 3 " so-called 
comic writers depend upon situations that ma 3 - be 
funn 3 ’- for one group of readers but absurd or mean- 



ingless to another. The humorous novels that have 
become classics are based on genuinely comic char- 
acters and incidents that, apart from their settings, 
might have existed in any age. Dickens’ Sairey Gamp 
(in ‘Martin Chuzzlewit’) and Mr. Micawber (in 
‘David Copperfield’) are magnificently funny people 
whose counterparts we may see today. Mark Twain’s 
Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn are boys whose 
adventures have evoked sympathetic laughter from 
generations of readers. 

Satire differs from humor in that the fun it pokes 
is malicious and sometimes cruel. In ‘Babbitt’ Sin- 
clair Lewis drew a satirical portrait of a narrow and 
self-important person and ridiculed his false standards 
and opinions. Mark Twain and Charles Dudley 
Warner collaborated on ‘The Gilded Age’, bitterly 
satirizing “get-rich-quick” ambitions. 

The Values of Fiction 

Whatever particular class a novel may fall into, 
it*" also must have certain general values for the 
reader. First of all the novel must entertain; it must 
absorb the reader’s attention and interest. To do 


this, once the reader has granted the “willing suspen- 
sion of disbelief,” the story must seem real, no matter 
how remote or fantastic the elements of the story 
may be. 

Some novels merely entertain; these are often 
classed as escape reading. A great novel does more. 
It can give us insights into the minds and characters 
of people that we rarely obtain in real life. It can 
emphasize great moral truths by dramatizing the con- 
sequences of good or evil action. In understanding 
the lives and actions of fictional people, we often 
end by understanding ourselves better. 
November. In the old Roman calendar November 
was the ninth month, as its name indicates, but it is 
now the eleventh owing to the change of the year’s 
beginning from March to January. At the same time 
the number of days was increased from 29 to 30. It 
is said that the Roman Senate proposed to rename 
the month in honor of Tiberius, who succeeded 
Augustus as emperor; but he declined, saying: 
“What will you do. Conscript Fathers, if you have 
thirteen Caesars?” 



NUMBER— BASIS o/ARITHMETIC 


■^UMBER SYSTEM. The number system thatwe use 
^ ^ today is one of a great many number systems in- 
vented in the past. This system has survived because 
it is more efficient than the others. The ways in which 
it is used in the four fundamental number opera- 
tions are the products of the thinking of many people. 

Number as such does not exist anywhere. The need 
for numbers probably grew out of people’s desire to 
count things and to make records of their possessions. 
Pictures of groups of objects that undoubtedly were 
such records are found on the walls of caves. In 
some cases, notches cut in sticks, or tally marks 
scratched on stones or pieces of wood, served the 
same purpose. Some tribes of American Indians kept 
a record of their flocks of sheep by placing in a bag 
a pebble for each sheep. In none of these methods 


was any form of counting involved. Matching mar 
ers with objects was the basis of the record. 

Later, people learned to use words, often parts o 
the body, to tell how many there were in small group^ 
Thus, the word for head was used to mean 1 i 
for eye, 2; the word for hand, 5. In one tribe, i 
word for the middle finger was used as the name 
the quantity 3. t 

Still later, methods of tallying small numbers 
items on the fingers of the hand, or with groups ^ 
tally marks, crosses, and other symbols, were devise • 
For numbers not in excess of ten it was 
to tally them on the fingers of both hands. 
larger numbers were to be shown, the 
grouping arose. It then became necessary to 
a method of showing how often a group of a given s 


■*= 312a B 


NUMBER SYSTEM 


had to be repeated to show the desired number. For 
example, two hands would mean the same as two fives, 
or what we call “ten.” This is a verj-^ simple form 
of grouping used to show small numbers. 

The Roman Number System 
Many systems of grouping have been invented. 
One of the best known is the Roman sj^stem. It pro- 
vided for the larger numbers by using symbols to de- 
note groups of different sizes, as follows: 

I means 1 L means 50 M means 1,000 

V means 5 C means 100 V means 5,000 

X means 10 D means 500 X means 10,000 

Repeating a symbol repeats its value. Thus III 
means 3, and XXXX means 40. The Romans did not 
repeat a symbol more than four times. The symbol V 
e.xpresses five I’s, L is equivalent to five X’s, and D 
to five C’s. The first letters of the word centum 
(hundred) and mille (thousand) were used as sym- 
bols for these numbers. 

If a sjunbol of lesser value is written after one of 
larger value, its value is to be added to the larger 
symbol: thus VI means 5 and 1, or 6. If a symbol of 
lesser value is written before a symbol of larger value, 
its value is to be subtracted from the value of the 
larger sjTObol: thus IX means 1 less than 10, or 9. 
The total value of a large number is found by finding 
the sura of its parts: thus the number MCLXIV 
means 1,000 plus 100 plus 50 plus 10 plus 4 (one less 
than 5), or 1,164 in the system we use. 

The Roman system evidently grew out of the use 
of tally marks to show numbers. Thus III is three 
tally marks, corresponding to three fingers, or digits 
(from the Latin digitus, meaning “finger”). X ap- 
pears to consist of two V’s, one of them inverted. 
Because the Roman system is built on tens, we call it 
a decimal system (from the Latin decern, which means 
ten”). Clearly the number of fingers on the hands 
was the reason for choosing 10 as the basic number. 

Principles Underlying Our Number System 
The number system we use today also is a decimal 
system, built on tens. It was invented several thou- 
^ad j'ears ago by the Hindus in India and brought to 
Europe by the Arabs about a.d. 900. Because of its 
simplicity^ the Hindu-Arabic number system had been 
adopted almost everywhere in Europe by the time 
Columbus discovered America. 

The main characteristics of the Hindu-Arabic sys- 
tem are as follows : 

The Ten Symbols. Any number can be written by 
using the ten S3Tnbols of the number series: 1, 2, 3, 4, 
6) 7, 8, 9, and 0. Each symbol indicates a value 
“‘■responding to its position in the number series. 

_ "US 4 has the value of 4 things and it has a position 
m the number series after 3 and before 5. Such num- 
uer words as “four” and “thirty” are names for the 
Various sjunbols. The names are not the same in afi 
anguages, but the sj’^mbols are always wwitten in 
uearly the same way and have the same meaniiig. 

alue gives us cardinal numbers, w'hich tell how 
‘Uany. ’ The words one, two, three, and so on are 


cardinal forms. Position gives us ordinal numbers, 
which tell order. The adjectives first, second, third, 
fourth, and so on, are ordinal forms. 

Place Value. The value of a figure depends on the 
place in which it is written. Place value increases ten- 
fold in going from right to left. Thus, in 111 the 
value of the middle 1 is ten, ten times the value of 
the 1 at its right. The value of the 1 at the left is 100, 
ten times the value of the 1 at its right. 

Zero. The Hindus w'ere the first to use the symbol 
0 (zero) to e-xpress the idea of none, or not any. In 
the number 302 there are no tens to write in tens’ 
place. The 0 senses as a place holder in the tens’ 
place, keeping the 3 in hundreds’ place and the 2 in 
ones’ place. If the 0 were not used to hold tens’ 
place, the number would be 32, which is quite differ- 
ent. Without the zero the values of the 3 and the 2 
would need to be expressed as 3 hundreds and 2 ones 
or, as in the Roman system, CCCII. 

The usefulness of the Hindu-Arabic number system 
as compared with the Roman can be shown by work- 
ing these addition examples. 


MDVIll 1,508 

+ CCLIX + 259 
MDCCLXVIl 1,767 


For ease in reading large numbers, the figures are 
grouped by commas into periods of three figures each, 
counting from the right. Thus, in the number 432,689 
the three figures in the second period, 432, are written 
in what w^e call the thousands’ period. They are read: 
four hundred thirty-two (432) thousand. In still 
larger numbers, periods to the left of thousands are 
named, in succession, millions, billions, trillions, 
quadrillions, quintillions, sex-tillions, septiUions, octil- 
lions, nonillions, decillions, and so on. 

Because 12 can be divided wdthout a remainder by 
more numbers than can 10, a number system with 12 
as a base would have some advantages over our deci- 
mal system. The 12-scale is called duodecimal from 
the Latin word duodedm (twelve, or dozen). There 
has always been some use of the 12-scale for certain 
purposes. Thus, we divide the foot into 12 inches. 


THE CENTER OF OUR NUMBER SYSTEM 



WHOLE NUMBERS 


DECIMAL FRACTIONS 


This diagram shows how the places to the right and to the left 
of ones’ place (the center) are related. The decimal point in a 
number tells where the whole number ends and the decimal 
fraction begins. Notice that the tens are written one place to 
the left of ones’ place, while tenths are WTitten one place to the 
right of ones place. 



NUMBER SYSTEM 


3126 


DEVICES FOR TEACHING THE MEANING OF PLACE VALUE 



These sticks, single Md in bundles, make 
clear the differences in quantity of 100, 10, 
and 1. The 10 bundle consists of 10 single 
sticks (ones). The 100 bundle consists 
of 10 smaller bundles of 10 sticks each 
(tens). The total value of the sticks 
shown in the picture is expressed by the 
number 111. The meaning of the num- 
ber 24 would be shown with 2 tens’ 
bundles and 4 single sticks. 


Place-value pockets are an excellent de- 
vice for teaching place value. They are 
useful also for regrouping in working ex- 
amples. Pockets like those shown can 
easily be prepared. Each pocket should 
be properly labeled. The cards represent 
numbers. The ones’ pocket is for single 
cards. In the tens’ pocket are bundles of 
10 cards, each bundle held together by a 
rubber band. The bundles in the hun- 


dreds’ pocket are made up of 10 smaller 
bundles of 10 cards each. The meaning 
of 324 is shown with 3 hundreds’ bundles 
in the hundreds’ pocket, 2 tens’ bundles 
in the tens’ pocket, and 4 single cards in 
the ones’ pocket. For carrying, in addi- 
tion, 10 ones or 10 tens can be bundled 
and moved to the left. For regrouping in 
subtraction, a bundle can be separated 
and moved to the right. 



This is a two-column peg board, or count- 
ing board. The pegs show the number 34 
as 3 tens and 4 ones. The tens’ peg is 
in the third hole from the bottom in the 
left-hand row, the tens’ row. The ones’ 
peg is in the fourth hole in the right-hand 
row, the ones’ row. Any two-place 
number can be shown in a similar way 
with this board. 


DB 

i 

BB 

B 

BBBB 

\ 

DIB 

B 

BB 

B 


BB 



m 


B1E3 




BBKH 

PS 

WW 

Wfi 

m 

m 

RW 

M 

« 

» 

w 

B 

S 

BWHW 

OTWimM 

WwWW 

’mm 

WWW 



The hundred board can be used to show 
the meaning of any number up to 100. 
The board consists of 10 rows of 10 squares 
each. To show the meaning of 38, the 
child covers with disks all but the three 
top rows (3 tens) and 8 in the fourth row 
(8 ones), leaving in all 38 squares uncov- 
ered. The child sees that 38 is made up 
of 3 rows of tens and 8 ones. 




This type of abacus is used m schools 
to demonstrate place value. The beads 
in the lower part show the meaning oi 
304. Each rod represents a place in a 
number. Here we have 3 beads on the 
hundreds’ rod, 0 beads on the tens rod, 
and 4 beads on the ones’ rod. If 
were moved down on the tens’ rod, the 
abacus would then show the number 314. 


the clock into 12 hours, the day into 24 hours, and 
the circle into 360 degrees. 

Steps in Learning the Number System 

Young children usually learn to count small groups 
of objects before they enter school. They like to 
count people, coins, toys, dishes, candies, and other 
objects with which they come into contact in their 
activities. Counting objects makes numbers mean- 
ingful. Rote counting, as in repeating rhymes or re- 
peating numbers serially, is of little value in establish- 
ing the meaning of numbers. Under sjunpathetic 
family guidance, children may learn much in the 
home about the use of numbers (see Arithmetic). 

When they first enter school, many children can* 
count by rote to 100 and can count people or things 
up to about 20. Some of them can give the answers to 
simple problems, such as 3 and 2 or 5 less 1 . Few of 
them can read or wTite any numbers. In the primary 
grades, class activities giye children many opportuni- 
ties to count small groups of things and to write the 
numbere as records of their experiences. 


The need for reading numbers arises in many situa- 
tions, both in and out of school. For example, a 
child needs numbers to find a sjjecific page of a book, 
to read the calendar, to tell time, to dial on the 
radio or telephone, and to find a house number. Hun- 
dreds of similar situations are encountered by the 
young child. Later, children learn to read fractions 
and to understand the fractional divisions on rulers 
and scales. Still later they learn to read decimal 
fractions. 

The meaning of place value in numbers is taught 
with the addition and subtraction of whole numbers. 
For teaching place value, such devices as those illus- 
trated on this page are commonly used. The place- 
value pockets can be used also to show carrying m 
addition and multiplication and regrouping in sub- 
traction and division. (See also Arithmetic; Addition; 
Subtraction; Multiplication; Division.) 

Fractions, Decimals, and Advanced Arithmetic 
We have seen that the Hindus devised a number 
system in which whole numbers are written with 




ten different figures and in which use is made of the 
principle of place value to give meaning to the num- 
bers. Next, fracliorts, such as \ and were added to 
our number system to express amounts that are less 
than one whole. The same ten numbers that are used 
in writing whole numbers are used for fractions. We 
can say that fractions are an addition to our number 
.system, requiring the use of the figures in a nev/ way. 

To learn the meaning of such fractions as 5 and 
the fractional parts should first be shown w’ith objects 
such as apples, pies, or circles. Then the fractions 
should be shown in a variety of wmys with pictures 
or drawings. Finally, the ways of expressing fractional 
parts with figures should be learned. (See Fractions.) 

Within the last few hundred years, the use of deci- 
mal fractions has been introduced. In industry and 
business the use of decimal fractions has increased 
rapidly because computations are easier to make with 
decimal fractions than wdth common fractions. Deci- 
mal fractions are also easier to print (see Decimals; 
Percentage.) 

In advanced arithmetic and other forms of mathe- 
matics we find numbers such as 4-, ^^27, and — 6 . 
One reads 4" as "4 squared,” which means 4X4. The 
other expressions are read as the “cube root of 27” 
and "minus 6 .” (Sec Powers and Roots; Algebra.) 
Nuremberg, Germany. Until the second World 
War Nuremberg was so picturesque that it was called 
the "storj'book citj’.” Within it stood the walled 
Old Tow’n built in the Middle Ages. Massive stone 
ramparts, topped by fortified towers, guarded the 


medieval Gothic churches and gabled houses of the 
Old Town. During the second World "War, Allied 
bombing raids almost leveled Nuremberg, and vir- 
tually all the medieval Old Town was shattered. 

Nuremberg (Niirnberg in German) then began to 
rebuild from the rubble, for it is one of the chief 
commercial centers of Germany. It stands on the Peg- 
nitz River, a small tributarj^ of the Main River, amid 
the woods and sandy farmlands of southeastern Ger- 
many. Its location gives it control of routes to the 
Danube. Since medieval times the city has been a 
crossroads for trade betw'een Germany, Italy, and 
Austria. Today it has a commanding position on the 
Rhine-Danube canal. A network of railroads and high- 
waj's enlarges its facilities as a distribution center. 

The city traces its beginning to a castle built on 
a rocky height over the Pegnitz in the 11th century. 
Protected b}' the castle, merchants and artisans built 
homes and shops in the valley. The artisans became 
famed throughout Europe for the skill and beauty 
of their carvings, woodworking, and painting. In 1219 
proud, flourishing Nuremberg became a free city. 

The citj'’s artistic importance mounted in the 16th 
century through the work of Albrecht Diirer, a great 
painter and engraver (see Diirer). With his companion 
artists in the “Nuremberg school,” he made the city 
the “home of German arts.” About the same time 
Hans Sachs, the cobbler poet, became leader of the 
Meistersinger, or Mastersingers (see Music). 

As the city grew beyond the old medieval walls, it 
developed light industries. In the 19th centurj' it 


SECOND WORLD WAR DEVASTATES PROUD NUREMBERG 








NUREMBERG 


314 


'specialized in toys, carvings, and fancy metal ware. 
Mellow Nuremberg changed in the 20th century after 
Adolph Hiter, in 1933, made it the Nazis’ “pageant 
city.” He built a vast stadium for the annual Nazi 
Congress. There in 1935 the Nazis announced their 
anti-Semitic decrees, or “Nuremberg laws.” They con- 
verted the city’s industries into armament manufac- 
tures. These war plants led to the Allied bombing of 
Nuremberg in the second World War. After the war 
the battered city was the scene of the Nuremberg 
trials for German war criminals (see Germany). 
Population (1950 census), 362,459. 

Nursing. The art of ministering to the sick and 
helpless is older than medical science itself, but sys- 
tematic training for this work is of comparatively 
recent origin. During the Middle Ages some religious 
organizations were especially dedicated to the care 
of the sick. Their members were taught simple nurs- 
ing methods learned by generations of practical ex- 
perience. The Sisters of Mercy is among the many 
religious orders today devoted to hospital work. But 
it was not until the pioneer efforts of Florence 
Nightingale that nursing was recognized as an inde- 
pendent technical profession (see Nightingale, Flor- 
ence). In 1872 the first class of scientifically trained 
nurses was graduated in the United States. 

Standards of nursing education and service have ad- 
vanced steadily since that time. Today a girl must 
be a high school graduate to enter 
a reputable hospital nursing school 
(see Hospitals). She must pass a 
rigorous physical examination, and 
may undergo intelligence and apti- 
tude tests as well. She pays tuition 
fees ranging from $40 to $300 for 
the three-year course, but receives 
board, lodging, and laundry free. 

She enters training as a “proba- 
tioner” and must further prove her 
fitness for the work during a three- 
to five-month period before she re- 
ceives the starched white cap that 
is the symbol of her status as a 
• student nurse. She attends pre- 
scribed classes in such subjects as 
anatomy, physiology, and the basic 
principles of medical practise taught 
by physicians and surgeons on the 
hospital staff. She studies the 
techniques of nursing under gradu- 
ate nurse instructors. She is on 
duty about eight hours each day in the hospital wards 
and rooms,_ practising the theory she has learned 
and becoming increasingly expert in the care of 
the sick. After completing the three-year course 
with a good record she receives a diploma in nursing. 

The next step is to pass the state board examina- 
tions and be registered as a qualified nurse, entitled 
to write E. N. (“registered nurse”) after her name. 
These letters represent the state’s assurance to the 


patient that the nurse has met its requirements for 
the practise of her profession. States also set up 
minimum standards for nursing schools. 

A nurse may go into “private duty” caring for the 
sick in their homes or in hospitals, or she may enter 
the employ of a hospital, sanitarium, or similar 
institution. Here she may advance to a number of 
special posts, including those of operating-room nurse, 
anesthetist, dietitian. X-ray technician, orthopedic 
therapist, instructor, head nurse, and superintendent 
of nurses. She may enlist as an army or navy nurse 
with an officer's commission and pay. She may join 
the Red Cross Nursing Service or Veterans’ Adminis- 
tration Service. Public health nursing calls many 
nurses to a variety of tasks. The largest number of 
women in this field are visiting nurses, but many rise 
to administrative positions. Training in nursing may 
also lead to a job as an assistant to a physician or 
dentist, as an industrial nurse, a school nurse, or a 
stewardess on trains or airplanes. 

The better positions usually call for advanced 
training. An increasing number of colleges and uni- 
versities have opened schools of nursing where, in 
addition to completing the hospital training required 
for a nursing diploma, students may take a j'ear 
or more of supplementary work entitling them to 
academic degrees. Many universities also offer post- 
graduate courses in special branches of nursing. 

The American Nurses’ Association 
and the National League of Nursing 
Education, both with headquarters in 
New York City, have led the move- 
ment toward higher professional stand- 
ards. Girls who are interested in taking 
training may write to one of these 
organizations for information and ad- 
vice. These associations stress the fact 
that nursing is an exacting profession 
the chief rewards of which go to the 
‘‘better than average” nurse. They 
stress the need for such qualities as phys- 
ical stamina, emotional steadiness, 
alertness, tact, self reliance, and the 
ability to cooperate wdth others. 

Many high schools offer classes in 
home nursing to prepare girls to care 
for members of their families (see Home 
Economics). The American Red Cross 
also conducts short courses in homo 
nursing for adults. The Red^ Cross 
sponsors the training of Nurses’ Aides 
who serve in hospitals as volunteers 
when wars or other emergencies bring a 
shortage of nurses. Following 80 hours 
of classroom and ward training, aides 
must give 150 hours’ hospital service 
each year. 

Nuthatches and Creepers. Nuthatches re- 
semble chickadees in their topsy-turvy search for the 
insects and grubs hidden in the bark of trees. _ With 
their sharp, curved claws they scramble busily up 
and down tree trunks and around branches, upsiac 
down more often than not, pausing occasionally to 
study a human intruder with friendly curiosity. The 
name nuthatch refers to their habit of forcing soft- 
sheUed nuts into the crevices of trees, and then 


TWO FEATHERED GYMNASTS 



The nuthatch is an expert gymnast. He 
can hop head first down a tree trunk quite 
as easily as he can hop up it, for he is 
turmshed with sharp claws, well adapted 
for bolding rough bark. 



1 


r' ^ 


1 ^ 




^ • 








>• tecfuroc rr j’ • ' of pvprv nurse’s Uaining. 2. Powdering surgical gloves so that they will slip on 

e«:lr i/" f A ““ ■“P?"‘^onv dutief Th^glovls stlrilizcd before use. 3. Student nurses learn to operate 

hnre Kf«,°r° student nurse s many . hosoital nursery take every precaution to keep germs from new-born 

5. This® S'fure shows tie w“rd luUnifed Stages Navy hospital ship. Many trained nurses enter the army or navy. 






316 


NUTHATCHES 

hammering them open ■with their bills. They are 
smaller than English sparrows, viith bluish-gray and 
white backs, white or reddish-browm breasts, and 
short, square tails. They nest in the forests of north- 
ern Canada. The nest is usually placed in a hole of a 
dead tree. In the -wunter they scatter throughout 
the United States, often traveling in the company of 
chickadees and do'wny woodpeckers, 'U'ith whom they 
seem to be on the best of terms. In the northern 
states, where bird calls are rare in the -winter, their 
loud, nasal yank! yank! yank! is a welcome sound. 

The creeper is a modest little bro-wn bird -eith a 
dull white breast. Unlike the nuthatch, it hunts for 
its insect food by going around tree trunks spirally 
from bottom to top, always keeping an upright posi- 
tion, and using its spiky, sharp-pointed tail for a 
brace, as the woodpeckers do. The conamon call of 
the creepers is a thin screek. They spend the summer 
in the evergreen forests of southern Canada and the 
mountains of western United States. They build 
their nests behind the loose bark of old trees. In 
the -eunter they spread throughout the United States. 

Both the nuthatches and the creepers are Old 'World fam- 
ilies, extending across the northern parts of Europe and Asia. 
Only four species of nuthatches and one species of creeper 
occur in the Western Hemisphere. 

Scientific name of the nuthatch family, Sittidae. The 
white-breasted nuthatch {Sitta carolinensis) is an eastern 
species, ranging west to Manitoba and eastern Texas. The 
red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) extends across the 
continent and from the upper Yukon ‘Valley to southern 
California. The brown-headed nuthatch (Sitta pusilla) is 
found in the coastal pine belt of the southeastern states. The 
pigmy nuthatch {Sitta pygmaca) lives in coniferous forests of 
western North America and Mexico. 

Scientific name of the creeper family, Certhiidae. The 
one species in the United States is Ccrthia famHiaris. It is 
divided into five very similar subspecies : the bro'mi creeper 
of the eastern states, and the Rocky Mountain, Mexican, 
Sierra, and California creepers of the West. The so-called 
“black and white creeper” is a warbler. (For illustrations in 
color, see Birds.) 

Nutmeg and Mace. The fragrant spice 'we call 
nutmeg is the seed of the nutmeg tree. From the 
fruit of this tree is also obtained mace, another 
popular spice which has a characteristic flavor of its 
own, quite unlike that of nutmeg. “The nutmegs 
must be able to smeU the sea and the cloves see it," 
is an old saying. Most of the plantations of this 
tropical tree are in the East Indies (Indonesia), the 
British West Indies, and on the island of Penang off 
the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. 

There are about 80 species of nutmeg trees and 
shrubs. The most common {Myristica moschata) is a 
handsome evergreen -nith straight trunk about 25 feet 
high covered -with branches from base to tip. The 
flowers are small and yellow, -with a perfume like 
lilies of the valley. 

Nutmeg trees bloom and bear in continuous suc- 
cession the year round. DTien a crop is ripening, the 
trees are bright -with yellow fruit about the size and 
shape of pears. In the -wind, the dark, glossy five-inch 
leaves seem lined -with silver, and the air that stirs them 
carries away a fragrance that is indescribably sweet. 


When the fruit is ripe the fleshy outer husk is re- 
moved. Preserved in syrup, the fleshy husk is a fa- 
vorite delicacy in the East Indies. Under this husk 
is the lacy scarlet fiber known as mace. Inside this 
fiber in turn comes a thin shell 'U'hich encases the 
familiar nutmeg of commerce, about an inch long and 
irregularly ridged. 

The mace is stripped from the nuts and both mace 
and nuts are fire-dried and sun-dried for more than a 
month. At the mil l s the mace is finely ground. 
Sound nutmegs are usually exported whole to retain 
their flavor. Inferior nuts are ground, and the oil is 
extracted to make “oil of mace” or nutmeg butter. 

, For many years the Banda Islands in the Molucca 
group have been specially famous for the quality of 
their nutmegs and mace. This is credited to the skill 
and patience of the plantation workers in preparing 
the spices for market. 

The legend that shrewd Connecticut merchants used to 
fashion pieces of wood to resemble nutmegs, then flavor them 
with the spice and sell them as genuine, is said to have 
originated with the Canadian humorist Thomas Haliburton, 
who wrote imder the name of “Sam Slick.” 

Nuts. Many primitive peoples who had not yet 
learned to catch fish, hunt game, or tUl the soil sub- 
sisted chiefly on roots, berries, and nuts. Of these, 
nuts were the most concentrated and nourishing, for 
they are especially rich in oil and protein. Fi^her- 
more, the nut meats were preserved inside airtight 
shells and could be kept to be eaten through the 
long cold winters when other foods were unavailable. 

Today only a few nuts are of much importance as 
food, but a constantly growing mnnber provide mate- 
rials useful in industry. A true nut has a hard shell; 
it does not split open when ripe; and the kernel or 
meat is in one piece. Walnuts, pecans, butternuts, 
hazelnuts or filberts, hickory nuts, beechnuts, acorns and 
chestnuts are among the true nuts in the botanical 
sense (see Walnut; Pecan; Butternut; Hazel; Hickory; 
Beech; Oak; Chestnut). But in the popiilar sense, 
many other fruits and seeds are called nuts, including 
the peanut which belongs to the pea family; the almond 
and the coconut which are drupes or stone fruits (see 
Peanut; Almond; Coconut Palm). 

One of the most delicious is the Brazil nut which 
grows in Brazil and other parts of tropical South 
America and in French Guiana. These three-sided 
nuts grow in clusters of from 14 to 28, tightly packed 
inside a great hard roxmd shell, the color of a coconut 
and as big as a man’s head. When the nut is ripe, it 
crashes to the ground, and since the trees are a hun- 
dred or more feet high, it is best to stay out of range. 
Oil from the Brazil nut has medicinal properties and 
is also used for lubrication and lighting; the husk 
pro-vddes a kind of oakum for calking ships. 

Pistachio nuts are oily and have a distinctive aro- 
matic flavor. Their pale green kernels are enclosed m 
a thin two-parted shell. They are seeds of a tree 
native to Asia Minor. 

The queer kidney-shaped casheivs have long been, 
very nopular. Cashew trees flourish on land unfit for 



fanning and where other trees could not exist. India 
is the chief producer and processor of cashews. In ad- 
dition to its own large crop, India imports cashews 
from South Africa and Portuguese East Africa, roasts 
them in oil and salts them, then ships 84 per cent to 
the United States, its chief 
customer. The shell of the 
cashew is a valuable source 
of oil used in swift-spin- 
ning mechanisms, such as 
magneto armatures. 

Tung nuts of China, 
now raised extensively in 
several Southern states, 
contain an oil used in the 
manufacture of paints 
and varnishes (see Paints 
and Varnishes). From the 
meat of west Africa's palm 
nuts is expressed an oil 
used in soapmaking; the 
endosperm is a source of 
oil for coloring imitation 
butter. The edible cohune 
nut, from a palm of Hon- 
duras, also supplies a lath- 
er-producing oil. When 
the soap oil shortage oc- 
curred during the second 
World War, Brazil’s rich- 
lathering babassu nut, 
hardest nut in the world, 
became extremely impor- 
tant in soap manufacture. 

Other sources of oil are 
the dika nut, which is the 
feed of a west African 
mango tree, and the pine 
nuts of Europe and Amer- 
ica (including the edible 
pjiion md of southwestern 
bnited States.) 

^o.ndlenut, found 
hroughout the tropics, is 
one of the most versatile 
of all nuts. It can be lights 
c and Used like a candle. 

‘ purgative oil can be 
ffpieezcd from its raw 
meat. If roasted, it is a 
food for men and 


SEVEN VARIETIES OF NUTS 


good 


317 -NYLON 

Buttons). Oil from the fresh kernels is a good substi- 
tute for coconut oil in soapmaking. 

The Chinese litchi nut has inside its brittle shell a 
meat that resembles a strawberr3’^ when fresh and a 
raisin when dried. Betel nuts are chewed as a narcotic 

bj' East Indians (see Be- 
tel). Cola or kola nuts, 
native to Africa and culti- 
vated elsewhere in the 
tropics, contain much caf- 
feine and are used as a 
basic ingredient in our fa- 
miliar cola drinks. 

A comparative newcom- 
er to the American market 
is the macadamia nut. Na- 
tive to Australia and now 
grown commerciall}’’ in Ha- 
waii, the macadamia has 
an individual and delights 
ful flavor. 

Nylon. The coined 
name given to a whole 
family of chemical com- 
pounds is nylon. These 
compounds can be formed 
into fibers, bristles, sheets, 
rods, powders, and liquid 
coatings. Nylon’s final 
products are many. They 
range from sheer liosiery 
and delicate lace to stiff 
brush bristles and molded 
bearings for machinery. 

Nylon has somewhat 
the same chemical compo- 
sition of natural protein 
fibers, such as hair, silk, 
and wool. But n3don is 
different in man3’’ Wii3's 
from an3’’ natural product. 
For example, nylon yam 
is superior in strength, 
wearing quality, and abil- 
ity' to hold shape. 

The Chemical Basis 
of Nylon 

Nylon is a product of a 
chemical process called 
polymerization. In this re- 
action the molecules of one 



nurpaSed WgelherlSsWe a°aluter shell. 


Notice the 


s made of them keep their fragrance for many' 
^g^'t^i'ii^il’s cumara nut supplies an oily' perfum^, 


cattln n ^ nhpmir'il unite with tliose of another to form larger 

Indies South .^enca and . molecules. This process can continue until giant mole- 

V. , , J Id a violet-scented oil used in soapm g- or superpohjmers, are formed. Nylon is a super- 

^^'^ciant molecules which make up nylon are formed 
tnined K "vegetable , diabasic acid and an organic diamine arc hcat- 

nnd of kernels of the tagua or together. There are many chemicals cla«c<l as dia- 

° South America. as organic diamines, 

h ^ble ivory' is exceedingly hard and can be sawed - -ic ^ j f joa compounds have been made, 
'^cd, turned on a lathe, colored, and polished (see ih'is, nunure 


318 


NYLON 


and many thousands of 
others are possible. 

It is often said that 
nylon is made “from coal, 
air, and water.” This is 
true only of some nylon 
compounds, such as that 
for nylon yarn. Thedia- 
basic acid comes from 
benzol or phenol (ob- 
tained from coal) and 
oxygen (from air). The 
diamine is made from 
ammonia, created by 
combining hydrogen 
(from water) with nitro- 
gen (from air). This for- 
mula is chosen for nylon 
yarn, because the super- 
polymers form in long chains, like the giant mol- 
ecules in natural fibers such as silk, cotton, and wool. 

Steps in Manufacturing Nylon 

The production of nylon begins in an ammonia 
plant. Here the basic chemicals, under pressure and 
heat, are converted to diabasic acids and diamines. 
These are mixed to form nylon salt. This concentrated 
salt solution is then heated in huge kettles, called 
autoclaves, until polymerization takes place. The 
melted nylon then pours over a giant casting wheel. 
A swift spray of cold water turns the molten rib- 
bon of nylon into a hard sheet. The sheet is then 
chopped into small flakes called nylon chips. 

If the nylon is intended 
for sheets, rods, bristles, 
coatings, or molds, it is sent 
to factories in the form of 
chips. The chips are melted 
and then manufactured in- 
to final products. But ny- 
lon intended for yarn must 
take further treatment. The 
chips are melted and the 
solution filtered. The mol- 
ten nylon is then pumped 
through a spinneret. This 
is a metal disk containing 
as many fine holes as the 
number of filaments, or 
single threads, desired in 
the finished yarn. The fila- 
ments form as soon as they 
strike cool air outside the 
spinneret, and are twisted 
loosely together and wound 
on bobbins. 

The next step is stretch- 
ing the yarn. The yarn is 
run through rollers until 
it has been pulled to four 
or more times its original 
length. Before stretching, 


the long-chain molecules were arranged haphazardly, 
like spilled matches. But now they realign themselves 
tightly and neatly along the length of the yarn. The 
stretching increases strength, elasticity, and makes 
the yarn lustrous. “Throwing” follows stretching. 
The yarn is twisted tightly, and coatings of oil and fin- 
ishing materials are added to make the nylon easier to 
handle in weaving. Finally the yarn is wound on 
bobbins and sent to textile mills for weaving. 

Nylon was the result of research into the nature 
of poljunerization. The research was sponsored by 
E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., Inc., and was led 
by Dr. W. H. Carothers. Bj^ 1935 the first synthetic 
superpolymer was produced. The manufacture of 
njdon as a bristle for toothbrushes was announced in 
1938. Two years later the first nylon stockings were 
marketed. In 1949 the same company brought out 
orlon, a companion product. Orion is stronger and 
more resistant to heat and chemicals than nylon. It 
does not take djms well, however, and cannot be 
woven into such delicate forms. 

German textile producers began shipping perlon, a 
type of nylon, into the United States in 1952. 
Nymphs. To the imaginative Greeks of ancient 
times all the seas, streams, fountains, caves, hills, and 
woods seemed peopled with divinities. The fair young 
goddesses who presided over various parts of the 
world of nature were called nymphs. In the limpid 
springs, fountains, brooks, rivers, and lakes dwelt 
the Naiads, beautiful water nymphs. The Oceanides 
(daughters of Oceanus) were nymphs of the great sea 
which was believed to surround the whole earth. The 
Nereids were the nymphs of 
the Mediterranean. Clad in 
their flowing green robes, 
they might be seen dancing 
over the waves. Thetis, the 
mother of Achilles, was a 
Nereid. 

The Oreads, or mountain 
nymphs, represented as tall 
graceful maidens, were the 
constant companions of Ar- 
temis, the goddess of the 
hunt. The unfortunate 
Echo, who pined away for 
love of Narcissus, was an 
Oread. The Napaeads, the 
shiest of the nymphs, dwelt 
in the valleys. Every tree 
was believed to have its own 
nymph, called a Dryad or 
Hamadryad, who was born 
when the tree began to 
grow, dwelt in it, suffered Jf 
it was mutilated, and sick- 
ened and died when the 
tree perished. Although the 
Dryads were mortal like hu- 
man beings, they remained 

young while they lived. 


NYLON FILAMENTS 



Molten nylon emerges from the 
spinneret in the form of fine 
filaments which will later he 


.twisted into nylon yam. 


WHERE POLYMERIZATION TAKES PLACE 



^^cse giant kettles^ called autoclaves, the nylon salt 
IS heated under pressure until the molecules string together 
iinfo long chains called superpolymers. 



■» 


O AK. Strong and long-lived, the majestic oaks 
reign as monarchs of the forest. It takes a 
hundred years for most of these sturdy trees to reach 
maturity, and some specimens are known to be a 
thousand years old. 

Oaks range in size from shrubs to giants 150 feet 
high. The trees have thick trunks and large, wide- 
spreading branches. The leaf is usually deeply toothed, 
but in some species is almost smooth at the edge. 
Oaks vary widely in appearance but they are easily 
recognized by their 



«• 


peculiar fruit, the 
acom, a round nut 
set in a woody cup. 

The Indians and the 
early settlers of New 
England boiled and 
ate the acorns of the 
white oak. Hogs feed 
on acorns, and squir- 
rels and some birds 
store them away for 
Mdnter food. 

Oaks are widely 
distributed through- 
out the temperate 
zone of the northern 
hemisphere, and a 
few species are found 
in high altitudes in 
the tropics. Of the 
200 or more species 
known, about 75 are 
native to the United 
States. 

One of the best 
kno™ species in the 
eastern United States 
's the white oak, a 
stately tree which 
reaches a height of 
from 70 to 100 feet. 

The leaves are large and deeply lobed, light green 
nbove and whitish beneath. In autumn the foliage 
turns deep violet and chngs to the tree throughout the 
"jitter, falling when the new leaves appear. Such 
chnging leaves are characteristic of many oaks. The 

runkj which often reaches a diameter of three to f®^ 
t®t, is covered with whitish furrowed bark, which 
Pves the tree its name. The large egg-shaped acorns 
nre set in bowl-like cups with warty scales. Because 
0 its spreading top the white oak is an excellent 
^hade tree. 

The bur or mossy cup oak is another well-knowTi 
nnd valuable American species. This hardy, beautifu 

^ sometimes towers to a height of 150 feet, though 


A STURDY OAK OF THE OPEN SPACES 


its average height is about 75 feet. Its deep 
green leaves are very large, sometimes measur- 
ing from ten inches to a foot in length, deeply lobed at 
the low'er part and rounded at the apex. The acorns 
are exceptionally large, and are set in rough cups 
with a noticeable fringe about the edge. The bark is 
brownish-gray and furrowed. The bur oak is com- 
paratively rare east of the Alleghenies, but it is 
found from Penns 3 dvania to Montana and south 
to Texas. It grows largest in the lower Ohio Valley. 

The red oak, one of 





The broad full crown of this “‘^^'^■^^®^s,'^Fi*resToaks,'’ having to reach 
up in a cleanng^^wnsha^dowed 


the most beautiful of 
American oaks, pre- 
sents a picturesque 
appearance in aU sea- 
sons. The round solid 
top is covered ivith 
large sharply lobed 
leaves, ■which are pink 
and furry in the 
spring, green in sum- 
mer, and deep purple- 
red in autumn. The 
bark is dark brown, 
thick, and furrowed. 
The red oak also 
bears large acorns 
set in shallow' cups. 

The pin oak is a 
quick-growing medi- 
um-sized tree with 
deeply cut leaves, 
brilliant in autumn. 
The trunk and larger 
limbs are studded 
w'ith tough branchlets 
which probably ac- 
count for the name. 
This tree grow's in the 
eastern United States, 
usually on moist low- 
lands. 

The chestnut oak (also called the chinquapin), al- 
though possessing the main characteristics of the oak 
family, is conspicuous on account of its chestnut-like 
leaves' these are serrated or “saw-toothed” instead of 
deeply lobed. The tree is tall and stately, with stout 
trunk and limbs. {See Chinquapin.) 

The live oak is a beautiful southern tree that some- 
times rises to a height of 60 feet. Its branches are 
spreading and graceful, covered -with small glossy ever- 
green foliage. It is rarely found more than 50 or 60 
miles inland from the Gulf of ^lexico. 

The well-known British oak is the largest and most 
valuable of all the oak trees and is celebrated in m^'th 
and "liistory. This tree is a veritable giant, with 


319 



OAK 


320 


.from little acorns 


GROW 


zag Jowth of the hmbs°k SJct tree^givS^them^ The bark being rich in tannin is used 

twisted appearance which gives rise to^the phrase is white oak 

‘thegnarledBritishoak/'andaddstothepicturesque precedSf A 

Southern live oak pro- 
duces strong yellow 
wood which is difficult 
to work; it is highly 
valued for shipbuild- 
ing, being very durable 
underwater. The tim- 
ber of the red oak has 
little commercial val- 
ue, being very porous, . 
but it is useful for 
making cask staves; 
its bark also is used 
for tanning. The chest- 
nut oak yields good 
timber. 

The galls or “gall- 
nuts” so frequently 
found on oaks are 
produced by gall-flies, 
which lay their eggs 
in the tissues of the 
trees. The tissues swell 
up at the point of 
puncture and form 
firm nutlike struc- 
tmes inside of which 
the young of the 
insects develop to 
maturity. Each kind 
ofgall-fly produces a 
different kind of gall, 
the ones commonly re- 
sponsible being wasps 



their cuplike husks unliTrVr” held 

appearance This kingly tree fives to a great ave nf tPo n ■ ■ dijuusiuuj ociug wasps 

w which are still standine in nnW Cynipideae. Oak galls are rich in tannic 

ng and date back to the Anglo-Saxon period. This maldng ink and for the preparation of 

species IS gradually being introduced Those still containing the insect are best, 

into North America. ‘ ~ 

A fungus disease is threatening to 
wipe out these magnificent trees. 


SECTION OF AN OAK GALL 


Oak wilt, known to scientists as 
Lhalana querdna, is caused by 
w'md-blown spores which block the 
water channels in the tree. All 
types of oaks are affected. The 
center oi infection is the Middle 
u est. From there the disease is 
spreading east and south at the rate 
of about 50 miles a year. No effec- 
tive control has yet been found. 

The value of oak timber varies with 
the species. British oak is tough, 



containing 

Scientific name of the British oak, 
Quercua robur. The white oak is Quercus 
alba; its range is from Maine to Minnesota 
and southward, flourishing best on the 
slopes of the Alleghenies. Bur oak ia 
Quercus macrocarpa; range from Pennsyl- 
vania to Montana and south to Texas. 
Live oak, Quercus virginiana (also Quercus 
mrens); range, Southern states. Red oak, 
Quercus rubra; range from Maine to 
Minnesota and southward. Pin oak, Quer- 
cus palustris; range from Massachusetts 
to Delaware, south to Arkansas. Chestnut 
oak, Quercus acuminata; range from Ver- 
mont to Alabama and westward. 
Oakland, Calif. Commanding 
the mainland rim of the great harbor 
of San Francisco Bay stands busy 
Oakland. The third largest city 


You can see the hole In which the 

, * 7"'V — wugn, SaU-fly grew up. ^ “““ i iairoioou r>ay sianus uus; 

ar , c ose grained, and comparatively easy to work in th ♦ The third largest cit; 

It excels most wood m durability. It defies drought ^ thriving port as well as an im- 

and_ moisture. Bur oak ranks neM to the Britlh Sk manufacturmg center. Several western and 

m importance. It is used for shipbuilding and lork-lnuT air lines and a net- 

s dna work of highways link Oakland with near-by and dis- 





Oakland, California’s third city in size, spreads over many square miles along the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay. Residen- 
tial areas surround the business district near salt-water Lake Merritt in the heart of the city. Looking westward, is the world’s 
longest bridge, San Francisco-Oakiand Bay Bridge. In the distance are the lofty Golden Gate Bridge and the Pacific Ocean. 


tant cities. Many coastal and oceanic shipping lines 
use the city’s docks. The San Francisco-Oakiand 
Bay Bridge, an SJ^-mile engineering man’el, con- 
nects Oakland mth San Francisco across the bay. A 
tunnel through the Oakland hills speeds motor traffic. 

Oakland is the heart of a large metropolitan area 
that includes the East Bay cities of Alameda, Albany, 
Berkelej’, Emeryville, Hay^vard, Piedmont, and San 
^andro. Many people who work in San Francisco 
live here because of good transportation to that city 
and because of Oakland’s fine residential area. This 
hay section is a busy industrial district. Hundreds 
pf factories produce many products. Among the most 
unportant manufactures are automobiles and equip- 
fflent, food products, chemicals, and machinery. 

Among the city’s many scenic attractions are Lake 
^lerritt, a mile-long tidal lake receiving salt water 
from San Francisco Bay; Skyline Drive, with its mag- 
uiBcent \news; Lakeside, Peralta, and Sequoia parks; 
uud the Heights, once the home of the poet Joaquin 
“Idler. Alills College, one of the oldest women’s col- 
the nation, is located here. 

The site of Oakland was once Spanish crown land 
granted to Luis Marfa Peralta. Oakland was incorpo- 
rated in 1852 and named for the Califorma live oaks, 
®r encinas. It has a council-manager government, 
^pulation (1950 census), 384,575. 

U.\TS. “A grain which in England is generally given 
0 horses, but in Scotland supports the people.” This 
the definition of oats given in the dictionary 
^ntten in the 18th century’ by Dr. Samuel Johnson. 


“True enough,” was a Scotsman’s ready reply to 
this gibe, “and where mil you find such fine horses as 
in England, or such fine men as in Scotland?” Oaks 
are indeed a most nutritious food for both men and 
animals. The grain is high in protein value and in 
vitamin Bi, and also has a sizable fat content. 

The world’s production of oats is about one third 
that of wheat or com. The United States grows one 
to one and a half billion bushels a year, about one 
third of the reported total. Russia no longer pub- 
lishes its figures, but in 1934-38 its crop exceeded 
that of the United States. Other leading producers 
are Canada, Britain, France, and Germany’. 

Oats are sovm like wheat. The broadcasting method 
needs two to four bushels an acre; the drilling method 
requires less. An average y’ield per acre is 20 to 30 
bushels. Oats will thrive on poorer soil and in colder 
climates than other grains. Hardy’ varieties are grown 
almost to the Arctic Circle. In Scotland, Alaska, and 
Russia oats are a staple food crop. Common north.ern 
oats will not grow well in warm regions such as Medi- 
terranean countries. They grow red oats. 

The wild oat is considered by’ some to be the ances- 
tor of the common oat. The wild oat is distinguished 
by long reddish-brouTi hairs at the base of the glume 
or scale protecting the kernel, the long twisted and 
bent "avTis,” or spikes, at the tip of the grain. The 
kernels of the wild oat are closely covered and widely 
separated. Tlie cultivated variety originated appar- 
ently’ in Europe and probably was not known to the 
ancient Egy’ptians, Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. 





OATS 


322 


Oats are raised chiefly as food for farm animals. 
At one time they were grown mainly to feed horses. 
But since tractors have largely replaced farm horses, 
the bulk of the oat crop is fed to cattle and poultry. 
Oats are also raised for man’s use. They are processed 
into flakes (rolled oats) or pellets for breakfast food, 
or milled into flour. Oats are grown to some extent 
for hay, silage, and pasturage. In the southern part 
of the United States they 
are used as a cover crop to 
prevent soil erosion. Fur- 
fural, an important by- 
product, is made from oat 
hulls. This solvent has 
many industrial uses. 

In the United States 
both summer and winter 
oats are raised commere^ial- 
ly. Winter oats, sown in the 
fall, are grown in the soutm 
ern states. There are many 
varieties of oats. They 
differ principally in the 
form, color, or thickness 
of the grain, in the length 
of the straw, and in the 
time needed for ripening. 

Oats are relatively free 
from insect pests or plant 
diseases except the rusts 
and smuts. The losses 
from smut can be prevented 
almost wholly by treating 
the seed. Plant breeders 
have developed varieties 
which are highly resistant 
to or immune from rust or 
smut, besides producing 
early. Because of the short- 
ness of the straw, these varieties are not easily 
lodged — that is, beaten down from the proper vertical 
position. 

The oat is a cereal grass of the genus Avena. Wheat, 
rye, and barley are members of one subdivision of the 
grass family which bear their seeds in spikes. Oats, 
however, like rice and sorghum, bear their seeds in 
a branching head known as a panicle. There are two 
main classes of common oats — the spreading oats with 
a panicle branching ’in all directions, and the side, 
horse-mane, or banne^ oats, with the kernels hanging 
on branches extending from only one side of the stem. 

Every state in the United States grows oats, but 
the great oaUgrowing region lies in the north-central 
plains. Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois, and Wisconsin 
are the largest producers. These four states together 
generally raise more than 600,000,000 bushels a 
year — about one-half of the United States total. 

Scientific name of common oat, Avena saliva; red oat, 
Avena byzavlina; side oat, Avena saliva orienlalis. The com- 
mon ■ndid oat is Avena falua; bristle-pointed wild oat, Avena 
slrigasa. The short oat, Avena brevis, is grown in the moun- 
tainous localities of Europe. 


THE “OATMEAL” PLANT 



The Clinton variety of oats is resistant to disease and has 
a very stiff straw. It is a highly productive plant. Pictured 
at the bottom left are the husks; at the right the seeds are 
shown with the husks removed. 


Oberammergau, Bavaria. The fame of its Passion 
Play makes the little German village of Oberammer- 
gau known throughout the world. It lies in the valley 
of the Ammer River, at the foot of the Bavarian Alps, 
43 miles southwest of Munich. 

In 1633 the black plague reached Oberammergau. 
The villagers vowed that if their community were 
spared they would present a Passion Play every ten 

years. No more deaths oc- 
curred, and the pledge has 
been kept almost unbroken 
for more than 300 years. 

The first play was given 
in 1634. Beginning in 1680 
the date was changed to the 
decimal years. Because of 
the Franco-Prussian War, 
the 1870 presentation was 
postponed until 1871. Dis- 
turbed conditions in Ger- 
many following the first 
World War delayed the 
1920 production until 1922. 
An extra performance in 
1934 celebrated the play’s 
300th anniversary. The 
play was omitted in 1940 
because of the second World 
War, but was resumed 
in 1950. 

The Passion Play depicts 
Christ’s last days on earth, 
including the Crucifixion. 
Between the 17 acts are 
tableaux taken from the 
Old Testament, and orches- 
tral and choral prolo^es. 
It is performed several times 
weekly from May to Sep- 
tember, and lasts eight hours wdth an intermission at 
noon. Costumes of the period are worn, but no wigs or 
makeup are permitted. Men and boys of the village 
let their hair and beards grow for a year in advance. 

The performers number about 700, chosen by an 
elected committee. They must be natives of the vil- 
lage and must lead exemplary lives. The women must 
be unmarried. The coveted role of the Christus was 
played in 1900, 1910, and 1922 by Anton Lang. His 
cousin, Alois Lang, was the Christus of 1930 and 1934. 
In 1923 Anton Lang came to America with a group of 
his associates and exhibited the handicrafts of the 
village. Offers to bring the play to America, or make 
a motion picture of it, have been refused. More than 
400,000 visitors saw the 1934 performances. 

The people of Oberammergau are skilled artisans— 
woodcarvers, makers of toys, pottery, and jewelry- 
The woodcarving school is one of the finest in the 
world. The village itself is a beautiful relic of the 
Middle Ages. It looks like an illustration from a 
Grimm fairy 'tale. Population of Oberammergau 
(1946 census), 5,101. 



OBERAMMERGAU, SCENE OF THE PASSION PLAY 


^5; 














nnii 

ri- 














*r-T((f'1i» 


i'> r 


‘21 A* 


1 ' 


- ' h* 


— “77~r TT,;c Jc a scene from the special performance of 1934 which 

sta?rcsa?„!3iv,s’ofT. 
















324 


OBSERVATORY 


LOOKOUT POSTS for WATCHING the HEAVENS 



This picture shows the principal dome of the Mount Palomar Observatory near San Diego, Calif. Inside the opening between the 
huge shutters is the upper end of the largest telescope in the world. The dome is 138 feet in diameter and weighs 2 million 
pounds. Yet it rolls so smoothly on circular, polished steel rails that anyone riding it could not feel the motion. 


QBSERVATORY. High on the flat top of Mount 
Palomar in southern California stands a huge 
white and silver dome. Beneath the dome is the most 
precious scientiflc instrument in the world, the 200- 
inch reflecting telescope of the California Institute 
of Technology. Near by, two smaller domed buildings 
cover lesser telescopes. A shutter on each dome can 
be thrown back, and the dome and telescope beneath 
can be turned toward any point in the sky. In addi- 
tion to these buildings are several dwelling houses 
for the staff, a power house, an office and storage 
building, and a museum. 

This great observatory stands in a lonely mountain 
region 50 miles from the nearest city, San Diego, and 
at an elevation of 6,000 feet. This high, isolated loca- 
tion was chosen for good reasons. Near cities the air 
may be fouled with smoke and the night sky is aglare 
with reflection from city lights. Its altitude places 
the observatory above most fogs and much dust; the 
air at high altitudes is also slightly thinner and more 
transparent. At low altitudes “boiling” (turbulence) 
in the air often makes stars shimmer so that they 
cannot be photographed well. But at higher altitudes 
this trouble is minimi 2 ;ed or avoided. 

The Main Telescope of an Observatory 

The most important part of any observatory is its 
biggest telescope. This is either a refractor or a re- 


flector. A refracting telescope uses a lens to gather 
and focus light. A reflecting telescope uses a curved 
mirror (see Telescope). A few observatories have 
big refractors as their main telescopes. The Yerkes 
Observatory of the University of Chicago at Williams 
Bay, Wfis., is one. The big Yerkes telescope with its 
40-inch lens and 62-foot tube is the largest of its kind 
in the world. In most observatories, however, the 
biggest telescope is a reflector. Next to the 200- 
inch telescope, the biggest reflector is the 100 -inch 
instrument at Mount Wfilson Observatory. _ Next 
largest is McDonald Observatory’s 82-inch instru- 
ment. It is owned by the University of Texas and 
operated by the University of Chicago. A 120 -inch 
reflector is being built for the Lick Observatory at 
Mount Hamilton, Calif. 

All great telescopes are constructed and used lor 
special purposes. The Palomar giant, -for instance, is 
mainly used for photographing galaxies 500 mnhon 
to one billion light years away. No other telescope can 
penetrate this region. The Mount Wilson lOO-mc i 
instrument is used principally for investigating 
axies within its extreme range of 500 million hg i 
years. The Yerkes 40-inch refractor is used mos y 
for measuring the parallaxes and proper moliM^ o 

- D photograph and 

Unlike 


stars (see Star), It is also used to 
measure objects within the solar system 



325 


TAKING 




TELESCOPE 



As explained in the article, the 200-inch telescope is arranged to let observers 

focus near the front of the instrument. The picture above shows how an observer gets to tos point. A plat- 
form elevator runs up the ribbing of the dome just inside the shutter and takes the astronomer to the front 
of the telescope. There he can step into the observer’s house in the center of a tube. 


! telescope. 

most big telescopes, it is often used by observers to 
look directly at heavenly objects. 

In all telescopes used for photography, pictures are 
taken in much the same way. The astronomer first 
trains the telescope on the proper section of the sky. 
A small telescope called a finder, attached to the main 
telescope, helps him sight on the right stars. He 
starts the motor which turns the telescope and 
keeps it following the objects to be photographed. 
Then he puts a glass photographic plate or film in the 
plate holder at the focus point. In most big tele- 
scopes, the plate is always exposed at the lower end 
of the tube. But in the 200-inch reflector, a plate 
may be exposed at the prime focus near the upper 
end. Either way, an astronomer “rides” on the great 
telescope as it swings across the sky. 

To photograph faint objects, plates may be exposed 
nil night. During the whole exposure, an astronomer 
must guide the telescope. To do this he follows a 
particular star in a guiding eyepiece, keeping it 
always on a cross-hair sight. {See also the description 
nf observatory work in the article Astronomy.) 

Smaller Telescopes 

Almost all observatories use smaller telescopes in 
a dition to their big instruments. Smaller refractors 
-re often used for star-mapping projects. Most star 
patalogs have been made with moderate-sized refract 
f'^fascopes. This is true of the great Astrographic 
atalog, the Franklin-Adams Star Charts, and the 
? , -^onn Durchmusterung. Many of these jailer 
A'^aopes today are of the Schmidt type, ^ 

aither a refractor nor reflector but a combination 


OBSERVATORY 

of both. It is often 
called the Schmidt 
camera. 

All national ob- 
servatories and 
some others mount 
meridian telescopes. 
Such an instru- 
ment can svdng 
only between north 
and south. It is 
used to time the 
passage {transit) of 
stars across the 
meridian of the ob- 
servatory. In this 
way astronomers 
establish precise 
time and also de- 
termine the exact 
positions of stars. 
The zenith tele- 
scope, which is 
fixed on the point 
overhead, is used 
for the same pur- 
poses. 

In addition to 
determining cor- 


rect time, national observatories must prepare alma- 
nacs. These give the exact positions of the sun, moon, 
stars, and planets for the coming year. Other tables 
show the times of sunrise and sunset, moonrise and 


GETTING CORRECT TIME FROM THE STARS 



The United States Naval Observatory estabUshes correct time 
fnrthe whole country. Using a meridian telescope, astronomers 
check the Ume certSn -clock stars” cross the meridian. This 
fil'i^nment swings only in the plane of. the meridian- The as- 
tronomer lying under the telescope is maMng the observation 
whfl2™be Mhir reads an alUtude scale through a nucroscope. 



OBSERVATORY : 326 

moonset, and the length of twilight. An almanac ure, analyze, and compare photographs and spectro- 
also gives the time and place of predicted eclipses. grams of the heavenly bodies. In a big observatoiy 
Almanacs are used mainly by navigators and astron- dozens of calculating machine operators assist them. 

Such work is tedious but valuable. Most addi- 
tions to men’s knowledge about the stars 
come from such drudgery. 

Observatories that do spectrographic work 
also have an astrophysical laboratory. Here 
astronomers try to duplicate the conditions of 
great heat and pressure that exist on the stars. 
In this way and by many other means, they 
are able to learn much about the composition 
of the stars themselves. 

Not all of an observatory’s work is done 
at the main station. At the time of a total 
eclipse of the sun, many observatories send ex- 
peditions to places where it is visible (see 
Eclipse). They take along portable telescopes 
and special equipment which they set up in 
the field. (For picture, see Astronomy.) 

Some observatories maintain permanent 
stations in the Southern Hemisphere. At these 
stations, stars invisible in the Northern Hemi- 
sphere may be studied. The Southern Station 
of the Harvard Observatoiy at Bloemfontein, 
South Africa, is an example. 

A few observatories also maintain special 
stations for study of the sun’s corona (see 
Sun). Formerly the corona could be seen only ‘ 
during the few minutes of a total eclipse. But 
since about 1930 astronomei-s have had the 
omers. The most widely used are the Nautical Alma- coronagraph, an instrument that makes an artificial 
nac, prepared by the Royal Observatory in Sussex, eclipse for them. The coronagraph requires extremely 
England, and the American Nautical Almanac, clear atmosphere. So these instruments are mounted 

top stations. 

The most important na- 
tional observatories, be- 
sides those of England and 
the United States, are 
those of France (Paris), 
Russia (Pulkova), Ger- 
many (Potsdam), and Ar- 
gentina (Cdrdoba). Noted 
American observatories in- 
clude those mentioned pre- 
viously as well as Harvard 
Observatory (Cambridge, 
Mass.), Lowell Obseiva- 
tory (Flagstaff, Ariz.), Per- 
kins Observatory (Dela- 
ware, Ohio), and the As- 
trophysical Observatory 0 
the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion (Washington, D.C.). 
The Dunlap Observatory 
(Richmond Hill, Ont.) an 

Dominion Astrophysical 
Observatory (Victoria, 
B.C.) are noted Canadian 
observatories. 


prepareu oy tne uiiiiea 
States Naval Observa- 
tory in Washington, D.C. 

Spectrographic Work 

Many observatories use 
spectroscopes and spectro- 
graphs in connection with 
their telescopes. These 
instruments break up the 
light from a star into a 
spectrum which can be 
studied (see Spectrum 
and Spectroscope). With 
their aid astronomers are 
able to learn a great deal 
about the temperature, 
composition, and motion 
of stars. The spectrohelio- 
graph is a somewhat simi- 
lar instrument used for 
studying the sun. 

Very little of an astron- 
omer’s work is actually 
done at the telescope. 
Much of it is done in of- 
fices. Here astronomers 
and their assistants meas- 


PAINTING THE SUN’S PORTRAIT WITH LIGHT 



This spectroheliograph attached to the Yerkes 
40-inch refracting telescope is used for 
studying the sun. Prisms in the U-shaped 
tube (left) break up sunlight into its spec- 
trum. The instrument forms an image of the 
sun in the light of any one chemical element, 
thus showing the distribution of that element* 


SOLAR ECLIPSES TO ORDER 



The coronagraph, shown here, produces an artificial eclipse of the sun. It 
blanks out the bright disk of the sun and allows the corona to be studied. 
America’s only coronagraph station is operated by the Harvard Observatory^ 
It is located near Climax, Colo., at an altitude of 11,500 feet. 


— a 327 OCEAN 

fhe OCEAN — Guardian of Many MYSTERIES 







pvCEAN. Four vast basins in 
the earth’s surface hold 
the oceans. They are the Pacif- 
ic, Atlantic, Indian, and Arc- 
tic oceans. With their adja- 
cent seas, they cover 71 per 
cent of the earth’s surface. 

They hold so much water that 
if the earth were smoothed into 
a ball with mountains leveled 
and ocean deeps filled, the 
oceans and their seas would 
cover it about a mile in depth. 

It is quite certain that most 
lands have been covered by the 
sea in past times, and some large 
areas have been submerged 
repeatedly. On the other hand 
ve have no knowledge that anj'^ 
part of the deep ocean ever was 
land or that any existing land 
ever was beneath the deep ocean. Most of the hi^^' 
stone, sandstone, and shales on land were deposi 
as sediment on the bottom of shallow seas. Chalk, 
such as that found in England, Texas,^ and Kansas, 
'vas deposited on the bed of a sea and is rnade up o 
the shells of tiny creatures of the sea. During se^era 







The vast stretch” Ud “haf 'chalTengi? 

restless w^es camera can photograph 

X-ah Ia^th“e3|^ce^^noor. snch as the 


periods of the earth’s history 
large parts of North America 
were covered by the ocean. The 
fabled island or continent of 
Atlantis is said to have once 
been in the Atlantic. 

Size of the Oceans 
Oceanographers use several 
methods for fi.xing boundaries 
of the oceans. Most commonly, 
arbitrary' lines are drawn where 
no land features mark natural 
boundaries. Sometimes depths 
of 4,000 meters or distribution 
of living organisms, climate, 
currents, and properties such 
as salinity, are used to bound 
the oceans. 

Of the four great oceans, the 
Pacific Ocean is the largest and 
deepest. Its area (03,801,600 
square miles) covers more of the globe than do all 
the continents. It is 9,400 nautical miles in width 
between Panama and the Philippines. In some parts 
it is over 3.5,000 feet deep. The Atlantic Ocean 
(31,830,700 square miles) is about half as large as the 
Pacific.' Between Africa and the La Plata River in 




OCEAN 


South America it is 3,700 nautical 
miles in width. The Indian Ocean is 
nearly nine tenths as large as the 
Atlantic (28,356,200 square miles). 
The Arctic Ocean is much smaller 
(5,440,200 square miles). Sometimes 
the southern waters of the Pacific, At- 
lantic, and Indian oceans surrounding 
Antarctica are called a fifth ocean, the 
Antarctic Ocean or Great Southern 
Ocean. (See also articles on each ocean 
and Ocean table in Fact-Index.) 

The oceans and their adjacent seas 
cover nearly three fourths of the earth’s 
surface, or about 140,500,000 square 
miles. The volume of the oceans and 
adjoining waters is 14 times that of all 
land above sea level. This volume of 
water, frozen into a ball, would form a 
globe 850 miles in diameter. The aver- 
age depth of the oceans is between 2i 
and 2j miles. Modern echo-sounding 
methods, such as sonar, have indicated 
that the ocean beds are as varied as the 
surfaces of the continents, with moun- 
tain ranges, plateaus, canyons, valleys, 
hills, isolated mountains, and lowland 
plains (for picture, see Cables). 

The Saltiness of the Oceans 

The sea contains all the minerals 
that have washed off the face of the 
earth since the beginning of time. 
There are 35 parts of salts in every 
1,000 parts of sea water. These salts 
contain many minerals besides the so- 
dium chloride which we use in our food. 
Some of these salts are extracted com- 
mercially, notably magnesium and bro- 
mine. Much of the magnesium used in 
airplane manufacturing, for example, 
comes from the sea. Other minerals are 
present but in such great dilution that 
it is not yet commercially practicable 
to obtain them for man’s use. Since we 
are using the resources of the land at 
an alarming rate, however, we shall 
probably have to turn to the sea in the 
not too distant future. 

The chemicals most important to life 
in the ocean are phosphates and nitrates. 
They are used for growth by the myriads 
of microscopic floating plants that form 
the basic source of life in the sea. In 
some areas, in the spring, the plants 
may use up all the phosphate present 
at the surface and then die. How- 
ever, autumn storms, ocean currents, 
and the general circulation of the sea 
accumulate more phosphate for a new 
growth of plants in the autumn. The 
plants are eaten or die in the winter 


328 


BLACK OCEAN DEPTHS 



The sunlight penetrates only a 
thin layer of the ocean’s sur- 
face. At a depth of about 600 
feet there is insufficient light 
for plant growth in clear ocean 
water. 


and in the spring a new growth occurs. 
The sea thus plows and fertilizes itself 
and can never wear out as badly used 
farmland often does. (See also subhead 
“Diatoms and Pastures of the Sea” 
later in this article.) 

Other important chemicals present 
are hoarded by plant and animal life. 
This is the basis for the extraction of io- 
dine from seaweeds and vitamins from 
fish livers, to take but two examples. 

Gold too is present in huge quanti- 
ties. It is in such great dilution, how- 
ever, that extraction costs are pro- 
hibitive. 

Exploring the Depths of the Sea 
Now that man has conquered Everest, 
the highest mountain on earth, the 
oceans will probably be the last great 
exploration frontier until the advent 
of space travel. The most modern div- 
ing equipment has descended about 2| 
miles into black depths whose lowest 
known point is almost seven miles be- 
low the surface. (For pictures, see 
Earth; Atmosphere.) 

An ordinary collapsible diving suit 
makes possible a descent of about 400 
feet. Submarines have gone deeper than 
600 feet, although the United States 
Navy’s official figure for operational 
dives is 250 feet. The potential of the 
atomic submarine has not been dis- 
closed (see Diving; Submarine). 

Greater Depths Made Accessible 
William Beebe and Otis Barton made 
a record dive of 3,028 feet off Bermuda 
in 1934. They used a 2-ton hollow steel 
ball called a bathysphere (see Beebe). 

Barton made a new record off the 
California coast in 1949. He descended 
to 4,500 feet in a device called a bentho- 
scope. This 3|-ton steel sphere was 575 
inches in diameter. One of its windows 
was designed to take motion pictures. 
Oxygen was supplied from tubes (for 
picture, see Exploration). 

In 1953, Auguste and Jacques Piccard 
descended over 10,300 feet into the 
Tyrrhenian Sea. They used a bathy- 
scaphe, which consisted of a diving com- 
partment suspended beneath a 60-foo 
submarine-shaped hull of thin stee 
filled with gasoline to give buoyanc). 
To descend the bathyscaphe releases 
gasoline; to rise it drops iron ballast. 

Man’s greatest descent into the sea 
was made by two French naval 
in 1954. Using a bathyscaphe, they 
dived over 13,200 feet (about 25 miles; 
off Dakar, French West Africa. 


TINY MARVELS OF TH E GREAT OCEAN 


'-' //^*r ' ■-w..;;;=,.;:^2^.i>,./v-.,r'- .--: , 

- ■ .V-Srt'fe; ^ 



. i 




. .. 




JclSR 


'/b- 


j, i < y,- .i 

TT^'^r'- '■ •■ ......i7.>f -'-Atl'L >■ V- i- -r 



Ac- IMI. and to read the atonr of OToIution— a ttorj which becan 

( stranKe monstera. A ,-0 in ocean witeff. ft it from primitire creatoret tuch at 

what the ,„aare these that acientiiti are tlowlp pattint totether the atorp of 

large as the aman aqaar hirher forma tame into existence, for mar.p of them are 


If^l Jhit looks like a photograph of 
iL^wl it shows what the mi 

ISk'l ^ « «P°‘ oP’y ** '“f .'^.“ms'll that bow'hirher 

tg^4 "t the left. Most of these creatures are so sraalj^that 

, the caked eye could not percetrc them, 

(I ^j^'JPtcope rereals them In all their fascination 
ICltfum^nt* ir^ •r^ rfaduallT 


-,^tn instruments we are gradual!, . _ _ 

a-oat til the strange forms 0! animal and plant 



329 



OCEAN 


330 


What man could not visit in person could, however, 
be reached and explored with instruments. 

Some Early Discoveries 

One of the first ocean explorers filled a glass tube 
mth air, sealed it, wrapped it in thick flannel, and put 
it in a copper tube, making tiny holes at the top and 
bottom of the outer tube so that water might enter. 
Then he sent the tube, filled mth air, down 12,000 
feet. When he drew it up the thick copper tube was 
pressed flat, and the glass was reduced to a mass 
of powder. 

From their earlier experiences, men for a long time 
believed that no fife could exist down in the ocean 
depths. No sunlight ever reaches more than a few 
hundred feet below the surface, and where there was 
no light, it was argued, there could be no plant life. 
Where there was no plant fife there could be no 
animal life, and so the great ocean floor, it was 
reasoned, must be a desolate region of emptiness and 
death. But then a strange thing happened. A tele- 
graph cable in the Mediterranean broke at a depth of 
more than 7,000 feet, and when the broken ends were 
raised it was found that the cable was overgrown -with 
an astonishing variety of hving creatures. It was 
certain that they had been alive in the dark and icy 
cold of the sea bottom, with tons of water bearing 
upon them. 

Investigating the Greater Depths 

Now that men have found new ways of collecting 
information and material from the ocean chasms, an 
extraordinary story has unfolded. They send down 
various sounding and dredging devices. They let down 
nets and iron hooks; instruments for measuring the 
temperature of the water; and bottles which open 
when they touch the bottom, fill with water there, and 
then close so that water at higher levels cannot enter. 
They make great nets which touch the bottom of the 
sea and close up tightly as soon as they are raised 
above the floor. In them are brought up from the 
bottom countless creatures from a realm unseen by 
man. Some are still alive; others have been killed by 
the extreme change of pressure. But, dead or aUve, 
they provide rich clues for scientific study and 
speculation. 

And what men find is that in this kingdom of the 
deep sea — a kingdom of darkness and almost freezing 
cold — ^is a great variety of life. The floor of the sea, 
it may be said, is like a living garden planted by 
Nature herself. Blind crablike forms crawl in and 
out of the strange undergrowth, but other creatures 
there are that not only have eyes, but shine with a 
soft dull light. There are, indeed, myriads of tiny 
living lamps that swim about illuminating the 
ocean-bed. 

Explorers declare that on some parts of the floor 
of the sea there are millions of little creatures that 
shine like glow-lamps, and the discoveries that have 
been made in this direction are among the most 
interesting of all. When we make light by burning 
coal or gas or chemicals or by passing a current of 


electricity through the filaments of a lamp, we waste 
most of the energy in heat; only a little of it is trans- 
formed into light. But the phosphorescent light of 
deep-sea creatures — ^like the light of the firefly— is 
made without waste of heat. It is pure light, and a 
huge fortune awaits the man who can discover the 
way to make light in this way. Even some sharks 
are able to light up their paths through the deep 
sea with a white and heatless radiance. Certain 
glands in their skin give out a sticky substance, and 
it is this substance that makes them shapes of living 
light. It is doubtful, however, if the shark ever 
penetrates to the deep ocean beds, and it is the deep- 
sea animals which are most phosphorescent. 

Animals can live under the great pressure of the 
deep sea because the pressure inside their bodies 
equals the pressure on the outside. A tin can could 
never be crushed by pressure from without if the 
pressure outward on the inside was equal to the 
pressure in from the outside. 

The Curious Danger of Falling Up! 

But though the inhabitants of the ocean abysses 
are able to live under an enormous load of water, 
they are liable to extraordinary accidents. If, in 
searching for food, they rise a considerable distance 
above the floor of the sea, the gases of their swimming 
bladders expand, and they become lighter. Up to a 
certain point the muscles of their bodies can resist this 
strange tendency to go floating upwards; and the 
deep-sea fish that has not completely lost control of 
itself can win its way back to its home in the dark 
cold heavy water. But if it travels too far towards 
the world of sunlight, its muscles are not strong 
enough to drive the body down. The fish continues 
to swell, and is gradually killed in its long and strange 
voyage to the surface of the sea. Thus the deep-sea 
fishes are exposed to a danger that comes to no other 
animal in the world — the danger of tumbling up 
wards! That such accidents do occasionally occur is 
shown by the fact that some unknown kinds of fish, 
now known to be deep-sea forms, were found floating 
dead on the level of the ocean long before men 
dreamed that life could exist at such depths. Wien 
brought up suddenly from great depths, animals 
sometimes explode because of the expansion of gases 
within the body when pressure from the outside is 
greatly reduced. 

The great problem which has perplexed the ex- 
plorers of the deep sea for many years is the question 
of how life is maintained so far below the waters. 
What do the creatures of the abyss feed upon? It is 
clear that they cannot keep up life merely by eating 
one another, for this would mean that the biggest 
would eventually swallow all the rest, and then die of 
starvation because there was nothing more to eat. 
All animal life must have plant life to feed on. This 
is as true of the wild strange animals of the deep as of 
the cattle of our pastures. But we have seen that no 
ordinary plants can grow in the sunless underworld 
of water. How, then, is animal life maintained there. 






1 npoan tlipv qend exoloring instruments down instead. 1. To determine 

cannot descend to the lower lowered. 2. This net with its opening and closing device will 

^ These inSents bring up samples that show the composition of the 
jn fl rfass tube and the lamps on the rod provide light for the picture, 
ocean bottom. 4. An -nderwater^ iSfun^^e^r^'a^er c/mera 400 feet^down. 







'332 


OCEAN 

A few years ago no man was able to answer this 
question properly, and it was not until great progress 
had been made in the study of those microscopic 
forms of life that the secret of the ocean abyss was 
fully revealed. 

We now know that in addition to the conspicuous 
inhabitants of the ocean which can be seen with the 
naked eye, the waters teem with vast swarms of 
microscopic life. According to their general habits, 
all marine organisms can be placed in three groups. 
The benthos are those plants and animals, which live 
on or are attached to the sea bottom. Such, for 
instance, are the rockweeds and corals, and many of 
the worms and moUusks. Organisms which live in 
the water itself, like the fishes, whales, and seals, 
and move about actively from place to place are the 
nekton. Still other forms — most of them of micro- 
scopic size — ^which float about passively, drifting here 
and there at the mercy of the tides and currents, 
are known as the 'plankton. This last group of plants 
and animals was practically unknown until the 
middle of the last century, but we now know that 
it is the primary and aU-important group upon which 
aU other ocean animal life depends. 

The Diatoms and the Pastures of the Sea 

A traveler over the sea may think he is sailing 
through an almost barren waste of waters because 
no life may be visible. But let him draw a fine net 
of silk through the water and examine the catch of 
“scum” under a powerful microscope and he will be 
astonished at the wealth of life wliich is revealed. 
He would see diatoms, which are single-celled algae 
encased in a glasslike box, so graceful and varied 
in shape and so delicately ornamented that no artistic 
jewelry of the finest manufacture could surpass them 
in beauty. He would see protozoa, too, with elegant 
shells of mineral material, strange larvae of all sorts, 
tiny Crustacea, and many other forms of life which 
only an expert could recognize and name. Minute as 
are these organisms, many others even smaller he 
could not see because they escape through the 
meshes of even the finest net. 

Now it is these diatoms and other green plants 
of the plankton which make the sea a pasture. They 
are to the fishes and other animals of the ocean what 
grass is to the cattle in the fields. They live in the 
surface waters, and especially in the shallow water 
zone where they can use the sunlight in building up 
their bodies. They are like little chemical factories, 
employing the heat and light of the sun in making 
food from the minerals dissolved in sea water. They 
multiply at an astonishingly rapid rate and form the 
basic food for all other ocean animal life. Even when 
they die their bodies fall into the depths of the ocean 
and provide food for the animals there. 

The value of the diatom does not end with death. 
Its crystalline case endures for millions of years. 
Through ages past, diatom shells have accumulated 
on the ocean floor in immense deposits. Great geolog- 
ical convulsions have frequent^'' raised these ocean 


beds and they have become dry land. Thus, the 
diatomaceous earth, as it is now called, is made 
available for man’s use. It furnishes insulating 
material against heat and sound, enters into the 
preparation of dynamite, becomes a filler in maH n;; 
rubber and cement, produces excellent filters, and 
because of its abrasive properties, it is extensively 
used in scouring powders and even tooth pastes! 

The life of the oceans is most abundant in the sur- 
face waters down to about 600 feet, is less abundant 
in the intermediate depths, and becomes more 
plentiful at and near the bottom. A whitish or gray- 
ish ooze covers about a third of the ocean bottom, 
and there are vast areas of red clay formed by the 
decomposition of shells and by pumice and other 
volcanic materials, and of wind-blovm dust. There 
are extensive “continental shelves,” over which the 
water is shallow, covered with gravel, sand, and silt 
carried to the sea by the thousands of rivers which 
ceaselessly pour their floods into the oceans. 

Enormous Fish Population of the Sea 

If we consider merely the quantity of living matter 
in the oceans, the mind staggers before it, but a few 
figures help us to realize it. It was estimated a few 
years ago that in the small North Sea which sweeps 
the English coast there were then 10,000 million 
fishes, and there is a record of a fishing fleet that once 
ran into a school of mackerel 50 miles in circumfer- 
ence. What helps us most to form some notion of the 
number of fish in the sea, however, is the number of 
eggs that fishes lay. Even a sprat deposits about 

5.000 eggs, and in the roe of a female cod are found 
some 8,000,000 eggs. A common herring lays about 

25.000 eggs, and a big halibut 3,500,000, while the 
turbot is authoritatively calculated to lay no fewer 
than 14,000,000 eggs. Imagine the number of fishes 
laying eggs at this rate, and one might think that 
the products of the sea are inexhaustible. But even 
here, proper methods of conservation are needed. _ 

The principal circulation of the ocean waters is 
maintained by three faetors: (1) winds, (2) unequa 
temperatures, and (3) variable saltiness of the water. 
Of these tlmee faetors the winds are the most impor- 
tant, and are the chief cause of ocean currents, n 
equatorial regions the prevailing winds over the ocean 
are easterly winds, and the equatorial waters are 
drifted westward under their influence. As this moving 
surface water strikes the continents — as, for examp e. 
South Ameriea — ^it is divided, a part of it being turnec 
northward and a part southward. That 
northward beeomes the Gulf Stream of 
Atlantie. The corresponding current in the , 
Ocean is the Japan Current. These warm currents^^^ 
ocean water moving northward warm the air oi 
them, and in middle latitudes tliis warmed air is car 
ried over to the continents on the east sides of t le.- 
oceans, because in these latitudes the prevailing 
blow from the west. This is one of the reasons w y 
Scandinavia and Alaska are so much wanner than 
same latitudes on the east sides of the continen 





SOME UNDERWATER PORTRAITS 

Here are some of the strange creatures that live beneath the Pacific, near the South Sea islands. The little fish at the 
members of the Chaetodon family, sometimes called ‘‘butterfly fish.” The green speckled one is Chaetodon citrindlas, ^ 
banded one is Chaetodon falcula. Below is a relative of the common lobster. Its scientific name is Fallinnrus fenicillattis. j 
the bottom arc white, lacclike stony coral, the orange spines of whip coral, and tiny sea plants called green calcareous b 

334 




335 


OCEAN 


From the large bodies of ice in the polar regions, 
large volumes of ice-cold water are poured into the 
oceans. These cold waters move southward along the 
east sides of continents, but presently sink beneath 
the surface. These great supplies of cold water from 
the polar ice keep the temperature of the oceim low. 
The mean temperature of the ocean is below 40° F., 
though the surface waters are much warmer. 

"Whirlpools” in the Ocean 
Ocean currents arc set in motion largely bj' steadily 
blowing winds. But the rotation of the earth has a 
great deal to do with the direction they take. The 
maps on this and the following ])age show that the 
main currents in the oi)on sea are rotating currents. 


In the Northern Hemisphere they rotate in a clock- 
wise direction; in the Southern Hemisphere they 
turn in the opposite (counterclockwise) direction. The 
rotation of the earth helps make moving water follow 
these circular paths in the same way that it causes 
the planetary winds. This is explained in the article 
on Winds. 

The surface currents that help or hinder ships as 
they cross the oceans are only a part of the whole 
sj'stcm of ocean currents. Submarine currents circu- 
late equally widely. Their motion is generally in an 
opposite direction. The great rotary current of the 
North Atlantic is a good example. The North Equa- 
torial Current, the Gulf Stream, and the West Wind 
Drift circle clockwise and inward towmrd the 
Sargasso Sea. There the water settles to- 
ward the bottom, leaving great masses of 
floating .sargasso weed on the surface. At 
great depths, the watei’ moves outward and 
finally rises to the surface again as a part 
of the Gulf Stream. The West Wind Drift 
of the Southern Hemisphere, w'hich endless- 
ly circles the continent of Antarctica, has 
a similar kind of circulation. The cold 
Humboldt Current off the Pacific coast of 
South America is a surface current. But 
it is augmented by other cold water 
which wells up from ocean depths close to 
the continent’s edge. 

Currents and Climate 
Along the seacoasts of the work!, ocean 
currents have a tremendous effect on cli- 
mate. The warm Gulf Stream permits Eng- 



shows the principal surface currents of the Atlantic and 
“^oceans. Notice how the Gulf Stream travels northward, 
it passes, until it finally loses itself m the fw 
ass of the Arctic north of Europe. It can also be seen how the 


cold Labrador Stream meets the warm Gulf Stream at the Grand 
Banks of Neirfoundland. Cold air over the one current condenses 
moisture from the warm air over the other and causes the 
dense fogs that constantly hang over the Grand Banks. 









OCEAN 


- 336 



land to enjoy a mild and equable climate while Labra- 
dor, in the same latitude, suffers under a subarctic 
climate. 

The warm currents in the oceans also give rise to 
fogs which are very troublesome to navigation. The 
warm air over the Gulf Stream, for example, is heav- 
ily charged with moisture. When it is carried by 
the winds beyond the Gulf Stream over colder waters, 
the moisture in the air condenses and forms fog. 

The cold Humboldt Current partially accounts for 
Chile’s predominantly desert climate. It cools the 
west winds passing over it and they drop much of 
their moisture. As they pass over the land, the 
winds are warmed. Then they not only fail to give 
up moisture; they suck up more from the earth. At 
intervals a warm ocean current from the north will 
briefly replace the Humboldt Current, with astound- 
ing consequences. The climate changes abruptly; 
violent thunderstorms occur, and torrential rains 
make the desert lands bloom. 

Why the Ocean Is Salty 

The water evaporated from the sea is borne to the 
land, and some of it is condensed and falls as rain or 
snow. More than 6,500 pubic miles of water falling 


on the land is yearly sent back to the sea by n^ers, 
carrying with it salts and earthy matters. The salties 
waters are found where evaporation is the greates . 
The Red Sea, for example, and the trade-wind regions 
of the ocean basins are saltier than adjacent areas. 
Because of the constant circulation in the ocean, 
oxygen and other gases of the air are carried donn 
to the greatest depths; thus animals and plants may 
flourish there. For sounding the ocean’s depths 
sonic depth finder and (supersonic) fathometer ar 
now used. They send a sound wave or 
wave down to the ocean bottom and note the i 
when the echo returns. The machine lu 

translates this time interval into the measure o oi 
reached by the impulse. , 

Observations indicate that along the coasts o 
United States the mean surface level of the a 
Ocean is about two feet higher than that of le 
lantic. Furthermore, the levels of both ocean 
crease in height from south to north. . 

show that the blue color of the sea is due on y 
reflection of the sky. Patches of other colors gr < 
brown, or red — in the open ocean are caus 
microscopic organisms in the water. 



337 


OCTOPUS 


Ocean perch. Although it was practically unknown 
to the fish-eating' pubhc until about 1935, the ocean 
perch has become the leading food fish taken bj' At- 
lantic coast fishermen. Not until the filleting of the 
fish was attempted did a market develop. In 1933 
only 264,000 pounds were caught. By 1951 the catch 
had increased to 260 milUon pounds. 

The ocean perch is a vivid orange or red, with paler 
underparts and large black eyes. Fishermen call it 
redfish, and until recently its official name was rosefish. 
It is one of the few commercial fish that give birth to 
live young. The young are spawned from June to 
September. They grow slowly, about an inch a year, 
vintil their eleventh year when they mature. The 
average weight is three fourths of a pound. 

Practically the entire catch is taken by otter 
trawls in depths of 50 to 125 fathoms (300 to 750 
feet). Fishing is carried on throughout the year, 
but only during daylight hours, for the fish rise off 
the bottom and scatter at night. The United States 
catch is landed at Boston and Gloucester, Mass., and 
at Portland and Rockland, Me. The entire catch is 
filleted. Since the fillets represent less than one third 
the weight of the fish, there remains a large volume 
of waste material which is manufactured into meal 
and oil. 

Ocean perch belong to the rockfish family Scorpae- 
nidae. The scientific name is Sebastes marinus. 
O’CONNELL, Daniel (1775-1847). Throughout the 
18th century Ireland suffered under the oppression 
of its English rulers. The Act of Union (1800) had 
joined Ireland to England and dissolved the Irish 
parliament. The Catholics were debarred from voting 


“Head-Footed” MONSTERS 
That Fight with 
SUCKERED TENTACLES 

QCTOPus, Cuttlefish, and Squid. Tales of horror 
and imagination have been woven around these 
strange creatures of the sea since earliest times. The 
'oj’thical .sea sei’pents ivhich are still reported may 
possibly be traced to the giant squid, w'hose arms, 35 
feet long, reaching above the surface of the water, 
assume a snakelike form. The yams of sailors, fanci- 
W though they may seem, have some basis in fact. 
Tor these are among the largest, strongest, fastest, 
®ost cunning, and ferocious of all animals. 

^lost of them, however, are quite harmless and are 
^^ful in a variety of w'ays. In southern European 
;'^^iatie countries, the octopus is valued as food. 
North America common squids are used as bait in 
he cod fisheries. The internal shell of the cuttle- 


and holding public office. The best land was held bj" 
Enghsh absentee landlords and w'orked by Irish peas- 
ants who hved in great poverty (see Ireland). 

Daniel O’Connell was a successful Irish Catholic 
lawyer who undertook to help his people. He set 
about uniting the Cathofics on a political program 
w'hich included the right to sit in the British Par- 
liament. They had been excluded since the 17th cen- 
tury. He wmn the support of the priests and organ- 
ized the peasants in 1823 in the Catholic Association. 

Within a year the association became a powerful 
political force. The Duke of Wellington, who had 
consistently opposed the Irish claims, now agreed 
that it was better to give the Catholics virtually 
complete rights of voting and holding offices than to 
risk war. The Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 
w'as O’Connell’s greatest achievement. But Catholic 
“emancipation” was 30 years too late. O’Connell 
spent the rest of his life in agitation for Home Rule. 
He also sought law's which would insure the rights of 
the tenants against their landlords and reliev'e the 
Catholic peasants of paying tithes to the English 
church. In this last he w'as successful (1838), but in 
little else. His great work was done in 1829. He had 
done much more than emancipate the Catholics. He 
had roused a discouraged people and thus prepared 
the way for later leaders. 

October. The name of this month is from the 
Latin octo, meaning “eight” ; it was the eighth month of 
the year at Rome, but it became the tenth w’hen the 
beginning of the year was changed from March 1 to 
January 1 (46 b.c.). At the same time it w'as increased 
from 30 to 31 days. 


i 



creature is shooting a “smoke screen” toward the fleeing fish. 


OCTOPUS 


338 


THE UGLY LITTLE CUTTLEFISH 



The parrotlike beak of the cuttlefish can crush oyster shells and 
clamshells as well as crawfish and lobster bodies. The un- 
winking, strangely human eye seems to have an evil stare. 



The cuttlefish is about eight inches long, brown with white stripes 
and violet fins. It lives in European waters. This picture was 
made in the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth, England. 


fish, known as cuttlebone, is given to cage birds as 
a source of lime salts. Sepia ink, a rich brown pig- 
ment used by artists, is produced from the fluid these 
animals discharge to protect themselves from their 
enemies and to help capture their victims. 

The Eight-Armed Octopus 

An octopus in an aquarium is not a very terrifying 
object. Its soft bag-shaped body pulses rhythmically 
like a bellows. Eight long, slender arms, lined with 
cuplike suckers and connected by thin membranes, 
reach out in all directions. Over the animal flow 
waves of color — gray, brown, pink, blue, green, per- 
haps even an angry red if it is suddenly frightened. 
It may move over the bottom of the aquarium tank 
on the tips of its arms as delicately poised and 
graceful as a baUet dancer. One has the impression 
of a soft, flexible creature in constant, controlled 
motion. 

About 50 different kinds of octopuses are distrib- 
uted throughout the oceans of the world. Those on 
the east and west coasts of North America have bodies 
only three or four inches long, with short arms about 
as long as the body. Other kinds reach a total length 
of nine or ten feet and may weigh 70 pounds. 

The octopus dwells on the ocean bottom in shallow 
waters where it crawls about on its arms, searching 
in every crevice for its favorite food of shrimps, 
crabs, and mussels. It is a skillful hunter and at- 
tacks such large prey as sharks and dogfish. It stalks 
a victim until it can drop down on it from above. 
Then ^Tapping the arms around it, and with suckers 


firmly attached, it drags the prey into its powerful 
jaws. It is the terror of pearl divers in Asiatic waters, 
where it has been known to hold down a man until 
he drowned. If the octopus is losing the battle it 
shoots out a cloud of black ink and hastily retreats, 
It may lose one or more arms in the fight, but they 
are soon replaced.- Its worst enemies are the savage 
conger and moray eels. 

It is an antisocial creature, living alone in a rocky 
den. Sometimes it digs its oivn den, moving stones of 
considerable size and closing the entrance with stones 
when it retreats inside. The female lays her eggs 
either singly or in grapelike clusters, depending on 
the species. She guards them for as long as SO days 
until they hatch, and then leaves the young to shift 
for themselves. 

Ten-Armed Cuttlefish and Squid 

Cuttlefish and squid differ from the octopus in 
having ten arms instead of eight. The fifth pair are 
much longer than the others. In many species they 
are set in pits into which they may be withdraivn. 
They have suckers only at the club-shaped end. 

Different kinds of cuttlefish are found near the 
shores of North America, Australia, and Europe, and 
some live in the deep sea. The body is shield shaped, 
eight to ten inches long, with the wide part of the 
shield at the head end. Flaps along the sides of the 
body serve as fins. 

The food of the cuttlefish consists of fish and var- 
ious shellfish, such as prawns, shrimps, and crabs. 
Upon these it steals unseen, grasping them by shoot- 
ing out the two long arms from their pits. Cuttle- 
fish come into shallow water in July and August to 
deposit their eggs. They are attached to each other 
and to the ocean floor by means of gelatinous stalks. 

Squids are dwellers of the deep and open seas, •un- 
like the cuttlefish and octopus, which are more com- 
monly found near shores. They are arrow-shaped, with 
a triangular fin on either side of the end of the 
body. Those that dwell in deep waters are luminescen . 
The little sea arrows, or flying squids, are abou 
12 inches long. As their names imply, they are in- 
credibly swift in motion. They travel in ' 
They are abundant off the Atlantic coast of hor 
America. , 

Giant squids are the subject of most of the legen s 
of deep-sea monsters. Careful observers- state tha 
the giant squids off the northeastern coast of America 
often attain a total length of 55 feet. The arms o 
such a specimen are 35 feet long, and the body 20 ee 
long. The weight is nearly a thousand pounds, -liac i 
sucker is almost two inches wide, and the eye-openmg 
a foot wide. The giant squid is sometimes ca e 
“devilfish,” a name which is also given to the larges 
octopuses and to the manta ray. 

Head-Footed Mollusks 

It is hard to believe that these creatures are re a 
tives of the garden snail, the slug, the oyster, > 
scallop, and the clam. Like them, they are mollus ' 
(see Mollusks). The octopus, cuttlefish, squid, 
nautilus, and argonaut, or paper nautilus, compm 



339 


THE OCTOPUS LIVES ALONE 



This octopus lives among the coral rocks of the South Pacific 
Ocean. It is shown at the entrance to a cavern in an exhibit 
in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. 


the class of cephalopoda (sef'a-lo-pddz), “head 
footed.” The head is surrounded by tentacles called 
arms which are actually modifications of the foot in 
other mollusks. The pearly nautilus is the only 
cephalopod which has an external shell enclosing the 
soft body (see Nautilus). All the others have only 
remnants of shell embedded in the body. The shell- 
less cephalopods are divided into two groups — the 
octopus, with eight arms; {octopod) and the cuttlefish 
and squid, wdth ten arms {decapod). 

They are the most highly developed of the animals 
without backbones (invertebrates). There is a distinct 
head, with a brain and sense organs protected by a 
brain case of cartilage. The body is enclosed in a 
thick, muscular fold of flesh called the mantle. It 
ends in an open edge, the collar, which surrounds 
the neck. Between the inside of the mantle and the 
trunk of the body is the mantle cavity. 

Attached to the underside of the head is a funnel, 
or siphon. It extends back into the mantle cavity. 
Through the funnel are expelled the bodj"^ wastes, the 
'^ggs, and the fluid from the ink sac. Water entering 
the mantle through the funnel cames o.xj'gen to two 
corablike gills by which the animal breathes. The 
funnel is also the chief organ of locomotion. AVhen the 
urantle is relaxed, water flows into the mantle cayitj' 
through the open edge of the collar. If the animal 
"ants to move quickly it suddenly contracts the raus- 
cles of the mantle; the collar seals tightly; and the 
"ater in the mantle ca'snty shoots out through the 
funnel. This jerks the animal rapidly backward, and 


OCTOPUS 

it moves in a succession of jerks, arms trailing behind. 
If it w'ants to move forward to seize its prej', 
it bends the funnel backward. These animals were 
the originators of jet propulsion (for picture, see 
Jet Propulsion). 

The head is partly concealed by the bases of the 
arms. Inside the circle of the arms is the mouth. 
All cephalopods are carnivorous — that is, they live 
on other animals of the sea. They catch their prey 
wdth the arms and transfer the food to the mouth. 
The mouth is surrounded by a ring-shaped lip. Inside 
the lip is a sharp, parrotlike beak. In the throat 
are the tongue and radula. The radula is a sharp, 
horny ribbon that lies on the upper surface of the 
tongue. As the tongue moves back and forth, chunks 
of food cut by the jaws are ground to bits. 

The large, lidless, unblinking eyes are amazingly 
like the eyes of human beings and totally unlike 
those of any other invertebrate. A pair of pits be- 
hind the eyes are probably organs of smell. 

The tentacles, or arms, are lined with a double row 
of suckers for the entire length of the inner sur- 
face. Those of the octopods are attached directly 
by the base to the arm. In the decapods the suckers 
are raised on a short stalk. Each sucker ends in a 
homy ring which in some species is also saw toothed. 
When a cuttlefish or squid attaches itself to an ob- 
ject, a powerful vacuum is created betw'een the ring 
and the floor of the pit in each sucker. 

The sexes are separate. With one arm, the male 
grasps a sperm capsule from its funnel opening and 
transfers it to the mantle cavity of the female. In 
certain octopuses the arm becomes detached and re- 
mains for a time in the female’s mantle cavity. A new 
arm grow's to take its place. In some squids, the 
female takes the eggs from her funnel opening and 
places them in a special cavity in her mouth; then 
the male places the sperm capsule in the same 
cavity. The fertilized eggs are ejected through the 
female’s funnel or from her mouth. They hatch 
into a small form of the adult. 


THE EGGS OF THE OCTOPUS 



The eggs of the octopus are incased in a capsule and are laid 
in a cluster. Two tiny animals have just hatched, and others 
may be seen inside the transparent capsule. 


340 


ODESSA 

Odessa, Russia. The train rolls through mile after 
mile of oats and barley and waving fields of golden 
com or wheat until it comes abruptly to the end of 
the steppe, between the two great rivers, the Dnies- 
ter and the Dnieper. There on the brink, looking out 
over the Black Sea, stands Odessa, an important port 
of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. 

Along its tree-arched avenues and broad boulevards 
are magnificent houses which were once the homes of 
the rich and noble, but are converted now into work- 
men’s tenements, communist clubs, or government 
offices. Mineral waters and mud baths near the city 
attract health seekers. 

Odessa’s recent history has been marked by disaster 
and tragedy. Before the first World War it had been 
the commercial capital of South Russia and one of the 
world’s busiest seaports, handling Russia’s vast grain 
exports. The revolutionary fighting of 1917-20 laid 
large parts of the city and its suburbs in ruins, and 
later famine years brought terrible suffering. In 
the autumn of 1941, during the second World War, the 
German armj- captured Odessa after heavj’- fighting. 
In 1944 it was back in Russian hands, and by 1950 
the war damage had been largely repaired. 

Most of the ships that crowd Odessa’s harbor are 
engaged in coastal service, since the Soviet Union 
now has little contact with the outside world. The 
chief industries are agricultural machinery, fish can- 
ning and other food processing, and the production 
of salt from seawater in evaporation pans. 

Catherine the Great founded the city on the site 
of an old Turko-Tatar milage in 1794, as a stepping- 
stone toward Constantinople (Istanbul). Population 
(1947 est.), 600,000. 

Odin. Wien the long dark winter evening settles 
down on the Northland, the cliildren gather around 
a great pine-log fire and listen to grandmother’s won- 
der tales of Odin, father of the gods of Scandinavian 
mythology. 

Many, many years ago, the stoiy mns, there arose 
from the center of the earth a lofty mountain, so high 
that it reached to the clouds. On the top of this 
mountain was a beautiful green plain, in the midst of 
which stood the shining city of Asgard, home of the 
gods. Chief among these gods was Odin (sometimes 
called Woden), who sat on a golden tlirone in the cen- 
ter of the plain, and directed the wind, the rains, and 
the seasons. On Odin’s head was a shining helmet, 
and in his hand he carried a spear made from a bough 
of the great ash, Ygdrasil, the tree of life. Over his 
shoulders was throvm a beautiful mantle, the color of 
the summer sky, and this was tr imm ed with twinkling 
stars, for Odin was the god of the heavens. At his 
feet lay two wolves which he fed from his hand, and 
on his shoulders perched two ravens who each morning 
flew over the earth and brought back news of what 
was going on in the world. 

Though Odin ruled over the heavens, the earth, and 
the underworld, there was one place that he could not 
control. This was Jotunheim, the home of the frost 


giants, a dreary frozen country that lay to the north 
beyond the seas. These giants waged unceasing war- 
fare against the gods and men, and Odin longed for 
the wisdom that would make him greater than any of 
the giants and enable the gods to triumph over them. 

The only way in wMch this wisdom could be a^ 
quired was by drinking from the fountain of knowl- 
edge. This Odin decided to do, and moimting his 
eight-legged steed he crossed the rainbow bridge that 
coimects the heavens with the earth. At the end of 
the bridge stood Ygdrasil, whose roots and branches 
bound together undenvorld, earth, and heaven. Tliis 
tree was always green and its leaves never withered, 
for its roots were watered by a stream from the foun- 
tain of knowledge which gushed forth at its foot. 


He Gives an Eye for Wisdom 

Mimir, an old, old giant with snowy^ beard, guarded 
the sacred fountain, and none without his consent 
could drink of its waters. When he saw Odin ap- 
proaching he said. 

“What does the father of the gods seek so far from 
simny Asgard?” 

“I have come to beg a draught from your well, 0 
Mimir,” answ'ered Odin. 

“Whosoever drinks from this fountain,” said 
Mimir, “must be willing to give much in return.” 

“I will give whatever you ask,” replied Odin. So 
Mimir handed him a drinking horn, saying: 

“Drink, then, and the wisdom of the ages shall be 
yours; but you must leave me one of your eyes.” 

Odin thereupon drank, and forfeited his eye; and 
ever after there was no one in all the worlds who could 
compare with liim in wisdom. 

Though Odin w'as really the god of the heavens, he 
was ruler of the earth as well, and it was^ he who 
created men and put them on the earth, teaching them 
to fish, hunt, and till the soil. Being a warlike god 
he also taught them to fight gloriously in battle, and 
he sent his messengers, the Valkyries, to lead the souls 
of the hero dead to Valhalla, the hall in heaven of the 
gloriously slain. Here the departed warriors hved, 
reveling in those joys which had been dearest to 
them on earth, fighting bloody battles by day and 
feasting by night, their wounds healing at once. 

How Wednesday Got Its Name ^ 

When the ravens would return from their night 
over the earth, they would tell Odin of hard-fought 
battles and of brave deeds of heroes. Sometimes they 
brought news of the swarthy elves who lived iinder 
the earth, making wonderful things from gold, 
and brass; and sometimes they told him that MW' 
gard, the great serpent who encircled the earth, was 
lashing the waters with his tail, turning the seas m o 
foam and rolling up great waves that threatened to 
cover the land. So Odin lived, ruling the wor 
wisely and kindly. In his honor the fourth day o 
the week is still named Wednesdaj'', or “V’^odens 
day.” Odin is sometimes identified with the 
Mercuiy, which explains why the French call t ic 
fourth day of the week “Mercury’s day” Onercrcai)- 



RULER OF THE NORTHERN GODS 

¥';':-‘'-V-''-' ':S-'a-yc:'-; -? , , - ■ i.3 -'“•A »;:-. ,.'.!V'.' fcvX *a; 



• *' » i<-! yi ty. 


i*. V f-;.-^ :.L 'w-if^cl 





•&: • 5C-- y 


t‘ ,l^,'.f -■',’ .r:'.i‘}'' »V »- A'"."’ #-• V\ ■' 



\ : /. ' 'f y\ ^ VO • - 




'f- 



^5,_.-- ', ; ■“'"’^'“T’! ' '^■'' ''..“rF-^ ._L..' ■^. • - -.-r.-ii-iLlaUi 

OuTKrrC ' — ~ - .. _ gj in draeon heads he ruled the realm of the gods and the haunts 

At^rsholSfle^^^ W^ck rave“s. Huginn (Thought) and Muninn (Memory), who informed him of all things. 


;4';:i-iT 


341 




ODYSSEUS- 


342 — 

The Story 0/ ODYSSEUS and the ODYSSEY 



....... 

/^DYSSEUS (6-<Rs'u!i\ . 


Greek legend 


Odysseus (o-dts'us). According to G 

ssS£rl-SS.~= 

St=-SE."-SS~=?* 

Tetaach.^., s„ he%„ - 

achus in the path of the plow When Od^ Telem- 

turned the plow asidet avS strSTh^t^^ 
all saw that his madness was make-b^eve 
smce Odysseus could no longer refuse to 
war, he lent his aid in getting other reluctant 
go^ Among them was the great AchS^ tfAcSo 

During the war he earned the title "the craftv m 
sens,” for it was he who thought of the 
a great hollow wooden horse ins de of tb- 
many other Greek warriom cS wL 
The Btories of how this horse thloS Ihe 

gates of Troy and of the Greek victory that fou!! 
are told in the article on the Trojan Whn ^ ^oUowed 

Ten years had passed since Odysseus had left PphoI 
ope and Telemachus. So filling his ships with tr^ni' 

Z 'S“ ‘I' Trojans, WrrgerX 

• The men on the benches rowed hard for thev t<in 
were anxious to get home. Now the journe^Sy 


iLXyr' lave laten only . *m 

S mol ‘ *1»‘ it tlouW I 

uati^ soi/^''^^ Odysseus could land on hi 

story of his long wanderings and his 
‘Odwrspy > ^ *®^d in the great epic poem, the 

tha?? P°et, HoL, more 
turies nld Though many cen- 

p’ 'S so thrilling that it is still read 

wh^ dJd prose translations. T. E. Lawrence, 

"the nWp f most recent translations, called it 

first nm I f worth reading for its stoiy, and the 
its Mr ^ 0 Europe.” Homer devoted 24 books to 

advpnt barest outline of the various 

adventures can be given here. 


The Story of SooN after Odysseus and his mei 
t e Odyssey left Troy they ran into a raginj 
thp i-j , Dor nine days winds drov( 

coursp P^®^ Ithaca and far off theii 

the T,fiti ^ tonth day they reached the land ol 
sSrc^tbTf Odysseus sent a party to 

food mnrt^ ^be lotus. This magic 

OdvssRii forget all longing for home. But 

— *be island of the Cyclopes 
OdvBsp.,o°^ fierce one-eyed giants. The ever-curious 
and Dipt 12 men to e^qrlore the island, 

cions Polyphemus, most fero- 

^ *be Cyclopes. There Polyphemus kept them 



■= 343 


ODYSSEUS 


prisoners and devoured six of the men. Apparentl}' all 
faced the same horrible fate. But while Polyphemus 
slept, Odysseus took a piece of the giant’s staff and 
sharpened it. This he heated red-hot and burned out 
the giant’s single eye. Odysseus and his men then tied 
themselves underneath some sheep who were in the 
cave, and so escaped. The article on the Cyclopes 
tells the story of this escape. It also relates how 
Poseidon, god of the sea and father of Polyphemus, 
avenged the blinding of his son. 

Aeolus, Keeper of the Winds 
Not long after, Odysseus and his men reached the 
Aeolian Isle, a peaceful land where Aeolus, Keeper of 
the Winds, dwelt. There for a full month they were 
entertained. As a parting gift, Aeolus gave Od}"sseus 
a favorable west wind to speed them on their way. All 
the other vrinds he bound into a leather bag and put 
the bag aboard Odysseus’ ship. 

For nine days the ships sped over the waters until 
the beloved shores of Ithaca were sighted. Exhausted, 
Odj'sseus fell asleep. Now the crevanen believed the 
bag which held the winds was full of gold and silver 
and they seized this chance to open it. Instantly 
the winds burst 
forth and drove the 
ships straight back 
to the Aeolian Isle. 

But Odysseus and 
his men were not 
welcomed this time. 

Instead, Aeolus drove 
them off, saying that 
men so unlucky must 
be hated by the gods 
(see Aeolus). 

And hated, Odys- 
seus and his men truly 
seemed to be. For 
when they beached at 
the land of the Laes- 
trj’gones after a week 
of hardships, they 
found themselves in a 
countiy of cannibals. 

Giantlike men hurled 
great rocks and shat- 
tered the ships. So 
perished 11 of the 
ships Viith their full 
erews. Odysseus was 
able to save only his 
ov\’n ship with its men. 

Ouuvitting Circe 
and the Sirens 

Sailing in this 
remaining ship, the 
Porty touched next at 
•e island home of 
'rce, the enchant- 


seus’ men and changed them into swine. But Odysseus, 
who came later, wms protected from Circe’s enchant- 
ment by the flowmr of a magic herb called moly, which 
Hermes, messenger of the gods, had given to him. 
Circe recognized Odysseus as the one of whose coming 
Hermes had spoken. She quickly changed the swine 
back to men and gave them such rich food and drink 
that they stayed on in her palace for a year (see Circe). 
When Odysseus again determined to leave for 
Ithaca, Circe said he must first journey to the House 
of Hades, where dwelt the dead. There he must 
seek counsel of the spirit of the prophet Teiresias. 

It was a silent shipload of men, full of dread, who 
followed Circe’s directions to the w^orld’s edge and 
thence to the dark House of Hades. There the spirit 
of Teiresias came to them and told of the many perils 
still ahead. Yet, said Teiresias, there wms a chance 
of their reaching home. But they must curb their 
greed when they came to Thrinacia where Helios, the 
sun-god, pastured his herds. If they should harm but 
a single beast, the ship and its men were doomed. 

Subdued b3' this warning they resinned their journey. 
The3' had to pass the flowery meadows where the 



Circe cast an 
.=peU upon Ody's- 


- -nmintain too at the ships of Odysseus. He misses and the ships 

blinded 



ODYSSEUS 


344 


sister-Sirens were. The Sirens were wicked sea nymphs, 
whose singing beguiled men to certain death. Yet so 
enchanting were their songs, no man could resist lis- 
tening. Fortunately Circe had warned Odysseus. He 
filled the ears of his men with wax so that none could 
hear. Because he himself wished to listen, Odysseus 
kept his own ears open but, as a safeguard, he had 
himself bound tightly 
to the mast. So, safe- 
ly, they passed the 
Sirens and their en- 
trancing voices, the 
men rowing stolidly 
while Odysseus 
strained in vain to 
free himself. 

Charybdis, Scylla, 
and Calypso 

This danger past, 

Odysseus was un- 
bound and the sailors’ 
ears were unstopped. 

Now a fresh peril 
loomed ahead. Their 
ship had to go through 
a narrow strait be- 
tween two towering 
cliffs. On one side 
breakers thundered 
furiously and the wild 
white spray of the sea 
rose heavenward like 
smoke. There sat the 
huge-mouthed Cha- 
rybdis, sucking down 
the sea and belching 
it forth again into a 
fearful whirlpool. On 
the other side of the 
strait, Scylla, a loath- 
some six-headed mon- 
ster, waited in her 
cave to snatch the 
mariners who passed. So narrow was the passage 
that no ship could escape both dangers. Odysseus 
urged his oarsmen to a burst of speed and they 
safely passed Charybdis and her deadly whirlpool. 
But suddenly the hideous long-necked heads of 
Scylla appeared. Seizing six of the sailors she bore 
them shrieking from the ship and swallowed them. 

After this terrible encounter, they were glad to 
see the Island of the Sun. Here, upon wide and peace- 
ful meadows, the cattle of Helios, the sun-god, grazed. 
Mindful of Teiresias’ warning, Odysseus wished to 
sail past. But liis men feared the night seas and 
Odysseus finally agreed to land. First he made them 
swear that they would not slaughter a single beast. 

That night storm clouds gathered and for a month 
winds held the men on the island. Finally their food 
ran out and they faced starvation. While Odysseus 
slept, they broke their vow and killed the choicest 


cattle. Six days they feasted. Then the winds sudden- 
ly quieted. Grateful for their apparent escape from 
punishment, the men sprang aboard their ship and 
headed for the open sea. But Zeus had heard the sun- 
god’s prayer for vengeance. He sent a great hurricane 
that tore the ship apart and pitched the crew into the 
dark waters. For a few moments Odysseus saw them 

struggling. Then he 
alone was left, cling- 
ing to the mast. For 
nine days and nights 
he drifted. On the 
tenth night he was 
cast ashore on Ogygia, 
home of Calypso, the 
gracious sea nymph. 
Here his strength was 
restored. Yet he was 
little more than a 
prisoner, for Calypso 
loved him and refused 
to let him go, desir- 
ing that he stay for- 
ever so she could 
make him immortal 
like herself. For more 
than seven years he 
had to remain, wast- 
ing away with long- 
ing for his beloved 
wife and son. 

Release of 
Odysseus 

At last the goddess 
Athena, always the 

defender of Odysseus, 

got Zeus to promise 
his release. Hermes, 
Zeus’s messenger, 
carried the word to 
Calypso. Obediently 
she set about aiding 
Odysseus. She gave 
him tools to make a raft and gave him cloth for sails. 
Then with a high heart Odysseus set sail upon his raft. 
For 17 days he sailed calm seas. On the 18th day grea 
winds arose and the seas raged. The raft was sp 
apart, and Odysseus was tumbled into the water. 
Only by powerful swimming was he able 
shore and find himself a hiding place. Then he fe 
into a deep and healing sleep. _ . , 

The land to which he had come was the kingdom o 
the Phaeacians. Here reigned Alcinous the Generous 
and his noble wife Arete. The very next morning 
their daughter Nausicaa, a fair young princess, cam 
with her maidens to the beach close to Odysseus _ i 
ing place. When Nausicaa flung a ball intone river, 
the shrieks of the maidens woke Odysseus. He stro 
forth covering himself with a leafy bough for the se 
had torn his garments from him. His wild appeara^a • 
frightened the maidens and they fled. But fear e • 



Odysseus sends his arrow through holes in the ax blades. The suit- 
ors who had failed to bend the bow watch in dismay. 



345 


OEDIPUS 


Nausicaa remained. She had Odysseus fed and 
clothed, then directed him to her father’s palace. 

Bathed, fed, and rested, Odysseus glowed again with 
manly grace. He strode into the king’s gUttering 
palace where he was treated with great kindness. In 
his honor there was feasting and there were contests 
of strength. The king promised to fit out a ship to 
take him home. But it was not until he was moved to 
tears by a blind minstrel’s songs of the Trojan heroes 
that Odysseus yielded to the king and told him who 
he was. Then, while all listened in wonder, he related 
the long tale of liis adventures. The next day the 
Phaeacians loaded a ship mth treasure. Skilled men 
plied the oars to carry Odysseus to Ithaca. 

Odysseus Returns Home 

So at last the wanderer came home. The goddess 
Athena gave him news of Iris household and helped 
store his treasure in a cave. Then she changed his ap- 
pearance to that of an old beggar. It was not wise for 
Odysseus to appear suddenly as a king for, during his 
20 years’ absence, others had coveted Iris kingdom and 
the hand of his wife Penelope. A great number of 
these suitors were staying in Odysseus’ palace, wasting 
his wealth and trying to force Penelope to choose one 
as her husband. His son Telemachus, now groum to 
manhood, had vainly tided to get rid of them. Penel- 
ope had put them off by insisting she could not many 
until she had finished weaving a shroud for Laertes, 
aged father of Odysseus, who was near to death. IMiat 
she wove by day she unravelled by night so that the 
garment was never finished. Servants finally gave 
away her secret and from then on she had no peace. 

Odysseus, in his beggar’s disguise, found shelter 
in the hut of Eumaeus, his former swineherd. Here 
Telemachus appeared, having outwitted the suitors’ 
plans to kill him. Odysseus revealed himself to his son 
and together they planned vengeance. Then Telema- 
chus returned to the palace, leaving the make-believe 
beggar to follow. As Odysseus was on the way to the 
palace, an old dog, lying in the path, lifted his head and 
pricked up his ears. It was Argos, Odysseus’ owm hound, 
now growm feeble with age. Argos was too weak to draw 
nearer but, faithful to the end, thumped his tail in joy- 
ful greeting. Then his loyal heart stopped beating. 

Still acting the part of a beggar, Odysseus arrived at 
the palace. As he passed among the suitors they ridi- 
culed and insulted him. But Penelope, though she did 
»ot recognize him, had a bath and bed prepared. For 
she would permit no stranger, however humble, to be 
ill-treated. Overnight Penelope sadly decided to choose 
pne of the suitors. Next evening she appeared carry- 
“ig the great bow of Odysseus and his quiver full of 
arrows. Then she announced that she w'ould marry 
the man who could bend the bow and send an arrow 
through holes in the blades of 12 axes set in a row. 

One suitor after another tried and could not even 
bend the bow. Suddenly Odysseus, still clothed as a 
^gSar, asked to test his strength. The suitors raged 
^t the idea, but Telemachus had Eumaeus give him 
'c bow. First Odysseus ran his hands over it to 
®UKe sure that no worms had weakened it. Tlien he 


bent the mighty bow and plucked the bow'string till it 
sang out like a swaUow'. Snatching an arrow, he sent it 
fl 3 dng, straight and true, through the 12 ax blades. 
After Odysseus had shown w'ho he was, Telem- 
achus, spear in hand, leaped to his side. Then began 
the slaughter of the suitors, for Odysseus shot arrow 
after arrow and every one found its mark. Telem- 
achus and Eumaeus fought bravely, as did a sec- 
ond servant w’ho was keeper of the cattle. So at last 
was every suitor slain — the kingdom of Ithaca re- 
gained — and Odysseus the king reunited with Iris fam- 
ily. (Versions of the ‘Odyssey’ for younger readers are 
listed in the bibliography for j\I 3 ’thologJ^) 

Oedipus (ed'tr-piis). Perhaps the most tragic hero 
in Greek legend is Oedipus, king of Thebes. His 
father Laius, king of Thebes, learned from an oracle 
that his own son should kill him. He therefore 
pierced and bound the feet of the new-born babe and 
had him left to die on Mount Cithaeron. But a 
kind-hearted shepherd found the child and named 
him “Oedipus,” meaning “swollen foot.” 

The child w'as brought to the king of Corinth who 
reared him as his son. VTien Oedipus wns grown an 
oracle told him he was to kill Iris father and many 
his own mother. To escape this fate he left home, 
for he believed that the king of Corinth wns his father. 

On his way to Thebes, he met a chariot in w'hich sat 
an aged man. An attendant who preceded it rudely 
ordered Oedipus out of the way and a combat fol- 
lowed. Oedipus slew both master and sennnt. So the 
first part of the oracle was fulfilled, for the man was 
Oedipus’ real father. King Laius. 

About this time a terrible Sphinx appeared near 
Thebes. This monster asked all who passed a riddle 
and forced them to guess it or be devoured. The 
Thebans offered the throne and the hand of Queen 
Jocasta to wLoever should overcome the monster. 

“VTrat animal,” asked the Sphinx wdren Oedipus 
confronted it, “walks on four legs in the morning, on 
two at noon, and on three at night?” Oedipus quickly 
replied: “Man, for in the morning, the infancy of his 
life, he creeps on all fours; at noon, in his prime, he 
walks on two feet; and when the darkness of old age 
comes over him he uses a stick for better support as a 
third foot.” Thereupon the Sphinx dashed herself 
over the rocky precipice and perished. 

Oedipus became king and was married to his mother 
Jocasta. This fulfilled the second part of the oracle. 
Soon the coimtrj' wns devastated by a terrible plague. 
The oracle promised relief when the murderer of Laius 
should be banished. Oedipus then learned that he had 
killed his father and married his mother. In horror he 
put out his eyes, while his mother hanged herself. A 
blind and helpless outcast, Oedipus wandered away 
with his faithful daughter Antigone. She cared for 
him until he died. 

The Greek dramatist Sophocles tells the storj^ of 
Oedipus and his children in the great trilogj^ of ‘Oedi- 
pus the King’, ‘Oedipus at Colonus’, and ‘Antigone’. 
In tliis last play he gives a beautiful picture of the 
noble character of the heroic maiden. 



OGLETHORPE 

Oglethorpe, James Edward (1696- 
1785). One of the great philanthro- 
pists in early American history was 
the British general, James Edward 
Oglethorpe. He founded the Georgia 
colony as a haven for imprisoned 
debtors and oppressed Protestant 
minorities. 

Oglethorpe was the son of a wealthy 
baronet. He was born Dec. 22, 1696, 
and educated at Eton. In a war against 
the Turks (1716-17), he was praised 
for his services at the siege and cap- 
ture of Belgrade. In 1722 he was 
elected to parliament. 

His sympathies were aroused by the 
absurd practise of imprisoning Eng- 
lish debtors and by Europe’s oppression of dissenters 
from established churches. He suggested they be 
helped to make a new life in America. They could also 
be placed as a buffer between the English settlers in 
the Carolinas and the Spaniards in Florida. His argu- 
ments won a charter for the Georgia colony in 1732. 

Oglethorpe settled Savannah early in 1733. He 
made friends of the Indians and drove back several 
Spanish invasions. He led two futile attacks on Spain’s 
St. Augustine settlement and spent his own money 
on the colony’s defenses. But his rules limited drink- 
ing and forbade Negro slavery, and some of the 
colonists became discontented. 

A subordinate charged Oglethorpe with mis- 
managing the St. Augustine expeditions, and in 1743 
he had to return to England to stand trial. A court 
martial vindicated him. Oglethorpe remained in Eng- 
land. He married an heiress, and in 1745 helped put 
down a Scottish rebellion. Another court martial freed 
him of charges arising from this campaign. 


Meanwhile the colony trustees be- 
came discouraged and surrendered the 
charter in 1752. Georgia became a 
royal province. Oglethorpe stayed in 
England and died at Cranham Hall, 
Essex, on July 1, 1785. 
O’HIGGINS, Bernardo (1778-1842). 
The dictator of Chile’s first inde- 
pendent government was Bernardo 
O’Higgins. As a soldier he brilliantly 
led Chilean soldiers in the battles 
for independence. And as a statesman 
he was the first national leader in either 
North or South America to abolish 
Negro slavery. 

Bernardo was the son of Ambrosio 
O’Higgins, an Irishman, and an aristo- 
cratic Chilean mother, Isabel Riquelme. He was bom 
on Aug. 20, 1778, in the town of Chilldn, in Chile. 
His father was Spain’s governor for Chile, 1789-95, 
and viceroy for Peru, 1796-1801. Wdien Bernardo was 
16 his father sent him to Europe. In Spain Bernardo 
met Jose de San jMartfn, later the liberator of Argen- 
tina. In England he met Francisco de Miranda, a 
Venezuelan revolutionary’^ leader. 

In 1802 Bernardo returned to Chile and took up the 
life of a rich planter. He was a serious, puritanical, 
and unselfish young man. He joined the. militia and 
rose to colonel. VTien Chile rebelled against Spain 
in 1810, he offered his services. The Spaniards were 
driven out. When a new Spanish force invaded Chile, 
he was made commander of the revolutionary army. 
Because reinforcements failed him, O’Higgins lost the 
battle of Rancagua in 1814. He fled over the Andes. 
Under San Martin, O’Higgins came back to nin 
Chacabuco and Maipo, the battles that secured 
Chilean independence (see San Martin). 

Chile’s provisional 
government offered 
a dictatorship to 
O’Higgins. As dictator 
he helped San Martin 
build forces to fight 
Spain in Peru. O’Hig- 
gins’ liberal rule was 
disliked by the Chilean 
aristocrats, and in 1823 
he was forced to resign 
(see Chile). 

Peru offered him 

asylum, and O’Higgins. 

with his mother and 
sister, took up resi- 
dence there. In mod 
a new Chilean govern- 
ment restored O’Hig- 
gins’ title of captain 
general and asked 
to return. But O’Hig- 
gins was ill. He dm 
Oct. 24, 1842. 


OGLETHORPE MAKES A TREATY WITH THE CHEROKEES 



Here Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, accepts a pledge of peace from a Cherokee chief. The 
pledge is a buffalo hide bearing a painted eagle. Oglethorpe made friends with the Indians^ and 
they helped the English colonists when the Spaniards raided Georgia settlements.. 


346 


BERNARDO O’HIGGINS 



He helped win Chile’s freedom and 
was its first official head. 



« 347 ea 


OHIO 


OHIO— fl Panorama of MODERN INDUSTRY 



QHIO. Hundreds of millions of years ago, the 
region that is now Ohio was marked out by nature 
to become a rich and populous state. Beneath the 
earth’s surface, tremendous natural forces formed 
seams of coal, pockets of petroleum and natural gas, 
and beds of clay and limestone. All these were des- 
tined to become raw materials for great mining and 
manufacturing industries. Much later, a huge ice 
sheet extended over all but the southeastern part of 
the state. It left behind the deep fertile soil that now 
gives Ohio its prosperous farms. 

To the north of this region is Lake Erie, with its 
connecting links to the Atlantic seaboard. To the 
northwest are the iron ore deposits of the Lake Supe- 
rior area. To the south is the broad Ohio River, offe^ 
ing a water highway leading to the Mississippi and 
the Gulf of Mexico. ■ 

Through the development and use of these natura 
resources, Ohio has become one of the leading mdus- 
trial states in the nation. It ranks high in both manu- 
facturing and mineral production. At the same tune 
it has kept its position as an important agricultura 
etate. Although it ranks only 34th in size, it is 
fifth among the states in population. 

Ohio was the first state carved out of the old 1''° 
vest Territory. It was settled by pioneers from e 
older states and by immigrants from many European 


lands. Seven of Ohio’s sons have been presidents of 
the United States— Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. 
Hayes, James A. Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, Wil- 
liam McKinley, William Howard Taft, and Warren 
G. Harding. Many other Ohioans have taken impor- 
tant parts in the nation’s affairs. 

The people of Ohio take an active interest in their 
state. This interest is shown in the state’s excellent 
educational system, which includes fine primaiy and 
secondary schools and about 50 colleges and universi- 
ties. It is also demonstrated in the state’s political 
institutions. Ohio cities have “home rule,” which al- 
lows them to frame their onm charters, and to choose 
their local form of government — ^mayor-council, com- 
mission, or city-manager. 

Geography of the State 

In preglacial times northern and western Ohio had 
been covered by a network of river gorges and valleys. 
During the Ice Age, the Wisconsin ice sheet spanned 
the greater part of what is now Ohio. The ice ground 
down hills; and when the glacier withdrew, it left vast 
deposits of glacial mud and gravel. The deposits 
choked the ancient river valleys, and today the rivers 
flow in channels that are sometimes a hundred feet 
or more above their preglacial beds. A completely 
buried river channel, more than 500 feet deep, has 
been discovered near St. Paris. 



OHIO 


348 


Glacial deposits and grinding off of hills formed a 
relatively level plain. Glacial soil covers three- 
fourths of Ohio, including its best farm lands. The 
unglaciated soil is fertile where it has a limestone 
base or where it lies in the flood plain of a river. 
Otherwise this type of soil makes poor farm land. 
The state’s valuable clay deposits are also partly 
of glacial origin. Near these deposits are located the 
state’s pottery and china industries. 

The southeastern rim of the state was untouched by 
the glacier. It descends gradually from the Allegheny 


OHIO AND ITS MANY THRIVING CITIES 



A series of low hills rises in the northeast corner of Ohio and weaves irregularly west- 
ward to the Grand Lake area southwest of Lima. These hills divide the state into two 
drainage basins. North of this divide is the narrow Great Lakes sector where all streams 
flow into Lake Erie. South of this divide the rivers flow into the Ohio River. Between 
1830 and 1850 the canal systems shown by the map played an important part in the 
state’s transportation. Today they are abandoned or little used. 


Plateau region, and is hilly and rugged, just as the 
whole Ohio area was before the Ice Age. This south- 
eastern part was relatively undeveloped until coal 
was discovered there. Coal mining began in the re- 
gion in about 1833. 

The Lake Erie border is made up of level plains. A 
line of low hills runs from the northeast corner west- 
ward to the Indiana boundary. The streams north of 
the hills flow into Lake Erie, and the streams south 
empty into the Ohio River. The main rivers are the 
Maumee, Muskingum, Scioto, and the two Miamis. 

Indian Travel Routes Served the Pioneers 
For hundreds of years, Ohio has been criss-crossed 
by travel and transportation routes. The Indians tra- 


veled it in their wanderings, and the first white pio- 
neers crossed its rolling expanse on their westward 
movements. They crossed the eastern mountains and 
then followed the river valleys or the lake shore. 
Wherever a water route was available, they built 
boats or rafts to carry themselves and their goods. 

In Ohio, land and water routes were mainly on or 
near Lake Erie or the Ohio River and its tributaries. 
These routes were used by the early white settlers on 
their way to the Old Northwest. Through New York 
State to Lake Erie, then westward along its shore, 
came New Englanders. Pennsyl- 
vanians set out at the headwaters 
of the Ohio in their own state. 
They followed its course into the 
lower Ohio basin. Virginians and 
Carolinians passed from the valley 
of the Shenandoah through the 
mountain gaps into Kentuck}’. 
From there they and Kentuckians 
proceeded into southwestern Ohio. 

These natural transportation 
routes drew people into the re- 
gion until by 1830 Ohio had at- 
tained a rank of fourth among the 
states in population. Although the 
forests that covered Ohio in the 
early days had to be cleared before 
men could farm the land, settlers 
did so gladly because the region 
offered growth and prosperity. 

- Canals, Highways, 
and Railroads 

When New York State com- 
pleted its Erie Canal in 1825, Ohio 
enthusiastically followed the exarn- 
ple of the older state. In 1827 Ohio 
opened the Ohio and Erie Canal. 
This waterway linked Portsmouth 
on the Ohio River and Cleveland 
on Lake Erie. The canal contrib- 
uted much to Cleveland's groMh 
because the city could now serv'e 
as a port for all lake and river 
traflSc in the Middle West. To- 
ledo’s growth similarly dates from 
the completion of the Wabash and 
Erie Canal in 1843 and the Miami and Erie Canal 
in 1845. These canals connected Toledo by water 
with Dayton and Cincinnati. Meanwhile, in 1841, 
the Muskingum River had been made navigable by 
means of dams and locks. The completion of these 
waterways joined the interior of Ohio with both New 
York and New Orleans. , 

The Federal government greatly aided the ' 
of land transportation in the state when it ordered the 
construction of the National Pike westward from 
Cumberland, Md. By 1838 the road had passe 
through Zanesville and Columbus and reached Spnng- 
field in western Ohio. Later the road was extende 
across Indiana to Vandalia, Rl. Conestoga w'agons 




1 














■ » 1 4 


4 


1 /'^^ 


m 


ft 






Ot,i L - iESBEr" -P " ; ^ ITtiip^Diiion. l. To fuel its numerous factories long train- 

bid. perhaps, the most varied industries ol “ ‘“ the Toledo railroad yards. 2. One of the state’s many 

Jds of coal move through the state, as we see “ P‘„^® Cincinnati. 4. In kilns like this one much of Ohio’s pottery 

fsn°’i““i refineries. 3. Cakes of soap from a huge facto^ olassware is one of Toledo’s important products: here a skilled 
«ade. s. A tractor tire coming from a mold in ITal^Iess s?eel wire in a Cleveland steel works, 

worker is shaping a decorative urn. 7. Drawing oui siamiess 












- 350 


OHIO 


SEATS OF CULTURE AND LEARNING 



The world’s first college to admit women was Oberlin College at Oberlin. Its 
Allen Museum of Art houses collections of fine, Oriental, and applied arts. 



Ohio State University at Columbus is one of the largest universities in the 
nation. Here is its library, built in French Renaissance style in 1912. 


and stagecoaches that rumbled westward over the Na- 
tional Pike brought many of Ohio’s early settlers. 
Construction began in 1953 on the Ohio Turnpike, a 
toll road east and west across the state. 

Ohio was also a pioneer in railroad building. The 
first line, connecting Toledo with Adrian, Mich., was 
finished in 1836. Other railroads were soon built. 
Today most of the important lines follow the route 
of the Erie Canal or cross the Appalachian Moun- 
tains, then pass through Ohio’s largest cities. Such 
cities as Cleveland, Toledo, Columbus, and Cincinnati 
are railway centers. 


During the 1840’s and the 1850’s the 
railroads began to replace the canals as 
the main arteries of transportation. Lake 
and Ohio River traffic were not aban- 
doned, however, and shipping by water 
is important even today. 

Cincinnati is still a main port on the 
Ohio River (see Ohio River). Ohio also 
has 15 thriving ports on Lake Erie. In 
tons of cargo handled, Toledo, Cleve- 
land, Ashtabula, Conneaut, Sandusky, 
and Lorain rank high. Lake Erie is im- 
portant in moving such bulky commodi- 
ties as coal, coke, and iron ore. Iron ore 
carried by lake boats is transferred to 
trains that had hauled in coal and other 
heavy cargoes. 

In 1954 Congress permitted the United 
States to participate with Canada in the 
St. Lawrence Seaway Project. This im- 
proved waterway should make seaports of 
Toledo, Cleveland, and other lake ports. 
An Inland Empire’ 

A state which has ready access to coal, 
iron, and to the main routes of land and 
water transportation possesses the re- 
sources needed for industrial greatness. 
Ohio, with all three, can claim to be, as 
its motto declares, an Imperium in hn- 
perio (empire within an empire). 

The state has a wealth of minerals, in- 
cluding coal, natural gas, limestone, sand 
and gravel, and salt. Ohio ranks first 
among the states in the manufacture of 
clay products such as brick and tile. It 
also makes a large proportion of the 
nation’s grindstones. These are cut from 
the variety of Ohio sandstone calle 
Berea grit. From the state’s limestone, 
cement is produced. High-grade iron oies 
are brought from the Lake Superior 
district to the Lake Erie ports. There 
these ores are made into pig iron or 
are shipped to blast furnaces in or near 
Columbus, Youngstown, Steubenville, an 
Pittsburgh, Pa. . , 

For years Cleveland was the cine 
transshipping port for iron ore. 
the traffic has become too large for Cleve- 
land’s busy harbor, the ports of Lorain, Fairpoi 
Harbor, Conneaut, and Ashtabula have develope 
to help meet the need. A good share of the tra 
is also carried by the great docks of Toledo, Huron, 
and Sandusky, farther to the west. There ore carp® 
are exchanged for coal. At these ports and elsev icr 
in the state, blast furnaces and steel mills depen 
for fuel mainly upon bituminous coal and natura 
gas from the Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, an 
Kentucky fields. 

At one time Ohio supplied 39 per cent of the n 
tion’s petroleum. Since then its petroleum flo" n 

Continued on page Sji 


Ohio Fact 

OHIO (no abbr.) : Probably named from 
Wyandot (Iroquois) Indian words 
meaning “river beautiful to look 
upon,” or “fair and beautiful river.” 
Nickname: “Buckeye State,” because 
of buckeye trees. Indians called the 
tree Heluck, “eye of the buck,” 
because of likeness to eye of deer. 

Seal: Circular shield with sheaf of wheat, right fore- 
ground; bundle of 17 arrows, left foreground; rising sun 
over mountain range, background. 

Moffo (unofficial) ; Imperium in Imperio (Empire within 
an Empire). 

Flog: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Scarlet carnation. Bird: Cardinal. Tree (un- 
official) ; Buckeye. Song (unofficial) ; 'Beautiful Ohio’ — 
words, Ballard Macdonald; music, Mary Earl; one of 
seven popular Ohio songs. 

THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital: Columbus (since 1812). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 23. Elec- 
toral votes, 25. 

General Assembly: Senators, 33-38; 
terms, 2 years. Representatives, 

135-39; terms, 2 years. Convenes 
first Monday in January in odd num- 
bered years. No limit to regular or special sessions. 

Constitution: Adopted 1851. Proposed amendment may 
be (a) passed by 3/5 vote of legislature or by ini- 
tiative action of the people, and (b) ratified by ma- 
jority voting on amendment at a popular election. 

Governor: Term, 2 years. May succeed himself. 

Other Executive Officers: Lieutenant governor, secretary 
of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney general, all elected; 
terms, 2 years, except auditor — term, 4 years. 

Judiciary: Supreme court — -7 justices, elected at large; 
term, 6 years. Courts of appeal — 27; judges elected; 
term, 6 years. Common pleas courts — 1 in each county, 
some with more than one judge; judges elected; term, 

6 years. Probate courts — one in each county; judges 
elected; term, 6 years. 

County: 88 counties, each governed by a board of three 
elected commissioners; term, 4 years. 

Municipal: Mayor and six council members most common. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 1 year; 
in county, 40 days; in precinct, 40 days. 



transportation and communication 

Transportation: Railroads, 8,400 miles. First railroad 
(Toledo to Adrian, Mich.), 1836. Rural roads, 86,300 
miles. Airports, 232. 

Communication: Periodicals, 279. Newspapers, 485. Fust 
newspaper, Centinel of the North-Weslem Temlory, 
Cincinnati, 1793. Radio stations (AM and FM), 111; 
first station, \irLW, Cincinnati, licensed March 3, 
1921. Television stations, 22; &st station, WEWS, 
Cleveland, began operation Dec. 17, 1947. Telephones, 
3,018,000. Post offices, 1,320. 


Summary 

THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 7,946,627 (rank among 48 
states— 5th); urban, 70.2%; rural, 29.8%. Density: 
193.8 persons per square mile (rank— 8th state). 

Extent: Area, 41,222 square miles, including 222 square 
miles of water surface (34th state in size; 33d if Great 
Lakes area of 3,457 square miles is added). 

Elevation: Highest, at Campbell Hill, 1,550 feet, near 
Bellefontaine; lowest, Ohio River at southwest corner 
of state, 433 feet. 

Temperature (°F.): Average— annual, 51°; winter, 30°; 
spring, 50°; summer, 72°; fall, 54°. Lowest recorded, 
—39° (Milligan, Perrj' County, Feb. 10, 1899); high- 
est recorded, 113° (near Gallipolis, July 21, 1934, and 
other locations and earlier dates). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 38; winter, 8; 
spring, 11; summer, 11; fall, 8. Varies from about 32 in 
the north to 42 in the southeast and southwest. 

Natural Features: Hilly surface in southeast a part of 
Appalachian Plateau untouched by glaciers; rolling 
plains in western half (part of Central Plains region) ; 
much of northwest part practically level (Lake Plains 
region). Principal rivers: Little Miami, Maumee, 
Miami, Muskingum, Ohio, Scioto. 

Land Use: Cropland, 44%; nonforested pasture, 19%; 
forest, 18%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, waste- 
land, cities, etc.), 19%. 


CROPS PASTURE FOREST OTHER 



Natural Resources: Agricultural — fertile soil suited to 
farming, fruit grovdng. Industrial — coal, stone, cement, 
lime, sand and gravel, natural gas, petroleum, clays, 
salt, natural-gas liquids. Commercial — sites for Lake 
Erie ports and trade and industrial centers in Lake 
Plains region; Ohio River waterway. 

OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 
What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 


1,121,006 

36.7 


558,092 

18.2 

Transportation, communication, 

239,979 

7.8 

Professional services (medical, legal. 

236,686 

7.7 

Agriculture, forestry, and fishery. . . 

213,386 

158,767 

7.0 

5.2 

Personal services (hotol, domestic, 

151,351 

4.9 


122,254 

4.0 

Finance, insurance, and real estate. 

85,710 

72,640 

2.8 

2.4 


30,628 

1.0 

Amusement, recreation, and related 

1 27,607 

0.9 

Workers not accounted for 

41,439 

1.4 

Total employed 

3.059,605 

100.0 




351 



Ohio Fact Summary 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 2d) 
Value added by manufacture* (1952), $10,033,105,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Machinery (except Electrical) . 
Metalworking, service, household, 
and general industrial machines 

81,251,011,000 

1 

Primary Metal Industries 

Blast furnace, steel mill, and iron 
and steel foundry products 

852,772,000 

2 

Fabricated Metal Products 

Structural metal products; metal 
stamping and coating 

634,746,000 

1 

Transportation Equipment 

Motor vehicles and equipment 

483,421,000 

3 

Electrical Machinery 

Electrical industrial apparatus 

471,593,000 

3 

Food and Kindred Products 

Bakery products; malt liquors 

413,216,000 

5 


*For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 10th) 
Total cash income (1952), $1,097,402,000 


Products 

Amount Produced ^ 
(10-Year Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

States! 

Corn 

169,584,000 bu. 

1 

6 

Hogs 

1,126,968,000 lbs. 

2 

6 

Milk 

2,366,000,000 qts. 

3 

9 

Cattle 

485,269,000 lbs. 

4 

12 

Wheat 

46,592.000 bu. 

5 

8 

Eggs 

211,000,000 doz. 

6 

7 

Hay 

3,722,000 tons 

7 

10 

Soybeans 

18,552,000 bu. 

8 

4 


♦Rank in dollar value t Rank in units produced 



C. Fish (Rank among states — 15th) 

(Lake Erie, 1950), catch, 20,225,000 lbs.; value, 
$3,793,000 

D. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 

Annual value (1951), $302,613,000 

Rank among states — 11th 


Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced 

Value 

Coal 

37.949.000 tons 

25.190.000 tons 

11.872.000 bbls. 

2.289.000 tons 

19.431.000 tons 

5.147.000 tons 

8146,678,000 

36.436.000 

29.499.000 

29.046.000 

21.395.000 

13.224.000 




Sand and gravel . 
Clavs 


E. Trade 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 

Wholesale 

89,552,905,000 

o 

Retail 

7.373,173,000 

5 

Service 

658,244,000 

6 


EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 2,929; sec- 
ondary, 1,143. Compulsory school 
age, 6 through 17. Governor ap- 
points supt. of public instruction 
for 4-year term. County boards con- 
sist of 5 members elected for 4- 
year terms; appoint county supts. 
with 5-year terms as maximum. City 
school board members elected for 4-year terms; ap- 
point city supts. with 5-year terms as maximum. 

Private and Parochial Schools: 759. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges, 48; 
junior college, 1. State-supported schools include 
Ohio State Univ., Columbus; Ohio Univ., Athens; 
Bowling Green State Univ., Bowling Green; Kent 
State Univ., Kent; Miami Univ., O.xford; Central State 
College, Wilberforce. 

State Schools for the Handicapped: State School for 
Blind, Columbus; State School for Deaf, Columbus. 

Libraries: City and town public libraries, 271. Inde- 
pendent county library systems, 25; in 51 other 
counties, local libraries render rural service; 57 book- 
mobiles serve 42 counties. State library responsible for 
developing library service. Noted special libraries; 
Young Men’s Mercantile Library Assoc., Cincinnati; 
Western Reserve Historical Soc., Cleveland; Martha 
Kinney Cooper Ohioana Library, Columbus. 

Outstanding Museums: Cincinnati Art Museum, Taft 
Museum, Cincinnati; Museum of Art, Cleveland; Ohio 
State Museum, Gallery of Fine Arts, Columbus; Art 
Institute, Dayton; Dudley Peter Allen Memorial Art 
Museum, Oberlin; Museum of Art, Toledo. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

Boys’ Industrial School, Lancaster; Girls’ Industrial 
School, Delaware; Marion Training School, Marion; 
Ohio State Reformatory, Mansfield; Ohio Reforma- 
tory for Women, Marysville; London Prison Farm, 
London; Ohio Penitentiary, Columbus. 

STATE PARKS AND OTHER RECREATION AREAS*! 

Buckeye Lake — e. of Columbus; scenic resort area (22). 

Burr Oak Reservoir — s. of Zanesville; forest; e. of (28). 

Cowan — near Wilmington; lake; picnicking; east of (26). 

East Harbor — on Lake Erie; 2-mile beach; picnicking (3). 

Grand (or St. Marys) Lake— near Celina; water sports on 
Ohio’s largest inland body of water (14). 

Hocking — 6 state park areas in state forest south of Lan- 
caster; Ash Cave (31); Cantwell Cliffs (28); Cledar 
Falls (31); Conkles Hollow, cliffs and gorges (28); Old 
Man’s Cave (31); Rock House, rock formation (28). 

Independence Dam — nr. Defiance; canalway; s. w. of (!)• 

Indian Lake— near Russells Point; resort area (16). 

John Bryan — near Yellow Springs; river gorge; stage 
road; Daniel Boone and Shawnee Indian country (24)' 

Lake Hope — west of Athens in rugged state forest; at (33). 

Mohican — near Loudonville; deep river gorges in state 
forest; World War II memorial; southwest of (jO)- 

Nelson and Kennedy Ledges — nr. Warren; sandstone (<)• 

Painesville — on Lake Erie; beach; northeast of (5). 

Pike — near Waverly; rugged forested hills; at (34). 

Pymatuning — along Pa. border; reservoir; n.e. of (7). 

Shawnee — nr. Portsmouth; hiking; state forest; at (3J)’ 

South Bass Island — in Lake Erie; fishing; at (2). 

Tar Hollow — east of Chilllcothe; in state forest; at (3U)- 

•Numbers m parentheses are keyed to map. . . rihio. 

tThere is a total of 55 state parks and other recreation areas in 



352 


Ohio Fact Summary 


STATE FORESTS*t 

Brush Creek — 8,979 acres 
(38). 

Hocking — 8,868 acres (30). 

Pike— 6,737 acres (34). 

Raccoon — 5,400 acfes (37). 

Scioto Trail — 9,329 acres 
(35). 

Shawnee — 51,676 acres (39). 

Tar Hollow— 16,206 a. (30). 

Zaleslu — 17,865 acres (33). 

PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Akron — huge rubber facto- 
ries (see Akron) (8). 

Canton — McKinley Tomb 
(see Canton) (11). 

Chillicothe — 1st state capital; 

Mound City Group Natl. 

Monument nearby (32). 

Cincinnati — summer opera at 
Zoological Gardens (see 
Cincinnati) (27). 

Cleveland — ^Terminal Tower, 

Univ. Circle, Museum of 
Art (see Cleveland) (6). 

Columbus — Statehouse; Ohio 
State Univ. campus (see 
Columbus) (20). 

Dayton — Wright Field, Army 
plane testing center (see 
Dayton) (23). 

Fort Ancient — prehistoric 
earthwork near Lebanon; 
burial mounds (26). 

Fort Recovery — replica of 
Anthony Way ne’s fort built 
in 1790’s; museum (13). 

Harding Memorial— Marion; 
impre-ssive Greek colonnade 
encircles tombs of Presi- 
dentandMrs. Harding(17). 

Hayes Memorial — Fremont; museum with President LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

Hayes’ library, letters, manuscripts (4). Cleveland (914,808): Great Lakes port; railroad trans- 

Kirtland Temple— near Mentor; built by Mormons in portation center; produces iron, steel, and allied prod- 
community founded by Joseph Smith, 1831 (5). ucts; motor trucks and vehicle parts; textiles. 

Marietta— first permanent settlement in Northwest Ter- Cincinnati (503,998): Ohio River port; railway center; 
ritory (1788); Campus Martius Museum (29). manufactures soap, machine tools, food products. 

Mound Builders Memorial— near Newark; includes great metal products, and pla3dng cards; printing. 



earthwork and eagle-shaped effigy mound (21). 

Mound City Group National Monument— prehistoric In- 
dian mounds; near Chillicothe (32). 

Our House” — in Gallipolis; celebrated inn where Lafay- 
ette once stayed; now a museum (40). 

Oxford — McGuffey Memorial Museum, where educator 
compiled several of his readers; Miami Univ. (25). 
Perry’s Victory Memorial Natl. Monument — to century 
of peace between U. S. and Canada; nr. Put-in-Bay (2). 
bchoenbrunn Village— New Philadelphia; restored Mora- 
vian missionary settlement of 1772 (19). 
wrpent Mound — near Sinking Springs; remarkable effigy 
Mound in shape of snake with egg in its mouth (36). 
oledo — fine zoo; Univ. of Toledo (see Toledo) (1). 
loungstown— Mill Creek Park (see Youngstown) (9). 
oar Village — remains of communal experiment (18). 


t “ parentheses are keyed to map. . , „ 

or .k® 20 state forests in Ohio; the 8 largest are given here. Bon 

“Cse areas include state parks. 


Columbus (375,901): state capital and manufacturing 
center; makes aircraft, iron and steel products, ma- 
chinery, meat-packing products, glass and paper. 

Toledo (303,616): coal and iron-ore port on Lake Erie; 
automotive vehicles and equipment; glass products. 

Akron (274,605) : rubber capital of U.S.; rubber research; 
manufactures aircraft, tires, and other rubber products. 

Dayton (243,872) : manufacturing city making cash reg- 
isters, refrigerators; aircraft testing at Wright Field. 

Youngstown (168,330): large steel-producing center; also 
makes rubber goods, electrical equipment, furniture. 

Canton (116,912): industrial center; steel and steel prod- 
ucts; roller bearings; vacuum cleaners; engines. 

Springfield (78,508): printing and publishing; motor 
trucks, diesel and gas enpnes, electrical equipment. 

Lakewood (68,071): residential suburb west of Cleveland. 

Cleveland Heights (59,141): eastern suburb of Cleveland. 

Hamilton (57,951): auto bodies; machinerjq paper; safes. 

Lorain (51,202): steel pipe; power shovels; ships; stoves. 


353 



Ohio Fact Summary 


THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1669 — Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de 
La Salle, explores area between 
Lake Erie and Ohio River. 

1683 — British ally with Iroquois in 
Ohio area against French. 

1745 — British build Fort Sandoski on 
Sandusky Bay. 

1748 — -Virginians organize Ohio Land 
Company. Send Christopher Gist to explore, 1750. 

1749 — -Celeron de Bienville claims Ohio area for France. 

1761 — Christian Post builds first permanent dwelling in 

Ohio near site of Bolivar. 

1 763 — By Treaty of Paris, France cedes to Great Britain 
alt claims to Ohio country. Settlers unite to defeat 
Indian revolt led by Ottawa chief Pontiac. 

1772 — David Zeisheiger founds Moravian community at 
Schoenbrunn, August 24; opens first school west 
of Allegheny Mountains at Schoenbrunn, 1773. 

1 785— Ft. Harmar established at mouth of Muskingum R. 

1787 — Ordinance of 1787 sets up basic government of 
Northwest Territory, which includes Ohio. 

1788 — Rufus Putnam and party found Marietta, April 7; 
first permanent white settlement in Ohio. 

1794 — Gen. “Mad Anthony” Wayne defeats British-In- 
dian confederation at Fallen Timbers, August 20. 

1799 — Population growth permits establishment of local 
autonomous government in part of Northwest 
Territory now state of Ohio; capital, Cincinnati. 

1 800 — Connecticut cedes the Western Reserve in territory 
of Ohio to federal government. 

1801 — John Chapman (Johnny Appleseed) plants or- 
chards near Etna on banks of Licking Creek. 

1803— Ohio becomes 17th state, March 1; first capital, 
Chillicothe; first governor, Edward Tiffin. 

1804 — First smelting furnace in Ohio established near 
site of Youngstown. Ohio University chartered at 
Athens; opened, June 1, 1809. 

1810 — State capital moved to Zanesville; returned to 
Chillicothe, 1812, when site of Columbus picked 
for permanent capital, February 14. 

1 81 1 — Orleans is first steamboat on Ohio River. 

1813 — Oliver H. Perry leads U. S. Navy in defeat of 
British at Put-in-Bay on Lake Erie, September 10. 

1816 — Ohio legislature holds first meeting at Columbus. 

1818 — Walk-in-ihe-Waler, first steamboat on Lake Erie, 
stops at Cleveland and Sandusky. 

1 827 — National Pike (Cumberland Road) reaches Zanes- 
ville; extended to Columbus, 1833. Ohio and Erie 
Canal opens. 


1833 — Oberlin College is first U. S. college to admit 
Negroes on equal basis with white students; be- 
comes first coeducational college in world, 1837. 

1836 — “Toledo War” ends five-year boundary dispute 
between Ohio and Michigan. 

1837 — First abolitionist (antislavery) convention in 
U. S. held at Mount Pleasant. 

1 841 — Locks built to make Muskingum River navigable. 

1851 — Present state constitution adopted. 

1 852 — State passes one of first laws in U. S. to regulate 
working hours of women and children. 

1862 — Kirby Smith leads Confederate force besieging 
Cincinnati; Clement Vallandigham, Copperhead 
leader, banished from Ohio. 

1 863 — Gen. John Morgan leads Confederate raiders into 
Ohio; finally captured at Salineville. 

1869 — Ulysses S. Grant, born 1822 at Point Pleasant, 
becomes first Ohio-born president (18th) of U. S. 
Later, others were: Rutherford B. Hayes (1877); 
James A. Garfield (1881); Benjamin Harrison 
(1889); William McKinley (1897); William How- 
ard Taft (1909); and Warren G. Harding (1921). 

1870 — Benjamin F. Goodrich begins manufacture of rub- 
ber articles at Akron. John D. Rockefeller organ- 
izes Standard Oil Company at Cleveland. Ohio 
Agricultural and Mechanical College (now Ohio 
State University) founded at Columbus. 

1 884 — Pioneer electric street railway in U. S. runs in 
Cleveland. First cash registers made at Dayton. 

1 886 — Oil discovered near Bowling Green. Charles Hall, 
born 1863 at Thompson, perfects process for 
refining aluminum. 

1903 — Wright brothers of Dayton make first flight, Kitty 
Hawk, N. C.; continue experiments at Dayton. 

1912 — Initiative and referendum adopted. 

1919 — Sherwood Anderson, born 1876 at Camden, pub- 
lishes ‘Winesburg, Ohio’. 

1 929 — Port Columbus, at Columbus, completed, July 8. 

1936 — Great Lakes Exposition opens at Cleveland. 

1 937 — Worst Ohio River flood causes great damage. 

1952 — Atomic Energy Commission adopts site north of 

Portsmouth for major atomic plant. . 

1953 — Congress corrects technical omission by admitting 
Ohio to the Union as of March 1, 1803. Tornimoes 
cause deaths in state. Construction begun on Ohio 
Turnpike, east-west toll road. Robert A. La , 
U. S. senator from Ohio and Senate leader, dies. 

1954 — Congress authorizes U. S. to join Canada m • 
Lawrence Seaway Project; Toledo, Cleve an , 
and other Lake Erie cities may become seapoi s. 



INDEX TO THE MAP OF OHIO 


COUNTIES 


Crawford 

38,738 

E 4 




Cuyahoga 



Adams 

20,499 

D 8 

1,389,532 

G 3 

Allen 

88,183 

B 4 

Darke 

41,799 

A 5 

Ashland 

33,040 

F 4 

Defiance 

25,925 

A 3 

Ashtabnla 

78,695 

J 2 

Delaware 

30,278 

D 5 

Athens 

45,839 

F 7 

Erie 

52,565 

E 3 

Auglaize 

30,637 

B 4 

Fairfield 

52,130 

E 6 

Belmont 

87,740 

J 5 

Fayette 

22,554 

D 6 

Brown 

22,221 

C 8 

Franklin 

503,410 

E 5 

Butler 

147,203 

A 7 

Fulton 

25,580 

B 2 

Carroll 

19,039 

H 4 

Gallia 

24,910 

F 8 

Champaign 26,793 

C 5 

Geauga 

26,646 

H 3 

Clark 

111,661 

C 6 

Greene 

58,892 

C 6 

Clermont 

42,182 

B 7 

Guernsey 

38,452 

H 5 

Clinton 

25,572 

C 7 

Hamilton 

723,952 

A 7 

Columbiana 


Hancock 

44,280 

C 3 


98,920 

J 4 

Hardin 

28,673 

C 4 

Coshocton 

31,141 

G 5 

Harrison 

19,054 

H 5 


(3541 


Henry 

22,423 

B 3 

Mercer 

28,311 

Highland 

28.188 

O 7 

Miami 

61,309 

Hocking 

19,520 

F 6 

Monroe 

15,362 

Holmes 

18,760 

G 4 

Montgomery 

Huron 

39,353 

E 3 


398,441 

Jackson 

27,767 

E 7 

Morgan 

12,836 

Jefferson 

96,495 

J 5 

Morrow 

17,168 

Knox 

35,287 

F 5 

1 Muskingum 

Lake 

75,979 

H 2 


74,535 

La\vrence 

49,115 

E 8 

Noble 

11,750 

Licking 

70,645 

F 5 

Ottawa 

29,469 

Logan 

31,329 

C 5 

Paulding 

15,047 

Lorain 

148.162 

F 3 

Perry 

28,999 

Lucas 

395,551 

C 2 

Pickaway 

29,352 

Madison 

22,300 

D 6 

Pike 

14,607 

Mahoning 257,629 
Marion 49,959 

J 4 
D 4 

Portage 

Preble 

63,954 

27,081 

Medma 

40,417 

G 3 

Putnam 

25,248 

Meigs 

23,227 

F 7 

Bichland 

91,305 


A4 
B 5 
H 6 

B 6 
G 6 
B 4 

G 5 
G 6 
D 2 
A 3 
F 6 
D 6 
D 7 
H 3 
A 6 
B 3 
E 4 


54,424 
sky 46.114 
82,910 
I, 52,978 

. 28.488 

283,194 
it 410,032 

3 ull 158,915 
i-awas70,320 
20,687 
7ert 20.971 
1 10,759 

n 38,505 

ngton 

44,407 
> 58,716 

iis 26,202 

59,605 


D7 

D3 

D8 

D3 

B5 

H4 

G3 

J3 

H5 

D5 

A4 

E7 

B7 

H7 

G4 

A2 

C3 

04 


OHIO 


CITIES AND TOWNS 


Aberdeen 551 
■ Ada 3,640 

Adams Mills 140 


Adamsville 
Addison 
Addyston 
AdelphI 
Adena 
Adrian 
AI 
Aid 
Akron 
Albany 
Alcony 
Alexandria 
Alger 
Allensville 
Allentown 
Alliance 
Alpha 
‘Alvada 
Alvordton 
Amanda 
Amberley 
Amboy 
Amelia 
Amesville 
Amherst 
Amity 
Amsden 
Amsterdam 
Andover 
Anna 
Ansonia 
Antioch 
Antiquity 
Antrim 
Antwerp 
Apple Creek 
Apple Grove 
Appleton 
Aquilla 
Arabia 
Arcadia 
Arcanum 
Archbold 
Arlington 
Arlington 
Heights 
Armstrongs 
Mills 
Ash Ridge 
Ashland 
Ashley 
Ashtabula 
AshviUe 
Assumption 
Athalia 
Athens 
Atlanta 
Attica 
Attica Jet. 
Atwater 
Auburn 
Augusta 
Aultman 
Aurora 
Austlnburg 
Aust intown 
Aya 
Avery 
Avon 

Avon Lake 

Ayersvllle 

Balnbridge 

Balrdstown 

Bakersville 

Baltic 

Baltimore 

Bangs 

Bantam 

Barberton 

Barlow 

BarnesiiUe 

BarnhUl 

Bartlett 

Barton 

Bascom 

Batavia 

Batesvillo 

Bay Village 

Beach City 

Beachwood 

BealIs\dUo 

Beaver 

Beaverdam 

Bedford 

Belfast 

Bellaire 

Bellbrook 

Belle Center 


164 
120 
1,651 
392 
1,517 
65 
50 
96 

274,605 
■ 525 
106 
464 
943 
105 
150 
26,161 
300 
89 
335 
587 
885 
300 


C 8 
O 4 
G 5 
G 5 
F 8 
B 9 
E 7 
J 5 
D 3 
C 2 
F 8 
G3 
F 7 
B 5 
E 5 
C 4 
E 7 
B 4 
H 4 
B 6 
D 3 
A 2 
E 6 
C 9 
J 2 


Bellville 
Belmont 
Belmore 
Beloit 
Belpre 
Bennetts 
Comers 
Bentleyville 
Benton 
Benton 
Benton Ridge 
Bentonville 
Berea 
Bergholz 


601 D 10 


269 

3,542 

100 

151. 

1,048 

1,102 

554 

877 

112 

100 

85 

1,162 

548 

125 

75 

386 

75 

529 

1,.530 

1,486 

825 


E 7 
F 3 
F 5 
D 3 
J 5 
J 2 
B 5 
A 5 
H 6 
G 8 
H 5 
A3 
G4 
G 8 
E 5 
H 2 
■F 8 
D 3 
A6 
B 2 
O 4 


1,312 C 9 


135 
64 
14,287 
798 
23,696 
1,303 
75 
307 
11,660 
180 
858 
100 
750 
100 
300 
200 
571 
1,375 
350 
300 
50 
2,773 
4,342 
105 


964 
188 
119 
493 
1,843 
125 
100 
27,820 
152 
4,665 
392 
183 
1,300 
400 
1,445 
149 
6,917 
940 .. 

1,073 *6 
410 J 
285 
450 
9,105 
100 
12,573 
425 
889 


J6 
C 8 
F4 
E 5 
J 2 
E 6 
B 2 
F 8 
F 7 
D 6 
E 3 
E 3 
H 3 
H 3 
J 4 
H 4 
H 3 
J 2 
J 3 
G 6 
E 3 
F 3 
F 2 
B 3 
D 7 
C 3 
G 
G 
E 
F 
B 
G 
G 
H 
H 
G 
J 
D 
B 
H 
G 
G 


458 

10,232 

6,906 


Be e Valley 
Bellefontaine 

Bellevue 

.No room on map for name. 


1,355 

638 

216 

778 

2,451 


E 4 
J 5 
B 3 
J 4 
G 7 


500 G 10 
152 *H 3 
150 G 4 
150 D 4 
337 C 4 
175 C 8 
12,051 G 10 
1,035 J 4 


Berkey 239 

Berlin 310 

Berlin Center 193 
BerUn Cross 

Roads 100 

Berlin Heights 613 
Berne 40 

Berwick 100 

Bethany 160 

Bethel 1,932 

lethesda 1,158 
_;ettsville 687 
Beverly 723 

Bekley 12,378 
Bidwell 340 

Big Plain 146 
Big Prairie 250 
Birmingham 300 
Birmingham 55 
BlachleyviUe 85 
Blackfork 420 
Blacklick 325 
Bladen 200 

Bladensburg 230 
Blaine 400 

Blakeslee 142 

Blanchester 2,109 
Blissfield 102 

Bloomdale 592 
Bloomfleld 70 
Bloomfield , 

(Bloomingdale^^ 

Bloomingburg 623 
Bloomingdale 324 
Bloomington 88 
Bloomville 759 
Blue Ash 1.420 
Blue Creek 100 
Blue Rock 70 
Blufiton 2,423 
Bolivar 776 

Boston 


C 2 
G 4 
J 3 

E 7 
F 3 
H 6 
D 3 
B 7 
B 8 
H 5 
D 3 
G 6 
E 6 
F 8 
D 6 
G 4 
F 3 
H 5 
F 4 
E 8 
E 6 
F 8 
F 5 
J 5 
A2 
B 7 
G 5 
D 3 
G 5 


J 5 
D 6 
J 5 
C 6 
D 3 
C 9 
D 8 
G 6 
C 4 
G 4 


Boston Heights 646 


Botkins 
BommevUle 
Bowerston 
Bowers ville 
Bowling 
Green 
Bradford 
Bradley 
Bradner 
Brady Lake 
Branch Hill 
Brandt 
Bratenahl 
Brecksville 
Bremen 
Brewster 
Brice 

Bridgeport 
Bridgetown 
Brighton 
Brilliant 
Brimfield 
Brinkhayen 
Bristolville 
Broadview 
Heights 
Broadway 
Broadwell 
Brokensword 
Brook Park 
Brookfield 
Brooklyn 


350 H 10 
H 3 
B 5 
D 7 
H 5 
C 6 


608 
195 
522 
362 

12.005 

2,055 


C 3 
B 5 
J 5 
C 3 


300 

924 - - 

444 *H 3 
500 B 7 
200 B 6 
1,240 H 9 
2,664 H 10 
187 F 6 


1, 
1,618 
182 
4,309 
1,500 
107 
2,066 
500 
150 
250 


G 4 
E 6 
J 5 
B 9 
F3 
J 5 
H 3 
F 5 
J 3 


BrooWyn Hts. 931 
Brookside 
BrookvUle 
Broughton 
Brownhelm 
Bryan 
Buchtel 
Buckeye L. 
Buckland 
Bucynis 
Buena Vista 
Buena Vista 
Buffalo 
Buford 
Burbank 
BurghlU 
Burgoon 


2,279 H 10 
210 C 5 
90 
100 
2,606 
1,000 
6,317 


845 
1,908 
128 
107 
6,365 
569 
1,401 
274 
10.327 
89 
200 
700 
250 
393 
150 
223 


G 7 
E 4 
G 9 
J 3 
H 9 
H 9 
J 5 
B 6 
B 3 
F3 
A3 
F 7 
F 6 
B 4 
E 4 
C 7 
D 8 
G 6 
C 7 
F 4 
J 3 
D 3 


Burkettsville 211 
Burlington 325 
Burton 932 

Bushnell 100 

Butler 833 

ButlerviUe 152 
Byer 250 

ByesvUlo 2,236 
Cable 125 

Cadiz 3,020 

Cairo 505 

Calcutta 200 

Caldwell 1,767 
Caledonia 655 
Cambridge 14,739 
Camden 1,084 
Cameron 124 

Camp Dennison 

350 

Campbell 12,882 
Campbellstown .98 
Canal Fulton 1,258 
Canal 

IVinchester 1,194 
Canfield 1,465 
Cannelville 250 
Canton 116,912 
Carbon Hill 400 
Carbondale 400 
Cardington 1,465 
Carey 3,260 

Carlisle 325 

Carroll 416 

Carrollton 2,658 
Carrothers 110 
Casstown 368 
Castalia 736 

Castine 146 

Catawba 313 

Catawba Isl. 200 
Cecil . 266 

Cedarville 1,292 
Celina 5,703 

Center Belpre 150 
Center Village 120 
Centerburg 887 
Centerfield 69 
Centerville 827 
Centerville 

(Thurman) 142 
Chagrin Falls 3,085 
Chambersburg 225 
Chandlersville 140 
Chardon 2,478 
Charlestown 50 
Chatfield 204 
Chatham 250 
Chattanooga 150 
Chauncey 1.016 
Cherry Fork 197 
Cherry Grove 250 
Chesapeake 1,285 
Cheshire 300 
Cheshire 9? 

Chester 184 

Chesterhlll 426 
Chesterland 300 
Chesterville 208 
Cheviot 9,9^ 
Chickasaw 166 
Chillicothe 20,133 
Chilo 250 

Christiansburg 666 
Churchill 100 
Cincinnati 503,998 
Circleville 8,723 
Claiborne 112 
Clarington 478 
Clark 250 

Clarksburg 391 
Clarkson 68 

Clarksville 510 
Clay Center 590 
Claysville 55 

Clayton , 466 
Cleveland 914,808 
Cleveland ^ , 

Heights 59,141 
Cleves 

Clifton 220 

Clinton 397 

Cloverdale 200 
Clyde 4,083 

Coal Grove 2,492 
Coalton 628 

Coldwater 2,217 
Colebrook <0 

College Comer 488 
Collins 250 

Collinsville 1»6 
Colton 155 

Columbia Sta. 58 
Columbiana 3.3G9 
COLUMBUS 

375,901 

Columbus 

Grove 1.936 


A 5 
F 9 
H 3 
J 2 
F4 
*B 7 
E 7 
G 6 
C 5 
J 5 
B 4 
J 4 
G 6 
D 4 
G 5 
A 6 
J 6 

D 9 
J 3 
A 6 
H4 

E 6 
J 3 
G 6 
H 4 
F 7 
F 7 
E 5 
D 4 
B 6 
E 6 
J 4 
D 3 
B 5 
E 3 
A 6 
C 6 
E 2 
A3 
C 6 
A4 
G 7 
E 5 
E 5 
C 7 
B 6 

F 8 
J 9 
F 8 
G 6 
H 2 
H 3 
E 4 
G 3 
A 4 
F 7 
C 8 
C 10 
E 9 
F 8 
E 5 
G 7 
G 6 
H 2 
E 5 
B 9 
A 5 
E 7 
B 8 
C 5 
J 3 
B 9 
D 6 
D 5 
J 6 
G 5 
D 7 
J 4 
C 7 
D 2 
G 6 
B 6 
H 9 

J 9 
B 9 
C 6 
G 4 
B 3 
E 3 
E 9 
E 7 
A 5 
J 2 
A 6 
E 3 
A 6 
C 3 
G 10 
J 4 

E 6 

B 4 


Commercial 
Point 
Condlt 
Conesville 
Congo 
Congress 


238 

200 

466 

300 

186 


Conneaut 10,230 


Conover 
Constitution 


130 

100 


Continental 1,023 
Convoy 910 

Coolville 469 
Cooperdale 50 
Copley 600 

Cormng 1,215 
Cortland 1,259 
Corwin 326 

Coshocton .. 11,675 
Covington 2,172 
Cozaddale 180 
Craig Beach 569 
Creola 


75 

Crescentville 100 
4,614 
1,300 
684 
50 


Crestline 
Creston 
Cridersville 
Cromers 
Crooksville 2,960 

Croton 356 

Crown City 301 

Cuba 150 

Cumberland 537 

Curtice 500 

Custar 263 

Cutler - 100 


E 6 
E 5 
G 5 
F 6 
F 4 
J 2 
B 5 
G 7 
B 3 
A4 
G 7 
F 5 
G 3 
F 6 
J 3 
♦B 6 
G 5 
B 5 
B 7 
♦J 3 
E 7 
C 9 
E 4 
G 3 
B 4 
D 3 
F 6 
E 5 
F 8 
C 7 
G 6 
D 2 
C 3 
G 7 


E. Fultonham 565 
E. Greenville 450 
East Liberty 425 
E. Liverpool24,217 
East Orwell 168 
E. Palestine 5,195 
East Ringgold 120 
E. Rochester 250 
East Sparta 811 


Eastlake 

Eaton 

Edenton 

Edgerton 

Edison 

Edon 

Effort 

Elba 

Eldorado 

El cry 

Elgin 

Elida 


7,486 

4.242 

200 

1.246 

471 

645 

134 

150 

364 

,50 

126 

607 


F 6 
G 4 
C 5 
J 4 
J 2 
J 4 
E 6 
H 4 
H 4 
J 8 
A 6 
C 7 
A 3 
E 4 
A 2 
E 8 
H 6 
A 6 
B13 
A 4 
B 4 


Elizabethtown 100 
Ellerton 160 

Elliston 130 

Ellsworth 200 

Elmira 125 

Elmore 1,215 

Elmwood 

Place 4,113 

Elyria 30,307 

Empire 610 

Englewood 678 

Enon 462 

Enterprise 100 

Era 80 

Erhart 90 

Etna 325 

Euclid 41,396 

Evansport 250 

Ewington 64 

Excello 575 

Fairborn 7,847 

Fairhaven 290 

Fairpoint 500 

Fairport Harbor 

4,519 

Fairview 192 

Fairview 9,311 

Farmdale 202 

Farmer 200 

Farmersvilie 587 
Fayette 1,003 

Fayetteville 401 
Feesburg 150 

Felicity 716 

Findlay 23,845 

ill 


Fitch ville 


157 


A 9 
B 6 
D 2 
J 3 
B 2 
D 3 

B 9 
F 3 
J 5 
B 6 
C 6 
F 6 
D 6 
G 3 
E 6 
J 9 
B 3 
F 8 
B 7 
B 6 
A 6 
J 5 

H 2 
H 5 
G 9 
J 3 
A 3 
A 6 
B 2 
C 7 
B 8 
B 8 
C 3 
E 3 


Cuyahoga Hts. 713 

H 9 

Fletcher 

515 

B 5 

Cygnet 

527 

C 3 

Florida 

227 

B 3 

Cynthiana 

110 

D 7 

Flushing 

1,158 

J 5 

Dalton 

938 

G 4 

Fly 

200 

H 6 

Damascus 

700 

J 4 

Footville 

75 

J 2 

Danville 

853 

F 5 

Foraker 

110 

C 4 

Darbyville 

203 

D 6 

Forest 

1,114 

C 4 

Darrtown 

215 

A 7 

Forestville 

1,500 

C 10 

Dawn 

85 

A 5 

Fort Jennings 330 

B 4 

Davton 243,872 

B 6 

Fort Loramie 508 

B 6 

Decatur 

170 

C 8 

Ft. Recovery 1,231 

A 5 

Deer Park 

7,241 

C 9 

Fort Seneca 

155 

D 3 

Deerfield 

450 

H 3 

Foster 

200 

C 9 

Defiance 

11,265 

B 3 

Fostoria 

14,351 

D 3 

Degraff 

972 

C 5 

Frank 

100 

E 3 

Delaware 

11,804 

E 5 

Frankfort 

869 

D 7 

Delisle 

55 

A 5 

Franklin 

5,388 

B 6 

Dellroy 

358 

H 4 

Franklin 



Delphos 

6,220 

B 4 

Furnace 

450 

E 8 

Delta 

2,120 

B 2 

Franklin Sq. 

110 

J4 

Dennison 

4,432 

H 5 

Frazeysburg 

689 

F 5 

Dent 

640 

B 9 

Fredericksburg 517 

G 4 

Derby 

300 

D 6 

FredericktOTvn 


Deshler 

1,623 

C 3 


1,467 

F 5 

Deunquat 

97 

D 4 

Freedom Sta. 500 

H 3 

Dexter City 

170 

G 6 

Freeport 

566 

H 5 

Diamond 

300 

H 3 

Fremont 

16,537 

D 3 

Dillonvale 

1,407 

J 5 

Fresno 

225 

G 5 

Dixon 

160 

A 4 

Friend-ship 

500 

D 8 

Dodgeville 

100 

J 2 

Fruit HUl 

300 

C 10 

Dola 

175 

C 4 

Fulda 

60 

H 6 

Donnelsville 

285 

»B 6 

Fullertown 

100 

H 2 

Dorset 

400 

J 2 

Fulton 

269 

E 5 

Dover 

9,852 

G 4 

Fultonham 



Dowling 

100 

C 3 

(Uniontown) 232 

F 0 

Doylestown 

1,358 

G 4 

Gahanna 

596 

E 5 

Dresden 

1,310 

G 5 

Galena 

424 

E 5 

Dry Run 

300 

D 8 

Gallon 

9,952 

E 4 

Dublin 

289 

D 5 

Gallipolis 

7,871 

F 8 

D unbridge 

250 

C 3 

Galloway 

300 

D 6 

Duncan Falls 575 

G 6 

Gambler 

1,037 

F 5 

Dundas 

300 

E 7 

Ganges 

120 

E 4 

Dunkinsville 

75 

C 8 i 

Garfield Heights 


Dunkirk 

972 

C 4 

21,662 

J 9 

Dupont 

225 

B 3 

Garretts ville 

1,504 

H 3 

East Canton 

1,001 

H 4 

Gates Mills 

1,056 

J 9 

East Claridon 350 

H 2 

Geauga Lake 1,300 

J 10 

E. Cleveland 



Geneva 

4,718 

J 2 

40,047 

J 9 

Geneva-on-the- 



Lake 388 

Genoa 1,723 

GeorgesvUle 150 
Georgetown 2,200 
Germane 180 
Germantown 2,478 


Getaway 
Gettysburg 
Ghent 


100 

451 

75 


Gibsonburg 2,281 


Gilboa 
Gilmore 
Girard 
Glandorf 
Glen Roy 
Glencoe 
Glendale 
Glcnford 
Glenmont 
Glen willow 
Glouster 


181 
65 
10,113 
479 
100 
500 
2,402 
180 
2^42 
2,57 
2,327 


H 2 
D 2 
D 6 
C 8 
J 5 
B 6 
F 9 
A 5 
G 3 
D 3 
C 3 
H 5 
J 3 
B 3 
E 7 
J 6 
C 9 
F 6 
F 4 
J 10 
F 6 


1355] 

























CoDyflght hy g.a. HAMMOND 














OHIO — Confinued 


Gnadenhutten 895 
Golf Manor 3,603 
Gomer 300 

Good Hope 300 
Gordon 197 

Gore 250 

Grafton 1,194 
Grand Rapids 657 
Grand River 448 
Grandview 125 
Grandview 

Heights 7,659 
Granville 2,653 
Gratiot 187 

Gratis 575 

Graysville 138 
Graytown 125 
Green Camp 388 
Green Sprs. 1,082 
Greenfield 4,862 
Greenford 245 
Greenhills 3,005 
Greensburg 550 
Greentown 750 
Greenville 8,859 
Greenwich 1,204 
Greer 95 

Grelton 145 

Groesbeck 700 
Grove City 2,339 
Groveport 1,165 
Grover Hill 463 
Gustavus 150 
Guysville 250 
Gypsum 650 

Hails Corners 254 
Hallsville 182 
Hamden 951 

Hamersville 380 
Hamilton 57,951 
Hamler 490 

Hamlet 200 

Hammansburg 81 
Hammondsville 

475 

Hanford 922 

Hanging Rook 465 
Hannibal 500 
Hanover 308 
Hanoverton 344 
Harbor View 392 
Hardin 50 

Harlem Sprs. 275 
Harpster 236 
HarriettsvlUe 175 
Harrisburg 344 
Harrison 1,943 
Harrisonvllle 100 
Harrisville 420 
Harrod 482 

Hartford 225 
Hartford 

(Croton) 356 
Hartsgrove 575 
Hart-valle 1,200 
Harveysburg 477 
Haskins 469 

Hatton 72 

Havana 93 

Haverhill 150 
Havlland 235 
Haydenvllle 800 
Hayesville 381 
Hazelwood 500 
HebbardsvUle 75 
Hebron 864 

Helena 314 

Hemlock 253 

Hemlock Grove, 75 
Hendrysburg 300 
Hepburn 120 
Hicksville 2,629 
Higginsport 385 
Highland 280 
Highland Hts. 762 
Hill Grove 85 
Hilliards 610 

Hillsboro 5,126 
Hinckley 1,796 
Hiram 986 

Hockingport 100 
Holgate 1,092 
Holland 714 

Hollansburg 295 
Holloway 654 
Holmesville 392 
Homerville 110 
Homoworth 600 
Hoovon 550 

Hopedale 888 
Hopewell 225 
Houcktown 110 
Houston 150 

Howard 350 

HoytvUle 340 
Hubbard 


. Hudson 


4,560 

1,538 


G 5 
C 9 
B 4 
D 7 
B 6 
P 6 
F 3 
C 3 
H 2 
H 7 

D 6 
E 5 
P 6 
A 6 
H 6 
D 2 
D 4 
E 3 
D 7 
J4 
B 9 
G 4 
H 4 
A 5 
E 3 
P 4 
C 3 
B 9 
D 6 
E 6 
B 3 
J 3 
G 7 
E 2 
'J 3 
E 7 
F 7 
C 8 
A 7 
B 3 
B 8 
C 3 

J 4 
*E 6 
E 8 
J 6 
P 5 
J 4 
D 2 
B 5 
J4 
D 4 
H 6 
D 6 
A 9 
P 7 
J 5 
C 4 
J 3 

E 5 
J 2 
H 4 
C 7 
C 3 
C 3 
B 3 
E 8 
A 3 
P 7 
F 4 
C 9 
F 7 
B 6 
D 3 
F 6 
P 7 
H 5 
D 4 
A 3 
C 8 
C 7 
*H 2 
A 5 
D 5 
C 7 
G 3 
H 3 
G 7 
B 3 
C 2 
A 5 
H 5 
G 4 
P 3 
J 4 
A 9 
J 5 
F 6 
C 4 
B 5 
P 5 
C 3 
J 3 
H 3 


Hume 92 B 4 

Hunting Valley477 *H 3 

Huntsburg 112 H 2 

Huntsville 408 C 5 

Huron 2,515 E 3 

Iberia 250 E 4 

Idaho 50 I) 7 

Independence 

3,105 


Indian Hill 
Irondale 
Ironton 
Irwin 
Ithaca 
Jackson 


Jackson Center698 
Jacksontown 257 
Jacksonville 
Jaite 

Jamestown 
Jasper 
Jefferson 
Jeffersonville 
Jelloway 
Jenera 
Jeromesvllle 
Jerry City 
Jersey 
Jerusalem 
Jewell 
Jewett 
Johnstown 
Junction 
Junction City 
Justus 


H 9 
C 9 
J 4 
E 8 
D 5 
A 6 
E 7 
B 5 
P 6 
657 P 7 
71 H 10 
1,345 C 6 


2,090 

775 

16,333 

182 

146 

6,504 


150 

1,844 

865 

100 

316 

513 

360 

140 

175 

225 

1,019 

1,220 

75 

805 

325 


Kalida 533 

Kanauga 275 
Kansas 350 

Keene 150 

Kelleys Island 324 
Kelloggsville 200 
Kennard 75 

Kensington 500 
Kent 12,418 

Kenton 8,475 
Kettlersville 172 
Kidron 
Kilgore 
Kilibuck 
Kimball 
Kimbolton 
Kings Creek 
Kings Mills 
Kingston 
Kingsville 
Kinsman 
Klpton 
Kirby 
KirkersvUle 
Kirkpatrick 


150 
116 
767 
75 
228 
150 
650 
958 
1,000 
750 
300 
164 
299 
55 


Klrtland Hills 235 


Kitts Hill 
Kossuth 
Kunkle 
er 

'ayette 
La Rue 
Ladd 
Lafferty 
Lagrange 
LamgS 
Lakeline 
Lakemore 
Lakeside 
Lakevlew 
Lakeville 
Lakeville 
Lakewood 
Lancaster 
Landeck 
Langsvllle 
Lansing 
Latham 
Latty 
Laura 
Laurel 
Laurel ville 
LawrencevUle 
Lawshe 


90 
75 
260 
110 
444 
793 
80 
630 
712 
65 
183 
2,463 
1,034 
966 

190 
3,432 

68,071 

24,180 

119 

50 

2,000 
100 
272 
380 
100 
482 

191 
180 


Leavittsburg 2,533 
Lebanon 4,618 
Lees Creek 150 
Leesburg 841 
Leesvllle 297 
EeesvUle Cross 


Roads 
Leetonla 
Lelpsic 
Lemert 
Lemoyne 
Lena 

Leonardsburg 
Leroy 
Lotart Falls 
Levering 
Lewis Center 
Levdsburg 


214 

2,565 

1,706 

50 

155 

202 

63 

320 

400 

75 

200 

1,230 


D 7 
J 2 
C 6 
P 4 
C 4 
P 4 
C 3 
E 5 
H 6 
B 3 
H 5 
E 5 
A 3 
F 6 
G 4 
B 4 
F 8 
D 3 
G 5 
E 2 
J 2 
C 5 
J 4 
H 3 
C 4 
B 5 
G4 
H 5 
G 5 
E 3 
G 5 
C 5 
B 7 
E 7 
J 2 
J 3 
F 3 
D 4 
E 6 
D 4 
H 2 
E 8 
B 4 
A 2 
F 8 
C 4 
D 4 
D 8 
H 5 
F 3 
J 6 
J 8 
H 3 
E 2 
C 4 
F 4 
J 2 
G 9 
E 6 
B 4 
P 7 
J 5 
D 7 
A3 
B 6 
B 8 
E 7 
C 6 
D 8 
J 3 
B 7 
C 7 
D 7 
H 5 

E 4 
J 4 
C 3 
D 4 
D 3 
B 5 
D 5 
G 3 
P 8 
E 4 
D 5 
A 6 


No room on map for name. 


Lewistown 250 
Lewisville 217 
Lexington 739 
Liberty 175 

Liberty Center 816 
Lightsville 50 
Lilly Chapel 250 
Lima 50,246 

Llmaville 209 
Lincoln Hts. 5,531 
Lindsey 512 

Llnndale 399 
Lisbon 3,293 

Litchfield 350 
Llthopolis 350 
Little Sandusky 70 
Little York 150 
Lockboume 376 
Locklngton 245 
Lockland 5,736 
Lockwood 61 
Locust Grove 118 
Lodi 1,523 

Logan 5,972 

London 5,222 
Londonderry 210 
Long Bottom 200 
Lorain 51,202 
Lore City 495 
Loudonville 2,523 
Louisville 3,801 
Loveland 2,149 
Lowell 638 

LowellvUle 2,227 
Lower Salem 126 
Lucas 573 

Luckey 764 

Ludlow Falls 277 
Lynchburg 972 
Lyndhurst 7,359 
Lyndon 50 

Lyons 511 

Lytle 200 

Macedonia 600 
Mack 870 

Macksburg 272 
Macon 75 

Madeira 2,689 
Madison 1,127 
Madlsonburg 135 
Magnetic Sprs. 321 
Magnolia 901 
Mamet^le 312 
Malaga 100 

Malinta 308 

Mallet Creek 200 
Malta 968 

Malvern 1,277 
Manchester 2,281 
Mansfield 43,564 
Mantua 1,059 
Maple Hts. 15,586 
Maplewood 184 
Marathon 263 
Marble Cliff 437 
Marblehead 867 
Marengo 275 
Maria Stein 200 
Mariemont 3,514 
Marietta 16,006 
Marion 33,817 
Mark Center 158 
Marseilles 156 
Marshall 50 

Marshallville 458 
Martel 196 

Martin 350 

Martins Ferry 

13,220 

Martinsburg 264 
Martinsville 399 
Marysville 4,256 
Mason 1,196 

Massillon 29,594 
M 2 isury 2,151 
Maud 400 

Maumee 5,548 
Mayfield 805 

Mayfield Hts. 

5,807 

McArthur 1,466 
McCartyville 100 
McClure 508 
McComb 1,026 
McConnelsvlUe 

1,941 

McCutchenville 

347 

McDermott 700 
McDonald 1,858 
McGufley 639 
Means 89 

Mechanlcsburg 

1,920 

Mechaulcstown 

150 

Medina 5,097 
1358] 


C 5 
H 6 
E 4 
B 6 
B 3 
A 5 
D 6 
B 4 
H 4 
C 9 
D 3 
*G 3 
J4 
F 3 
E 6 
D 4 
B 6 
E 6 
B 5 
C 9 
J 3 
D 8 
P 3 
P 6 
C 6 
E 7 
G 7 
F 3 
H 6 
F 4 
H 4 
D 9 
H 6 
J 3 
H 6 
P 4 
D 3 
B 6 
C 7 
J 9 
D 7 
B 2 
B 6 
J 10 
B 9 
G 6 
C 8 
C 9 
H 2 
G 4 
D 5 
H 4 
B 7 
H 6 
B 3 
G 3 
G 6 
H 4 
C 8 
F 4 
H 3 
H 9 
B 5 
C 7 
*D 5 
E 2 
E 5 
A 5 
C 9 
G 7 
D 4 
A 3 
D 4 
C 7 
G 4 
E 4 
D 2 

J 5 
F 5 
C 7 
D 5 
B 7 
H 4 
J 3 
B 7 
C 2 
J 9 

J 9 
F 7 
B 5 
C 3 
C 3 

G 6 

D 4 
D 8 
*J 3 
C 4 
J 5 

C 5 

H 4 
G 3 


Medway 

975 

C 6 

Neville 

127 

Meeker 

175 

D 4 

New Albany 

268 

Melbern 

140 

A 3 

New 


Melmore 

225 

D 3 

Alexandria 

383 

Melrose 

237 

B 3 

New Antioch 

121 

Mendon 

614 

A 4 

New Athens 

509 

Mentor 

2,383 

H 2 

New Bavaria 

132 

Mentor-on-the- 


New 



Lake 1,413 G 2 
Mercer 150 A 4 

Mesopotamia 310 J 3 
Metamora 532 C 2 
Meyers Lake 301 H 4 
Miamisburg 6,329 B 6 


500 

250 


A 9 
B 7 


Miamitown 
Miamiville 
Middle Bass 
Middle Point 
Middlebranch 600 H 4 


80 E 2 
583 B 4 


Middleburg 

Middleburg 

Heights 

Middlefield 

Middleport 


300 C 5 

2,299 GIO 
1,141 H 3 


3,446 


Middleto^vn 33,695 


338 

632 


Midland 
Midvale 
Midway 
(Sedalla) 

Mifflin 
Milan 
Milford 
Milford Center 753 
Millbury 482 

Milledgevllle 208 


276 

186 

846 


F 7 
A6 
C 7 
H 5 

D 6 
P4 
E 3 


Miller 
Miller City 


2,448 D 9 

D 5 

D 2 
C 6 
P 8 
B 3 


140 

144 


Mlllersburg 2,398 F 4 
Millersport 605 E 6 
- 100 D 3 


Mfilersville 
Millport 60 

Millville 458 

Millwood 200 
Milton Center 201 
Miltonsburg 100 
Mineral 150 

Mineral City 831 H 4 
Mineral Ridge 

1,750 

Minersville . 400 _ 

Minerva 3,280 H 4 
Minerva Park 232 E 5 
Mlnford 300 
Mingo 130 

Mingo Jet. 4,464 


J 4 
A 7 
F 5 
C 3 
H 6 
F 7 


J 3 
G 7 


Minster 

Mogadore 

Monclova 

Monroe 


E 8 
C 5 

J 5 

1,728 B 5 


1,818 H 3 
94 C 2 


360 


Monroe Center 150 


B 7 
J 2 


Monroeville 1,275 E 3 
Montezuma 299 A 4 
Montgomery 579 C 9 
Monticello 55 B 4 
Montpelier 3,867 A 2 
Montville 200 H 2 
Moreland Hills 

1,040 *H 3 
Morgantown 75 D 7 
Morning Sun 102 A 6 
Morral 461 D 4 

Morristown 404 H 5 
Morrow 1,137 B 7 
Moscow 336 -B 8 

Mt. Blanchard 444 D 4 
Mount Carmel 300 B 7 
Mount Cory 302 C 4 
Mount Eaton 203 G 4 
Mt. Ephraim 90 G 6 
Mt. Gilead 2,351 E 4 
Mt. Healthy 5,533 B 9 
Mount Hope 158 G 4 
Mt. Liberty 300 E 5 
Mount Grab 758 C 7 
Mt. Pisgah i 45 B 8 
Mt. Pleasant 760 J 5 
Mt. Sterling 1,172 D 6 
Mt. Vernon 12,185 E 5 
Mt. Victory 609 D 4 
Mowrystown 394 C 7 
Moxanala 
Mulberry 
Munroe Falls 
Murray City 
Mutual 


Nankin 

Napoleon 

Nashport 

Nashville 

Navarre 

Neapolis 

Neffs 

Negley 

Nellie 

Nelsonville 

Neptune 

Nevada 


400 

328 

933 

752 

178 

400 


P 6 
B 7 
H 3 
F 6 
C 5 
P 4 


5,335 B 3 
180 F 5 
234 F 4 
1,763 H 4 
200 C 3 
1,024 J 5 


500 

165 

4,845 

100 


J 4 
F 5 
F 7 
A 4 


824 D 4 


J5 


Bloomington 288 D 4 
New Boston 4,754 E 8 
New Bremen 1,546 B 5 
New Burlington 

352 C6 

New Burlington 

600 B9 
New Carlisle 1,640 C 6 
New Castle 120 F 5 
New Concordl,797 G 6 
New Dover 120 B 5 
New Hampshire 

197 C4 

New Haven 289 E 3 
New Holland 799 D 6 
New Knoxville 662 B 5 
New Lebanon 696 B 6 
New Lexington 

4,233 F6 
New London 2,023 F 3 
New Lyme 200 J 2 
New Madison 757 A 6 
New Market 50 0 7 
New Martins- 
burg 
New 

Matamoras 781 
New Miami 1,860 A 7 
New 

Middletown 264 J 4 
New Milford 325 H 3 
New Mooreiield 

160 0 6 
New Paris 1,046 A 6 
New Petersburg 75 D 7 
New Phila- 
delphia 12,948 G 5 
New Pittsburg 150 F 4 
New Plymouth 100 F 7 

^Richmond 1,960 B 8 
New Riegel 317 D'3 
New Rome 75 D 6 
New Salem 300 B 6 
New Springfieldgg^ J4 

New Stark 65 0 4. 
New StraitsviMe yg 

New Vienna 807 (3 7 

^Washington 910 E 4 
New Waterford 610 J 4 
New Weston 136 A 5.. 
New Winchester^^ ^ ^ 


120 D7 
J6. 


Newark 

Newburgh 

Heights 

Newbury 


34,275 F5 

3,689 S9 
176 H3. 


NewcomerstoTO^^ 

Newport 500 H 7 
Newport 225 O b 
Newton Falls 4,451 J “ 
Newtonsvllle 182 B ' 
Newtown 1,462 L lo 
Ney 301 5 i 

Nlcholsvllle 50 B 8 
Niles 16,773 ,J3 

N. Baltimore 2,771 O 3 
North Bend 711 BJ 

N. Bloomfield 700 J3 

N. Canton 4.032 R 


North college^ 921 , 

North Falrifeld 468 E3 
North Findlay 80 C J 
N. Hampton , 4 M L a 
N. Industry 1,800 H 4 
North Kenova 200 E « 
N. Kingsville 1,271 J2 
N. Leirisburg ^ Hi 
North Lima 750 J 4 
N. Madison 200 H 2 
N. Olmstead 6,604 G J 
North Perry 470 B 
North Randall 178 B » 
N. Ridgeville 1.700 13 

N. Robinson 252 E 
N. Royalton 3,939 B m 
North Star 166 A » 
Northfleld 780 J 
Norton „ 50 Eg 

Norwalk ^’Tn? G 6 
Nonrich 0 9 

Norwood 35,001 
Nova 271 r ^ 



OHIO — Continued 


Oak Hill 1,615 E 8 
Oakharbor 2,370 D 2 
Oakwoocl 9,691 B 6 
Oalnvood 542 B 3 
Oberlin 7,062 F 3 
Obetz 1,049 E 6 

Oceola 114; D 4 

Octa 87 0 6 

Ohio City 861 A 4 
Okeana 158 A 7 

Okolona 115 B 3 

Old Fort 250 D 3 
Old ‘Washington 

322 H 5 
Olive Branch 100 B 7 
Olmsted Falls 

1,137 G 9 
Omega 100 E 7 

Oneida 150 H 4 

Orange 897 J 9 

Orangeville 367 J 3 
Oregonla 150 B 7 
Orient 224 D 6 

Orrville 5,153 G 4 
Orwell 759 J 2 

Osgood 194 A 5 

Ostrander 408 D 5 
Otsego 117 G 5 

Ottawa 2,962 B 3 
Ottawa Hills 2,333 C 2 
Ottokee 143 B 2 

Ottoville 543 B 4 
Otway 229 D 8 

Owensville 419 B 7 
Oxford 6,944 A 6 
Painesville 14,432 H 2 
Paintersville 110 0 6 
Palestine 207 A 5 
Pancosistburg 175 D 6 
Pandora 717 C 4 

Paris 250 H 4 

Parkman 181 H 3 
Parkview 661 G 9 
Parma 28,897 H 9 
Parma Hts. 3,901 G 9 
Parral 199 G 4 

Pataskala 928 E 6 
Patriot -75 F 8 

Patterson 189 C 4 
Paulding 2,352 A 3 
Payne 1,062 A 3 

Peebles 1,498 D 8 
Pemberton 225 B 5 
Pemberville 1,099 0 3 
Penfield 95 F 3 

Peninsula 636 G 3 
Pennsville 160 G 6 


Pandora 717 C 4 

Paris 250 H 4 

Parkman 181 H 3 
Parkview 661 G 9 
Parma 28,897 H 9 
Parma Hts. 3,901 G 9 
Parral 199 G 4 

Pataskala 928 E 6 
Patriot -75 F 8 

Patterson 189 C 4 
Paulding 2,352 A 3 
Payne 1,062 A 3 

Peebles 1,498 D 8 
Pemberton 225 B 5 
Pemberville 1,099 0 3 
Penfield 95 F 3 

Peninsula 636 G 3 
Pennsville 160 G 6 
Peoria 193 D 5 

Pepper Pike 874 ♦H 3 
Perintown 124 B 7 
Perry 665 H 2 

Perrysburg 4,006 C 2 
Perrysville 674 F 4 
Perryton 104 F 5 
Pettisville 325 B 2 
Phillipsburg 609 B 6 
Philo 881 G 6 

Pickerington 433 E 6 
Piedmont 250 H 5 
Pierpont 500 J 2 
Piketon 768 E 7 

Piney Fork 1,660 J 5 
Pioneer 696 A 2 

Piqua 17,447 B 5 
Pitsburg 359 A 6 

Plain City 1,715 D 5 
Plainfield 136 G 5 
PlaIn^^llo 500 C 9 
Pleasant Bend 77 B 3 
Pleasant City 511 G 6 
Pleasant Hill 940 B 5 
Pleasant Plain 164 B 7 
Pleasantville 618 F 6 
Plumwood 200 D 6 
Plymouth 1,510 E 4 
Poast Town 150 B 6 
Point Isabel 76 B 8 
Point Pleasant 75 B 8 
Poland 1,652 J 3 
Polk 332 F 4 

Pomeroy 3,656 G 7 
Port Clinton 5,541 E 2 
Port Homer 75 J 4 
Port Jefferson 409 C 5 
Port 

^Washington 514 ‘H 5 
Port William 352 C 6 
Portage 437 C 3 

Porter 115 F 8 

Portland 150 G 7 
Portsmouth 

„ 36.798 D 8 

Potsdam 241 B 6 
Powell 324 D 5 

Power Point 275 J 4 
1 owhatan Pt.2.135 J 6 
Prlcetown 200 C 7 


Proctorville 737 F 9 
Prospect 1,031 D 5 
Pulaski 200 A 2 

Put-in-Bay 191 E 2 
Quaker City 655 H 6 
Quincy 616 C 5 

Kacine 536 G 8 

Kadcliff 175 F 7 

Radnor 215 D 5 

Ragersville 100 G 5 
Rainsboro 225 D 7 
Randolph 1,000 H 3 
Rarden 251 D 8 

Ravenna 9,857 H 3 
Rawson 407 C 4 

Ray 65 E 7 

Rayland 726 J 5 

Raymond 300 C 5 
Rays Corners 75 J 2 
Reading 7,836 C 9 
Red Lion 150 B 7 
Redhaw 100 F 4 

Reedsburg 110 F 4 
Reedsville 300 G 7 
Reesville 200 C 7 

Reily 160 A 7 

Reinerstdlle 80 G 6 
Remington 412 C 9 
Rendville 301 F 6 
Reno 140 H 7 

Republic 615 D 3 

Reynoldsburg 724 E 6 
Rialto 70 C 9 

Richmond 579 J 5 
Richmond 

(Grand River) 

448 H 2 

Richmond Dale 

500 E 7 
Richmond Hts 891 J 9 


11,237 G 9 


151 D 8 
285 H 3 


250 H 5 


1,715 D 5 
136 G 5 


Richwood 1,866 D 5 

Ridgevllle 

Corners 320 B 3 

Ridgeway 384 C 4 

Rio Grande 388 F 8 

Ripley 1,7M C 8 

Rismgsun „ 744 O 3 

Rittman 3,810 G 4 

Riverlea 324 D 5 

Riverside 370 *B 6 

Rix Mills 66 G 6 

Robertsville 465 H 4 

Robins 300 H6 

Rochester H? t o 

Rock Creek 604 J 2 
Rockbridge 300 E 6 
Rockford A ~ 

Rockland 950 G 7 
Rocky R. 11'237 G 9 
Rockyridge 358 D 2 
Rncers 297 J 4 

Rome (Stout) 151 D8 

Rootstown 285 B 3 

iSarm fl 

Roilwiod '200 C 5 
Ross 275 B 9 

Rossburg 203 A 5 
Rossford 3,963 C 2 
Rossmoyne 1,660 c y 
Boswell 267 H 5 

Roundhead 185 C 4 
Boxabell 103 D 7 

Royalton 80 L 6 

Rudolph 500 C 3 

Bushmore . J? S | 
Bushsylvama 5 W c 5 
Busbtown 75 D 8 

Bushville . 252 E 6 

Bussells Point 909 C5 
Bussell^^lle 438 c 8 
Russia 200 B 5 

Rutland 5M F 7 

Sabina l-®^® .pin 

Sagamore aUs J 10 

St. Bernard 7,066 BV 

St. Clairsville3,040 J5 
Saint Henrj’ 715 A 5 
Saint Johns . 2o0 B 4 

Saint lomsvulle336 F 5 
Saint Martm 129 C 7 
Saint Marj-s 6.208 B 4 
Saint Paris 1.422 0 5 

Salem h 6 

Salesvilje 187 H 6 

Salmeville 2,018 J 4 
Samantha 50 O 7 

Sandusl^ 29,375 E 3 
Sandy-rtle 32 j H 4 
Santa Fe -00 B 5 

Sarahs^ulle DO H 6 
Sardinia COT C 7 

Sardis w 2 

Savannah 407 F 4 


426 H 4 
570 A 3 


Scio 1,152 H 5 

Scioto Furnace 275 E 8 
Scott 347 A 4 

Seaman 736 C 8 

Sebring 4,045 H 4 
Sedalia 276 D 6 

Selma 175 C 6 

Senecaville 586 H 6 
Seven Hills 1,350 *G 3 
Seven Mile 569 A 7 
Seville 963 G 3 

Shade 60 G 7 

ShadeviUe 118 D 6 
Shadyside 4,433 J 6 
Shaker Hts. 28,222 H 9 
Shalersville 150 H 3 
Shandon 250 A 9 
Shanesville 460 G 4 
Sharon 200 G 6 

Sharonville 1,318 C 9 
Shauck 300 E 4 

Shawnee 1,145 F 6' 
Shawnee Hills 338 D 5 
Shawtown 50 C 3 
Sheffield 1,147 F 3 
Sheffield L. 2.381 F 3 
Shelby 7,971 E 4 

Sherrodsvdlle 426 H 4 
Sherwood 570 A 3 
Shiloh 655 E 4 

Short Creek 300 J 5 
Shreve 1,287 F 4 
Sidney 11,491 B 5 
SiUca 75 C 2 

Silver Lake 1,040 G 3 
Silverton 4,827 C 9 
Simons 100 J 2 

Sinking Spring 187 D 7 
Smithfield 1.255 J 5 
Smithville 755 G 4 
Solon 2,570 J 9 

Somerset 1,383 F 6 
Somerton 200 H 6 
Somerville 383 A 6 
Sonora 200 G 6 

S. Amherst 1.020 F 3 
S. Bloomfield 250 D 6 
S.Bloomingviile^^ B7 

S. Charleston 1,452 C 6 
S. Euclid 15.432 H 9 
S. Lebanon 1,291 B 7 
South Olive 200 G 6 
South Park 75 H 10 
South Perry 125 E 6 
South Point 804 E 9 
South Bussell 349 H 3 
South Salem 206 D 7 
South Solon 414 C6 
South Vienna 424 C 6 
South Webster 663 E 8 
S. Zanesville 1,4^ F 6 
Sparta 223 E 5 

iSSrtlle i.lg II 

iprini Valley S § 

Springboro 516 B b 

vVlnR C6 


75 H 10 
125 E 6 


325 H 4 
200 B 5 
170 HO 
699 C 7 
344 J 6 


savaniiaij ^ „ 

I Sawyenvood l.jSo g 

1 Saybrook I-u J " 


Springfield 78,508 C 6 
Springhills 190 C 5 
Stafford 141 H 6 

Starr n 6 ^ ' 

Sterling 500 G 4 

Steuben 50 E 3 

Steubenville35.872 J b 
cf^j-wart 260 v # 

iStsville 350 JO 
Stillwater 2o0 H 5 
Stockdale 270 E 8 
Stockport 404 G 6 
Stone Creek 225 G 5 
lol U o 
SmSm-ille ^562 E 6 
Cfriw 2,140 

Strasburg 1.360 G 4 

Stratton o -S p in 
Strongsville 3.oM G 10 

Ker ; 02 G B3 

i^eld. 200 H 3 

Sugar Grove 434 E b 
Sugar Tree p 7 

Bulge olq fj 5 

Sugarcreek 889 1^ “ 

Sullivan 12o F 3 

iSSSSS- II li 

Summerford 2o0 D 0 
Summersville 50 D 5 
Summit%uUe loO J 4 
Sunbury 936 E o 

Superior -<5 E 8 

Swanders oO Bo 

Swanton l.'4g C _ 

; i&T 2^3 §2 


200 H3 
434 E 6 

85 C 7 
889 G 5 
125 F 3 
300 E 4 
368 H 6 
250 D 6 


Syracuse 700 
Tallmadge 5,821 
Tarlton 371 

Taylorsburg 50 
Taylorsi-ille 

(Philo) 881 
Tedrow 300 

Temperanceville70 
Terrace Park 1,265 
Texas 100 

Thackery 100 
The Plains 700 
Thompson 150 
Thornville 432 
Thurman 142 
Thurston 454 
Tiffin 18,952 

Tlltonsville 2,202 
Timberlake 236 
Tipp City 3,304 
Tiro 335 

Tiverton 50 

Tobasco 250 ! 

Toledo 303,616 
Tontogany 368 
Torch 200 

Toronto 7,253 
Trail 100 

Tremont City 396 
Trenton 987 

Trilby 2,750 

Trimble 566 

Trinway 500 

Trotwood 1,066 
Trowbridge 90 
Troy 10,661 

Tappers Plains 225 
Tuscarawas 700 
T winsburg 1 ,200 
Uhrichsville 6,614 
Union 370 

Union City 1,622 
Union Furnace 200 
Unionport 350 
Uniontown 600 
Uniontown 

(Fultonham) 232 
Unionville 500 
Unionville Ctr. 237 
Uniopolis 271 
Unity 140 

University 

Heights 11,566 

^TrlLgton 9,024 
Upper 

Sandusky 4,397 
Urbana 9,335 
Urbancrest 823 
Utica 1,510 

Valley City 250 
"Vailey View 998 
Valley View 611 
Van Wert 10,364 
Vanatta 110 

Vanburen 308 
■Vandalia 927 

Vanlue 365 

Vaughnsville 216 
Venedocia 170 
Venice 300 

Vermilion 2,214 
■Vermilion-on- 

the-Lake 614 
Verona 426 

Versailles 1,812 
Vickery 200 

Vienna 500 

Vienna 

(South Vienna) 
424 

Vigo 110 

Villa 70 

Vincent 300 

Vinton 378 

Wabash 150 

Wadsworth 7,966 
■Wainwright 500 
Waite Hill 305 
Wakefield 150 
■Wakeman 620 
tValbridge 1,152 
Waldo 3.56 

Walhonding 120 
■Walnut Creek 225 
Wamsley 50 

Wapakoneta 5,797 
Warner 175 

Warren 49,856 
Warrensburg 80 
Warrens ville 
Warrcnsville 

Heights 4.126 
Warsaw 484 

Warwick 320 

■Wasliington Ct. 

House 10,560 


Washington 

(Old ‘Washington) 

322 H 5 
Washingtonviile 

848 *3 4 
Waterford 317 G 6 
■Waterloo 125 F 8 
■Watertown 177 G 7 
Waterville 1,110 C 3 
"Wauseon 3,494 B 2 
■Waverly 1,679 D 7 
■Wayland 235 H 3 
Wajme 761 C 3 

Waynesburg 1,258 H 4 
Waynesfield 733 C 4 
■Waynesville 1,016 B 6 
Webster 210 B 5 

Wellington 2,992 F 3 
Wellston 5,691 F 7 
Wellsville 7,854 J 4 
Welshfield 125 H 3 
W. Alexandria 

1,183 A 6 
W. Andover 200 J 2 
W. Carrollton 

2,876 B 6 
W. Chester 321 C 9 
W. Clarksfield 70 E 3 
AVest Elkton 297 A 6 
AV. Farmington 

579 J 3 
AV. Jefferson 1,647 D 6 
W. Lafayette 1,346 G 5 
West Lelpsic 304 B 3 
W. Liberty 1,397 C 5 
W. Manchester 469 A 6 
W. ^Mansfield 756 C 5 
W. Millgrove 180 ‘C 3 
W. Milton 2,101 B 6 
West Point 45 E 4 
West Portsmouth 

2,613 D 8 
W. Richfield 750 G 3 
AV. Bushville 152 ‘E 6 
West Salem 860 F 4 
AVest Sonora 200 A 6 
AVest Union 1,508 C 8 
AVest Unity 827 B 2 
Westboro 100 C 7 
Westerville 4,112 D 6 
AVestlake 4,912 G 9 
Westminster 270 B 4 
AVeston 973 O 3 

AA^estview 625 G 10 
AVharton 392 D 4 
Wheelersburg 1,013 E8 
Whipple 170 H 6 
AVhite Cottage 400 F 6 
Whitehall 4,877 E 6 
Whitchouse 849 C 2 
Wickliffe 5,002 J 9 
AVilkesvllIe 203 F 7 
AVillard 4,744 E 3 
Williamsburg 1,490 B7 
Williamsfield 120 J 2 
AVilllamsport 631 D 6 
AVilliamsport 97 E 4 
AVilloughby 5,602 J 8 
AVillowick 3,077 G 2 
AA'iilshire 507 A 4 
AATlmington 7,387 C 7 
AVilmot 354 G 4 

AVlnchester 690 C 8 
AVindham 3,968 fl 3 
AVindsor 170 J 2 

AVinesburg 195 G 4 
AVinkle 109 C 7 

Winona 200 J 4 

Wintersot 122 H 5 
AA’intersville 1,950 J 5 
Withamsvdlle 300 B 7 
AVoodington 75 A 5 
AVoodlawn 1,335 C 9 
AA^oodmere 419 J 9 
AVoodsfield 2,410 H 6 
AA'oodstock 316 D 5 
AVoodrille 1.358 D3 
Wooster 14,005 G 4 
Worthington 2,141 E 6 
AVren 278 A 4 

Wright A'iew 2,500 B 6 
Wyandot 75 D 4 

Wyoming 5,582 C 9 
Xenia 12,877 C 6 

Yankee L,ako .53 *J 3 
Yellow Bud 300 D 7 
A'ellow Sprs. 2,896 C 6 
York 100 D 5 

Yorkshire 142 B 5 
A'orkville 1.8.54 J 5 
A'oungstown 

168,330 J 3 
Zaleski 3SS F 7 

Zanesfield 288 C 5 
Zanesville 40,517 G 0 
Zoar 200 H 4 

Zoarville 250 H 4 


4,112 D 6 
4,912 G 9 


625 G 10 
392 D 4 


1,335 C 9 
419 J 9 
2,410 H 6 
316 D 5 
1,358 D3 
14,005 G 4 


200 H 4 
250 H4 


room on map for name. 



FOUR IMPORTANT OHIO CITIES 



Ohio is conspicuous for the number of its great industrial cities. 1. Toledo, on Lake Erie at the mouth of nnUd-” 
River, is a center for the manufacture of automobile accessories. 2. Akron is known as the world’s PiyeV, 

3. Columbus, Ohio’s capital, is noted for manufacturing steel, machinery, and shoes. 4. Cincinnati, on the Ohio u 
is an art and musical center as well as a maker of machine tools, electrical equipment, and soap. 


360 








declined. Today Ohio accounts for less 

than one per cent of the country’s pe- 

troleum production. The state’s produc- ■ 

tion of natural gas is about 40 billion 

cubic feet a year. This fuel comes mainly from 

natural-gas fields in the eastern half of the state. Ohio 

also produces important supplies of coal. 

Manufactures and Largest Cities 

Ohio ranks second among all states in the total 
value of its manufacturing. One out of every three 
workers is employed in one of the state’s 12,000 
manufacturing establishments. The state’s largest 
industry, as well as the one in which it leads all 
other states, is the manufacture of machinery. It 
makes metalworking, refrigeration, and industrial 
equipment of all t3q5es. 

Ohio also leads in the manufacture of structural 
metals, metal stampings, and other fabricated metal 
products. It ranks second in primary metals. This 
includes the output of the state’s numerous blast fur- 
naces, steel mills, and foundries. In both transporta- 
tion equipment and electrical machinery, Ohio ranks 
third in the nation. 

The state’s largest city and greatest manufacturing 
center is Cleveland. Using the iron ore and coal that 
come to the huge lake-front docks, the city’s mills 
end factories turn out a wide variety of iron, steel, and 
^her metal products, and machinery (see Cleveland). 
Cincinnati, once the “pork capital of America,” is 
still a meat-packing center. But the value of its out- 
put of machinery and machine tools now exceeds that 
of its packing plants. It also manufactures manj’’ 
other kinds of goods including soap, malt liquors, and 
men’s and women’s clothing (see Cinemnati). 

Columbus, the state capital, specializes in industrial 
uiachinery, iron and steel products, and shoes (see 


The State Capitol, completed in 
1861 , stands in a ten-acre park in 
downtown Columbus. In the fore- 
ground is the famous McKinley Me- 
morial designed by the American 
sculptor Hermon MacNeil. 


Columbus). Toledo is one of the leading glass manu- 
facturing centers in the nation. It also manufactures 
automobiles, machinery, and steel (see Toledo). 

Akron is noted for its factories which make tires 
and tubes and other rubber products (see Akron). 
Da 3 don is famous for its aircraft laboratories and 
manufacture of cash registers (see Dayton). Youngs- 
town and Canton are great steel-producing cities. 
They also make electrical machinery, rubber goods, 
and many other products (see Canton; Youngstown). 

Ohio is known for its clay products. An immense 
amount of white ware is made in Cincinnati, Zanes- 
ville, Coshocton, and East Liverpool. East Liver- 
pool makes a large proportion of the white granite 
ware and semivitreous porcelain of the United States. 
Zanesville and Coshocton are noted for art wares. 
Cincinnati is world-famous for its Rookwood ware. 

In 1952, the Atomic Energy Commission selected a 
6,500-acre site, north of Portsmouth in Pike County, 
for an atomic plant to make uranium 235. This 
is a major atomic installation in the nation. 

Farm Products of the “Buckeye State” 

Ohio is also an important agricultural state, rank- 
ing among the first dozen states in total cash income 
from farm products. The state’s 200,000 farms have 
an average of about 105 acres each. The principal 
field crops are com, wheat, hay, and soybeans. Like 
other states in the com belt where grain is plentiful, 
Ohio is an important producer of cattle, hogs, and 
poultry. A large part of the farm land is in pas- 
ture, and dairy products have a profitable market 
in the state’s many industrial centers. In addition to 


OHIO 


362 


its main farm products, the state raises oats, pota- 
toes, truck crops, fruit, and some tobacco. 

Ohio’s agriculture has depended greatly upon the 
development of transportation. In the early daj's the 
farmer in the state’s interior could get very little 
cash from raising and selling corn and wheat because 
the costs of transporting the grain to market were so 
high. Before the opening of the Ohio and Erie Canal, 
corn sold along its route for 10 cents and wheat for 
25 cents a bushel. The farmer used much of his 
grain to feed his hogs and cattle. He then drove this 
livestock to the nearest river to be sold and loaded 
on boats and barges. With the building of canals, 
and later of railroads and highways, and with the 
growth of towns and cities, Ohio farmers have had 
excellent means for sending their crops and livestock 
to market and for receiving city-made goods. 

Education and Government 

In 1914 Ohio adopted a vastly improved system of 
county school organization. Today many of its city 
and centralized rural schools are among the best in 
the nation. The state’s institutions of higher edu- 
cation include Ohio State University at Columbus, 
four other state universities, and one college of edu- 
cation and industrial arts. Ohio University, at Athens, 
is the pioneer college of the Old Northwest. 

Western Reserve University, at Cleveland, has been 
called the “Yale of the West.’’ Oberlin was the first 
coeducational college in the United States. It took 
a notable part in the antislavery movement. The 
University of Cincinnati is among the nation's fore- 
most municipal universities. 

Ohio as a state has been a leader in certain lines of 
advanced social and industrial legislation and ad- 
ministration, such as the promotion of safety in fac- 
tories. Since 1912 the initiative and referendum have 
been a part of the state constitution. 

Some of Ohio’s Famous Citizens 

Ohio is proud of the noted men and women who 
were born in the state or who achieved fame there. 
The state’s distinguished citizens include seven presi- 
dents of the United States and such statesmen as 
Newton D. Baker, Salmon P. Chase, Charles G. 
Dawes, and E. M. Stanton. Other notables are 
soldiers — Putnam, Sherman, Sheridan; inventom — 
Wilbur and Orville Wright; writers — Sherwood An- 
derson, Louis Bromfield, Zane Grey, William D. 
Howells, Fannie Hurst, Whitelaw Reid, James Thur- 
ber; poets — Alice and Phoebe Cary, Paul L. Dunbar; 
educators — William McGuffey, Horace Mann; finan- 
ciers — Jay Cooke, Marcus Hanna; and lawyers — 
Florence Allen, Clarence Darrow. 

History of the State 

When the first white men came to the Ohio region 
they saw fcew small patches of open prairie and large 
forests co^aining oak, hickory, walnut, and numer- 
ous buckej'-e, or horse-chestnut, trees. For the buck- 
eyes, Ohio was later nicknamed the “Buckeye State.” 

The first settlement was made in 1788 at the mouth 
of the Muskingum River. There a group called the 
“Ohio Company of Associates” founded the tonm of 


Marietta. Led by Gen. Rufus Putnam, they were 
chiefly New England veterans of the American Revo- 
lution. In the same year the town that later took the 
name of Cincinnati was founded on the Ohio River. 

In 1796 a company of Connecticut men founded 
Cleveland on land along Lake Erie called the Western 
Reserve. This strip had been reserved by Connecticut 
when it surrendered its other claims to lands in the 
west (see Connecticut). People began settling so fast 
in the Ohio region and in other parts of the North- 
west Territory that a territorial legislature was es- 
tablished in 1799 (see Northwest Territory). 

For a long time historians differed on the date 
that Ohio became a state. Congress passed an enab- 
ling act on April 30, 1802. A convention at Chilli- 
cothe on Nov. 29, 1802, adopted a constitution. 
Congress extended federal laws over the state on 
Feb. 19, 1803. Ohio’s first legislature convened at 
Chillicothe on March 1, 1803. The state legislature 
in a resolution in 1902 accepted March 1, 1803, as 
the date that Ohio entered the Union, and Congress 
did likewise in a resolution passed in 1953. ' 

For years Ohio’s northern boundary was in dispute. 
Both Ohio and Michigan claimed an area including 
Toledo. The controversy resulted in the “Toledo 
War.” The militia of both states was called out and 
war threatened. In 1836 Congress awarded the area to 
Ohio and gave Miehigan the Upper Peninsula. 

Ohio was a nonslavery state by terms of the Ordi- 
nance of 1787. The state was first settled by people 
from New England and Middle Atlantic states, who 
were strongly antislavery. They aided slaves to make 
their way to Canada through the “underground rail- 
road.” During the Civil War, Ohio furnished 340,000 
men to the Union, about half the state’s able-bodied 
men. (See also chronology in Ohio Fact Summary; 
United States, section “North Central Plains.”) 
Ohio river. Of the two great tributaries that 
flow into the Mississippi, the Ohio, though shorter in 
length, is vastly more important than the Missouri. 
The Ohio drains a smaller basin but discharges more 
water than the Missouri. It traverses 981 miles and 
drains 203,900 square miles in 14 states in the na- 
tion’s greatest industrial and farming region (for 
drainage basin map, see United States). It serves 
such mighty industrial centers as Pittsburgh, Wheel- 
ing, Cincinnati, and Louisville. It taps extensive 
coal fields along its course and carries petroleum 
from oil fields in the southwestern United States to 
refineries and markets in the East. Fleets of barges 
and diesel towboats carry coal, coke, oil, gasoline, 
stone, cement, sand and gravel, lumber, and non 
and steel. 

Two canals, now abandoned, once connected t e 
Ohio with Lake Erie — one from Portsmouth by nay 
of Columbus to Cleveland, the other from Cin- 
cinnati by way of Dayton to Toledo. _ 

This useful river is formed by the junction of 
Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Pittsburg' j 
Pennsylvania. It flows southivesterly to Cairo, m 
where it empties into the Mississippi- It 



- 363 B 


OKLAHOMA 


northwestern boundary of West Virginia, the northern 
boundary of Kentucky, and the southern boundary of 
Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Its principal tributaries 
are the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, Little Miami, 
Beaver, and Wabash from the north; and the Kana- 
wha, Little Kanawha, Big Sandy, Licking, Kentucky, 
Green, Cumberland, and Tennessee from the south. 

The picturesque Ohio sweeps in majestic curves. 
Through grain fields and wooded hills, it twists and 
turns until it almost encircles some spots. Numerous 
islands, some under cultivation, divide the waters 
of the river. Of these the most famous is Blenner- 
hassett, near Parkersburg, W. Va. It was the site of 
Aaron Burr’s alleged treason plot (see Burr). 

The Ohio has caused many disastrous floods. The 
most serious were in 1913, 1936, and again in 1937, 
w’hen there was 410 million dollars damage. Floods 
can be severe because the basin lies in a path of 
North American storms. Steep-sided mountains, nar- 
row valleys, and rain falling on melting snow aggra- 
vate floods. Damage is high because many cities lie 
along the river. Since 1936 Congress has authorized 
flood control projects, including reservoirs and lev- 
ees, at a cost of ij billion dollars. 

Formerly the river was impeded by falls, sandbars, 
and snags, and from June to November the w'aters 
were too low for navigation. After vast expenditures 
on engineering projects, the Ohio is now virtually one 
long canal, with a channel 9 feet deep and 500 to 


750 feet wide. Its bank-to-bank wddth varies from 
890 feet near Pittsburgh to 5,910 feet near its mouth. 
There are 46 dams and locks. At the Falls of the 
Ohio (actually rapids), near Louis^dlle, Ky., the chief 
navdgation hazard has been removed by building 
a dam and a canal around the falls, together costing 
815,758,000. A hydroelectric plant operates at the 
dam. The river’s average flow is three miles an 
hour. Thirty-seven miles from its mouth, the average 
discharge is 248,600 cubic feet a second. 

La Salle may have discovered the Ohio, about 1670, 
w'hen he is supposed to have descended it at least 
as far as Louisvdlle. The river remained little known 
until it became important in the struggle for the in- 
terior between the French and Enghsh, with the 
English gaining control in 1763. After 1768, settlers 
from Virginia followed the river. Ten years later, 
George Rogers Clark set out from the falls at Louis- 
ville for the conquest of Forts Kaskaskia and Vin- 
cennes. 

In 1783 the Ohio country became a part of the 
United States, and in 1787 the organization of the 
Northw'est Territory opened the region to settlers. 
The first great tide of western immigration swept 
along this course. The first steamboat descended 
from Pittsburgh in 1811, and until the Civil War 
steamboat traffic on the Ohio was important to the 
Middle West. Even now the river carries about 
50 million tons of freight a year. 


INDIANS WHITES in OKLAHO MA’S HISTORY 



QKLAHOMA. Youthful, vigorous Oklahoma — it 
sprang full-grown into being. For half a century the 
tide of white immigration surged about its boundaries 
without being able to enter. Then in 1889 the Federal 
government opened the land, and the flood poured in. 

Until 1889 the entire country w’as knowm as Indian 
Territory. It w’as an area reserved as a last home for 
Various tribes of red men who had been driven there 
from the southern and western states. They had been 
assigned all but a small portion in the center of the 
area — a part known as the original “Oklahoma, 
"hich in the language of the Choctaw Indians meant 


“red people.’’ For years w'hite settlers w’anted to get 
land in this portion of the public domain. Finally 
Congress fixed the date upon which they might enter 
to stake out homesteads and other claims. The date 
set was April 22, 1889. 

Some of these land-hungrj^ people had put all their 
money into obtaining the best horses they could find. 
Others had slower-moving ponies and mules. Still 
others had covered wagons or carriages. A few" were 
luck3’- enough to have tickets on the Santa Fe Railroad, 
the only line then penetratmg the Oklahoma countrj'. 
Manj", less fortunate than the rest had to travel on foot. 



OKLAHOMA 


, _ i!03 

|C OLD RAX) o 


364 


THE VIGOROUS YOUNG STATE 


OKLA H O M a 


P“‘"‘ *” ‘he extreme 
northwest, Oklahoma slopes gently down- 
ward to the south and southeast. The low- 
River in the extreme 
southeast. The state’s great shelving plain 
f few highland areas— the 
Wichita Mountains in the southwest, the 

nart^nnd ®°“‘h central 

part, and the Ouachitas in the southeast. 


_ At noon April 22, 1889, a shot 
signaled that the area was open to 
settlement. The first “Oklahoma 
run” was on. Many tried to get to 
the best land sooner than the offi- 
cial opening day. From this came 
the nickname, the “Sooner State.” 

Shortly after the gun smoke had 

cleared away, the leaders on tlie 

fastest horses were out of sight. The multitude 
followed, spreading out over the vast prairie 
All eagerly staked out their claims to land. 

Towns sprang up before night. On the first 
evening thousands camped on the sites of 
Guthrie and Oklahoma City. In a week a new 
part of the nation’s West had been created. 
Settlers continued to pour in from neighboring 
states. For nearly a year there was no area- 
wide government. In March 1890 the western 
hah was organized as the Territory of Oklahoma. 
From then on as before, new farms and new 



towns appeared like mushrooms, almost over- 
Ijgg STATE CAPITOL AT OKLAHOMA CITY 


night. M new areas were opened for settlement at various 
times, the population went up at an extraordinary rate. To 
increase the land available to settlers, the Federal govern- 
ment made individual allotments to the Indians and bought 
up the surplus land in their reservations — much of it for as 
ow as 15 cents an acre. As a result, several more “runs” for 
^ 1 - competition for claims became so keen 

a 1 was decided to assign them by a system of drawing lots. 
Mteryems of agitation for statehood, Indian Territory and 
UJUahoma Territory were admitted to the Union as the 46th 

state on Nov. 16, 1907. In 





The <!* n — I I — , 

.IV® C»P“ol a‘ Oklahoma City is built in the form of . ... m... . — ' - 

entrance on the south side. Construction waa begun in 19 lfanVwSplltedTl 9 n.““‘” 


1890 when the first census was 
taken, what is now Oklahoma 
had a population of nearly 
260,000. In 1950 the state had 
more than 2,200,000 residents, 
almost nine times as many peo- 
ple as it had 60 years before. 

Oil — Riches Underground 

The remarkable growth in 
Oklahoma's population was due 
not only to farm land but also 
to oil land. Petroleum fields 
had been discovered in Indian 
Territory, the eastern half of 
the present state, as early as 
1890. There was, however, lit- 
tle attempt to develop these 
fields until 1903, when the first 
“oil boom" began. The great- 
est development of the oil in- 
dustry occurred after 1910 as 
the number of automobiles 
in use throughout the country 
increased rapidly. They, 
required vast quantities of 

Continued on page 373 


Oklahoma Facf Summary 


OKLAHOMA (Okla.): Name from 
Choctaw Indian words, oMa, "peo- 
ple,” and humma or homma, “red.” 
Nickname: "Sooner State,” because in 
illegal effort to get the best land, some 
settlers crossed the border "sooner” 
than April 22, 1889, when Okla- 
homa was opened for settlement. 

Seal: Large five-pointed star on the background of 45 
small stars. Each ray of the large star bears a symbol 
of one of the famous Five Civilized Tribes of Indians: 
the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Seminole, Cherokee, and 
Creek. 

Motto: Labor Omnia Vincit (Labor Conquers All Things). 

Flog: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Mistletoe. Bird: Scissor-tailed flycatcher. Tree: 
Redbud. Song: 'Oklahoma’, words and music by 
Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein 11. 

THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital: Oklahoma City (since 1910). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 6. Elec- 
toral votes, 8. 

State Legislature: Senators, 44; term, 

4 years. Representatives, 114 to 120; 
term, 2 years. Convenes Tuesday 
after first Monday in January in 
the odd-numbered years. No limit to session. 

Constitution: Adopted 1907. Proposed amendment may 
be (a) passed by a majority vote of both legislative 
houses, or by initiative action of the people, and 
(b) ratified by a majority vote at a popular election. 

Governor: Term, 4 years. May not succeed himself. 

Other Executive Officers: Lieutenant governor, secretary 
of state, attorney general, treasurer, auditor, all elected; 
terms, 4 years. 

Judiciary: Supreme court — 9 justices, elected at large; 
term, 6 years. Criminal court of appeals — 3 judges 
elected; term, 6 years. District courts — 24; judges 
elected; term, 4 years. County courts — 1 in each 
county; judges elected; term, 2 years. 

County: 77 counties, each governed by a board of com- 
mis.sioners, elected by districts; term, 2 years. 

Municipal: City-manager plan most common; some cities 
have mayor-council plan. 

voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 1 year; 
in county, 6 months; in district, 30 days. 



transportation and communication 

Transportation: Railroads, 6,000 miles. First railroad, 
Missouri-Kansas-Texas line (Chetopa, Kansas, ^ 
Vinita), 1871. Rural roads, 92,000 miles. Airports, 147. 

Communication: Periodicals, 112. Newspapers, 312. First 
newspaper, Cherokee Advocate, Tahlequah, 1844. 
stations (AM and FM), 53; first station, WKl, 
Oklahoma City, licensed April 21, 1921. Teles^ion 
stations, 3; first station, WKY-TV, Oklahoma Ci^, 
began operation June 6, 1949. Telephones, 644,800. 
Post offices, 845, 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 2,233,351 (rank among 48 
states— 25th); urban, 51.0%; rural, 49.0%. Density: 
32.4 persons per square mile (rank— 33d state). 

Extent: Area, 69,919 square miles, including 888 square 
miles of water surface (17th state in size). 

Elevotion: Highest, Black Mesa, 4,978 feet, in extreme 
northwest comer of the panhandle; lowest. Red River, 
at southeast corner of state, 300 feet. 

Temperature (°F.): Average — annual, 61°; winter, 40°; 
spring, 60°; summer, 81°; fall, 62°. Low'est recorded, 
— 27° (Watts, Jan. 18, 1930, and other locations and 
earlier dates); highest recorded, 120° (Tishomingo, 
July 26, 1943, and other locations and earlier dates). 

Precipitation: Average (inches) — annual, 33; winter, 5; 
spring, 10; summer, 10; fall, 8. Varies from about 18 
in extreme northwest to about 56 in southeast. 

Natural Features; Deep, narrow valleys, clear brooks, 
hills (Ozark Plateau) ; parallel ridges, spring-fed streams 
(Ouachita Mountain area) ; remarkable variety of 
rocks (Arbuckle Mountains); high, level tableland 
(Panhandle). Principal rivers: Arkansas, Canadian, 
Cimarron, Kiamichi, Grand (Neosho), North Cana- 
dian, Red, Verdigris, Washita. 

Land Use: Cropland, 31%; nonforested pasture, 36%; 
forest, 24%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, W'aste- 
land, cities, etc.), 9%. 


CROPS PASTURE FOREST ’ OTHER 



Naturol Resources: AgricuUural — fertile soil, varied rain- 
fall for great variety of crops. JndwstrfaZ— petroleum, 
natural gas. Commercial — central location for south- 
western industries and farm products; vacation land. 


OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 
What the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Employed 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 

Agriculture, forestry, and 6shery. . 

155,156 

20.0 

Wholesale and retail trade 

150,071 

19.9 

Manufacturing 

Professional services (medical, le- 

74,119 

9.8 

gal, educational, etc.) 

67,920 

9.0 

Construction 

Transportation, communication, 

58,350 

7.7 

and other public utilities . 

personal services (hotel, domestic. 

53,114 

7.0 

laundering, etc.) 

49,087 

0.5 

Government 

40,724 

5.4 


39,611 

5.3 

Finance, insurance, and real estate. 

22,361 

3.0 

Business and repair sendees 

Amusement, recreation, and related 

20,920 

2.8 

services * • 

7,990 

1.1 

Workers not accounted for 

14,088 

1.9 

Total employed j 

753,51 1 

100.0 




365 




Oklahoma Fact Summary 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 32d) 
Value added by manufacture* (1952), $493,379,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Petroleum and Coal Products . . 
Petroleum refining 

879,875,000 

9 

Food and Kindred Products 

Flour and meal; meat packing; 
bakery products; beverages 

75,969,000 

28 

Machinery (except Electrical) . 
Oil-field machinery and tools 

37.134.000 

19 

Printing and Publishing 

Newspapers; commercial printing 

27,542,000 

23 

Stone, Clay, and Glass Products 
Glass containers; concrete and: 
plaster products 

23,411,000 

20 

Fabricated Metal Products 

Boiler shop products; structural 
and ornamental products 

18,862,000 

26 


•For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 16th) 
Total cash income (1952), $682,100,000 


Products ^ 

1 

Amount Produced 
(10-Year Average) 

Rank 1 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

States! 

Cattle 

708,066,000 lbs. 

1 

9 

Wheat 

73,998,000 bu. 

2 

3 

Milk 

1,147,000,000 qts. 

3 

15 

Cotton lint 

511,000 bales 

4 

11 

Hogs 

305,460,000 lbs. 

5 

16 

Eggs 

110,000,000 doz. 

6 

15 

Com 

28,461,000 bu. 

7 

22 

Sorghums, grain. 

9,068,000 bu. \ 


3 

Sorghums, forage 

1,445,000 tons/ 


3 


•Rank in dollar value tRank in unite produced 



C. Minerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 
Annual value (1951), $607,485,000 
Rank among states — 6th 


Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced | 

Value 

Petroleum 

186,869,000 

bbls. 

8480,250,000 

Natural-gas liquids 

17,542,000 

bbls. 

39,934,000 

Natural gas 

538,756,000,000 

cu. ft. 

28,554,000 

Zinc 

53,000 

tons 

19,456,000 

Coal 

2,223,000 

tons 

13,873,000 

Stone 

6,967,000 

tons 1 

6,918,000 


D. Trade 


Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 

Wholesale 

81,739,200.000 

27 

Retail 

1,640,015.000 

26 

Service 

146,128,000 

23 


EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 2,694; sec- 
ondary, 989. Compulsory school 
age, 7 through 17. State Board of Edu- 
cation composed of state supt. of 
public instruction popularly elected 
for 4-year term, and sLx members ap- 
pointed by the governor for 6-year 
terms. County supts. elected for 2- 
year terms. City boards of education, popularly 
elected, appoint city supts. of schools. 

Private and Parochial Schools; 111. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges, white, 
16; Negro, 1. Junior colleges, 10. State-supported 
schools include the Univ. of Okla., Norman; Okla. Col- 
lege for Women, Chickasha; Okla. A and M, Stillwater; 
Panhandle A and M, Goodwell; Okla. Military Acad- 
emy, Claremore; Langston Univ. (Negro), Langston; 6 
state colleges — East Central, Ada; Northwestern, 
Alva; Central, Edmond; Southeastern, Durant; North- 
eastern, Tahlequah; Southwestern, Weatherford; 7 
junior colleges, located throughout the state. 

Special State Institutions: Whitaker State Home, Pryor; 
Oklahoma School for the Blind, Muskogee; Oklahoma 
School for the Deaf, Sulphur; the State School for the 
Deaf, Blind and Orphans’ Institute (Negro), Taft. 

Libraries: City and town public libraries, 91. Independ- 
ent county library systems, 1 ; 6 counties contract for 
service with city libraries. Library extension service to 
schools, communities, and the blind. Noted special li- 
braries: Oklahoma Historical Society, Oklahoma City; 
Geological Survey Library and Univ. of Oklahoma li- 
brary, Norman; Field Artillery School Library, Ft. Sill. 

Outstanding Museums: Woolaroc Museum, near Bartles- 
ville; Museum of Art and Museum of Zoology, both at 
Univ. of Oklahoma, Norman; Oklahoma Art Center 
and Oklahoma Historical Society Museum, both at 
Oklahoma City; Philbrook Art Center, Tulsa. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

Training School for White Boys, Stringtown; Indus- 
trial School for White Girls, Tecumseh; Training School 
for Negro Boys, Boley; Training School for Negro 
Girls, Taft; State Reformatory, Granite; State Peni- 
tentiary, McAIester. 

PLACES OF INTEREST* 

Callixylon Tree — in Ada; giant fossilized tree stump, 
millions of years old (20). 

Cypress Tree — huge cypress near Eagletown; 56 feet in 
diameter; has lightning rod for protection (27). 

Devil’s Den — natural park north of Tishomingo (2^. 

Dinosaur Quarry — fossil remains of prehistoric dino- 
saurs; in the extreme northwest near Kenton (1). 

Fort Gibson — restoration of historic fort built in 1824, 
national cemetery nearby (14). 

Fort Sill — remains of old army post; museum of rchcs 
of Indian wars; U. S. Army artillery center (19). 

Fort Supply Reservoir — lake constructed primarily lor 
flood control on Wolf Creek near Woodward (7). 

Glass Mountain — west of Orienta; mountain covered iM ' 
tiny crystals, making the slopes glitter in the sun ( I 

Great Salt Plain Reservoir — lake on Salt Fork of the r 
kansas River near Cherokee; wild-fowl refuge w- 

Guthrie — capital of Oklahoma Territory (1890-1907) (1 

Lake o’ the Cherokees (Grand Lake) — near Vini -i, 
formed by Grand River (Pensacola) Dam (6). 

♦Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 



366 


Oklahoma Fact Summary 


CO L O. ! 


QGuymon 

T E X A S 


0 

-I 

X I 

UJ I ' 

5!. 


OKLAHOMA 

^ National Forest 
National Park 
State Park 
Place of Interest 


KANSAS 


Ponca Cifyn 
© ' 


v-:-4 o 


Miami o 


<S> ® Bartlesville ^ 



Lake Texoma — reservoir of Denison Dam; recreational 
area on Red River; near Madill on Texas line (28). 

Murrell Home — near Tahlequah; historic pre-Civil War 
mansion (1845), in Cherokee settlement; n. e. of (14). 

Oklahoma City-State Capitol; State Historical Society; 
Civic Center (see Oklahoma City) (15). 

Pioneer Woman Statue — east of Ponca City; bronze 
memorial honoring early women pioneers (4). 

Salt Creek Canyon — e. of Canton; canyons; caves (11). 

Sequoyah’s Home — north of Muldrow; log cabin of 
famed inventor of Cherokee alphabet (16). 

Turner Falls — near Davis; in Arbuckle Mts.; n. of (26). 

Tulsa — oil wells; Philbrook Art Center (see Tulsa). 

Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge — west of Medicine 
Park; buffalo, elk, deer, Texas longhorns (22). 

Will Rogers Memorial — west of Claremore; museum dedi- 
cated to the memory of the famous humorist (10). 

state PARKS* 

Alabaster Caverns — state’s largest cave; many bats; at (2). 

Beavers Bend — 1,300 acres along Mountain Fork River; 
wide variety of trees, wild flowers, animal life (25). 

Boiling Springs — once pioneer watering place (8). 

Creenleaf Lake — recreation area; southeast of (14). 

^ke Murray — recreational area, largest in state (26). 

^ke Tenkiller — water sports; picnicking; n. e. of (17). 

Lake Texoma— 2,000 acres along lake formed by Denison 
Dam; west of Durant; north of symbol (28). 

LakeWister — fishing, boating, picnicking; s. e. of (17). 

C=age Hills — gorges, glens, bluffs; heavily ■wooded (5). 

yuartz Mountain — rugged granite hills with outcrop- 
pings of quartz; bird refuge; east of Mangum (18). 
obbers Cave — named for cavern, supposed hiding place 
of early robbers; many canyons; game refuge (17). 
Oman Nose — named for Cheyenne Indian chief; swim- 
ming pool and spring-fed lake north of Watonga (12). 

for Cherokee educator; on Fort 
Gibson Reservoir; e. of Wagoner; n. of symbol (14). 

National park* 

acres; springs of medicinal (sulfur, iron, bro- 

^mide) a nd fresh waters; wild flowers; wildlife (23). 
^'umbera in parentheses are keyed to map. 


NATIONAL FOREST* 

Ouachita — 291,509 acres in state; total, 2,424,490 acres 
in Arkansas and Oklahoma; hdqrs.. Hot Springs Na- 
tional Park, Arkansas (21). 

LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

Oklahoma City (243,504): state capital; wholesale dis- 
tribution center; petroleum production; meat packing. 
Tulsa (182,740): “oil capital of the world’’; petroleum 
products and equipment; aluminum trailers; textiles. 
Muskogee (37,289): agricultural and industrial center. 
Enid (36,017): grain elevators; flour milling; oil refining. 
Lawton (34,757): resort city; cement products; Fort Sill. 
Norman (27,006): trade center; University of Oklahoma. 
Shawnee (22,948) : aircraft, electronics, oil, flour center. 
Stillwater (20,238) : farm processing; oil; state college. 
Ponca City (20,180): oil refining; stock-raising center. 
Bortlesville (19,228): oil center; zinc smelting; pumps. 
Okmulgee (18,317): glass; oil refining; food processing. 

THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 
1541 — Coronado crosses what is now 
Oklahoma; claims land for Spain. 

1682 — La Salle claims all lands drained 
by Mississippi (including Okla- 
homa) for King of France. 

1762 — Louisiana repon ceded by 
France to Spain; secretly ceded 
back to France in 1800. 

1802 — Pierre Chouteau, Jr., a Frenchman, establishes 
fur-trading rendezvous on site of present Salina. 
^ 0 Q 3 — United States purchases Louisiana from France. 
1304 District of Louisiana, including Oklahoma, cre- 

ated under administration of Indiana Territory. 

1812 Oklahoma included in Territory of Missouri. 

1819 — Oklahoma included in Territory of Arkansas; 
southern limits of Oklahoma fixed at Red River. 

1820 Choctaw Indians assigned land in Oklahoma by 

Treaty of Doak’s Stand; they occupy land, 1830. 

1821 Sequoyah completes Cherokee alphabet after 12 

years of work; moves to Oklahoma, 1828. 

j 824 Fort Gibson built near mouth of Grand (Neosho) 

River; Fort Towson laid out on Red River. 



367 



Oklahoma Fact Summary 


1829 — Cephas Washburn opens Dwight Mission to edu- 
cate Cherokees, near present Marble City. 

1830— Congress passes Indian Removal Act to move 
eastern Indians to Oklahoma (Indian Territory). 

1832 — Cherokees open schools. Creeks and Seminoles 
sign treaties to settle in Oklahoma. 

1 835 — Comanches and Wichitas sign treaties with U. S. 

1 837 — Chickasaws surrender their land in the East; begin 
moving to Oklahoma. 

1838 — Cherokee Indians in Georgia forced to move to 
Oklahoma; their hardships make their journey 
known as the Trail of Tears. 

1 842 — Fort Washita established on Washita R. to protect 
Chickasaws from unfriendly Southwest tribes. 

1 849 — California gold seekers use trail across Oklahoma. 

1850— Texas cedes to U. S. land north of 36° 30'; later 
forms southern border of Oklahoma Panhandle. 

1852 — ^Tahlequah incorporated under Cherokee law; is 
first incorporated town in Oklahoma. 

1 854 — Oklahoma^Kansas border fixed at 37th parallel. 

1861 — Many Oklahoma Indians side with Confederacy 
in Civil War; fierce local skirmishes. 

1866 — Five Civilized Tribes in treaty with U. S. free 
their slaves and cede western half of Oklahoma 
for settlement by other Indians. 

1868 — Camp Wichita established; becomes Fort Sill, a 
military base against Plains Indians, 1869. 

1 872 — Commercial coal mining begins at Fort McAlester. 

1879 — “Boomers” settle illegally in “Oklahoma lands.” 

1888 — James (“Jim”) Thorpe, born at Prague, becomes 
one of greatest athletes in U. S. history. 

1889 — ^Homesteaders make first “run” into Oklahoma, 
April 22. First schools for white children opened. 
First oil well drilled near Chelsea. 

1 890 — Congress creates a territorial government in west- 
ern Oklahoma; capital, Guthrie; governor, George 
W. Steele. Lead and zinc mining begins in Ottawa 


Co. Panhandle added to Oklahoma territory. 

1892 — ^University of Oklahoma established at Norman. 

1893 — Cherokee Outlet opened to white settlement in 
greatest “run” of settlers to claim lands. 

1896 — U. S. Supreme Court awards Greer Co. to 
Oklahoma after long dispute with Texas. Oil dis- 
covered in large quantities near Bartlesville. 

1901 — Kiowa-Comanche and Wichita lands are last re- 
servations opened to white settlement, August 6. 

1905 — Five Civilized Tribes try unsuccessfully at Musko- 
gee to found new state to be called Sequoyah. 

1906 — Platt National Park created. Delegates from In- 
dian and Oklahoma territories meet at Guthrie to 
draft state constitution. Prohibition adopted. 

1907 — Oklahoma becomes 46th state, Nov. 16; capital, 
Guthrie; first governor, Charles N. Haskell. 

1910 — State capital moved to Oklahoma City. 

1920 — Oil production begins in Osage Co.; soon makes 
Osage Indians rich. 

1 928 — Oklahoma City oil field opened. 

1935 — ^Will Rogers, famed humorist born 1879 at Clare- 
more, killed in airplane crash in Alaska. 

1940— Grand River (Pensacola) Dam completed. 

1943 — Denison Dam on Red R. completed, one of world’s 
largest in volume; forms Lake Texoma, one of 
world’s greatest reservoirs in volume and area. 

1949 — Legislature authorizes admission of Negro stu- 
dents to state university. 

1951 — Government employees required to sign loyalty 
oaths. Flood-control dams completed forming Hu- 
lah Reservoir on Caney River and Tenkiller Ferry 
Reservoir on Illinois River. 

1953 — Turner Turnpike, Oklahoma City-Tulsa, opens. 
Oklahoma receives federal aid in severe drought. 

1954— Dust storms cause wind erosion damage. Voters 
approve extensions of Turner Turnpike toward 
Joplin, Mo., Wichita, Kan., and Wichita Falls, Tex. 


THE FIRST RUN FOR THE RICH LANDS OF OKLAHOMA 



■''’hen the ofScial gunshot signaled the opening of the back, bicycles, in covered wagons — even on foot — to 

UKlahoma country to settlement, thousands of homesteaders claims to the free public land. This painting, ‘Opemng oi 

rushed across the houndary. They came on horseback, mule- homa Territory*, is by Robert O. Lindneux. 


368 



OKLAHOMA 


COUNT/ES 


Adair 
Alfalfa 
Atoka 
Beaver 
Beckham 
Blaine 
Bryan 
Caddo 
Canadian 
Garter 
Cherokee 
Choctaw 
Cimarron 
Cleveland 
Coal 

Comanche 
Cotton 
Craig 
Creek 
Custer 
Delaware 
Dewey 
Ellis 
Garfield 
Garvin 
Grady 
Grant ■ 

Greer 
Harmon 
Harper 
Haskell ’ 

Hnghes 
Jackson 
Jefferson 
Johnston 
Kay 

Kingfisher 
Kiowa 
Latimer 
Le Flore 
Lincoln 
Logan 
Love 
Major 
Marshall 
Mayes 
McClain 
McCurtain 
McIntosh 
Murray 
Muskogee 
Noble 
Nowata 
Okfuskee 
Oklahoma 325,352 
Okmulgee 44,561 
Osage 
Ottawa 
Pawnee 
Payne 
Pittsburg 
Pontotoc 


14,918 

10,699 

14,269 

7,411 

21,627 

15,049 

28,999 

34,913 

25,644 

36,455 

18,989 

20,405 

4,589 

41,443 

8,056 

55,165 

10,180 

18,263 

43,143 

21,097 

14.734 
8,789 
7,326 

52,820 

29,500 

34,872 

10,461 

11,749 

8,079 

5,977 

13,313 

20,664 

20,082 

11,122 

10,608 

48,892 

12,860 

18,926 

9,690 

35,276 

22,102 

22,170 

7,721 

10,279 

8,177 

19,743 

14,681 

31,588 

17,829 

10,775 

65,573 

12,156 

12.734 
16,948 


33,071 

32,218 

13,616 

46,430 

41,031 

30,875 


Pottawatomie 
B ^ 43,517 

Pushmataha 12,001 
Roger Mills 7,395 
Rogers 19,532 

Seminole 40,672 
Swunyah 19,773 
swphens 


N 3 
F 1 
K 6 
F 8 
C 4 
F 3 
K 7 
F 4 
F 3 
H 6 
M 3 
L 6 
B 8 
H 4 
K 5 
F 5 
F 6 
M 1 
K 3 
D 3 
N 2 
D 2 
C 2 
G 2 
H 5 
G 5 
G 1 
C'5 
C 5 
C 1 
M 4 
K 4 
D 5 
G 6 
J 6 
H 1 
G 3 
E 5 
M 5 
N 5 
J3 
H 3 
H 7 
F 2 
J 6 
M 2 
H 5 
N 6 
L4 
H 6 
M 3 
H 2 
L 1 
K3 
H 3 
L3 
K 1 
N 1 
J 2 
J 2 
L 5 
J 5 


Texas 
Tillman 
Tulsa 
^agoner 


34,071 

14,235 

17,598 

251,686 

16,741 


WMhlngton 32,880 
WasWta 17,657 
Woods 14,526 

Woodward 14,383 


J4 
M 6 
C 3 
L 2 
J 4 
N 3 
G 6 
D 8 
E 6 
L 2 
L3 
L 1 
E 4 
E 1 
D 2 


Amber 

America 

Ames 

Amorita 

Anadarko 

Antlers 

Apache 

Apperson 

Arapaho 

Arcadia 

Ardmore 

Arkoma 

Arnett 

Asher 

Ashland 

Atoka 

Atwood 

Avant 

Avard 

Avery 

Bache 

Bacone 

Baker 

Balko 

Banner 

Banty 

Banzet 

Barber 

Bamsdall 

Baron 

Bartlesville 

Battiest 

Beachton 

Bearden 

Beaver 

Bebee 


ClriES AND TOWNS 


Achille 

Acme 

Ada 

Adair 

Adams 

Adamson 

Addielee 

Addington 

Adel 

Afton 

-Mbion 

■Wdcrson 

•nJedo 

Mex 

Alfalfa 

Aline 

Allen 

■Allnwe 

Ahna 

■Wtus 

Alva 


383 

K 7 

115 

F 5 

15,995 

J 5 

299 

M 2 

250 

E 8 

200 

L5 


N 3 

174 

G 6 

10 

L 5 

1,252 

N 1 

302 

J 3 


N 3 

300 

K 7 

120 

F 4 

178 

M 5 

311 

L 5 


D 3 

503 

G 5 

170 

E 4 

385 

F 1 

1,215 

K 5 

200 

M 1 


G 6 

9,735 

D 5 

0,505 

E 1 


Beggs 
Siva 


Belva 

Belzonl 

Bengal 

Bennington 

Bentley 

Berlin 

Bernice 

Bessie 

Bethany 

Bethel 

Big Cabin 

Big Canyon 

Billings 

Binger 

Bison 

Blxby 

Blackburn 

Blackgum 

Blackwell 

Blair 

Blanchard 

Blanco 

Blocker 

Blue 

Bluejacket 
Boatman 
Boggy Depot 


300 

65 

263 

125 

6,184 

2,506 

1,190 

21 

311 

350 

17,890 

1,691 

690 

420 

104 

2,653 

125 

389 

96 

20 

300 

250 

100 

50 

135 

50 

2 

70 

1,708 

75 

19,228 

150 

25 

250 

1,495 

100 

1,214 

35 

25 

200 

361 


51 

91 

205 

5,705 

165 

210 

120 

620 

773 

100 

1,517 

135 


9,199 

700 

1,311 

200 

105 

240 

274 

115 


1,902 

643 

150 

589 

646 

875 

300 

365 

120 

50 

718 

50 

248 

374 

392 

40 

67 

150 

199 

102 

5,400 


Boise City 
Bokchito 
Bokhoma 
Bokoshe 
Boley 
Boswell 
Bowden 
Bowlegs 
Bowring 
Boyd 
Boynton 
Braden 
Bradley 
Braggs 
Braman 
Bray 

Breckinridge 
Briartown 
Bridgeport 
Brinkman 
Bristow 
Britton 
Brock 
Broken Arrow 

3,262 

Broken Bow 
Bromide 
Brooken 
Brooksvllle 
Bryant 
Buffalo 
Bunch 
Burbank 
Burlington 
BumeyviUe 
Bums Flat 
Bushyhead 
Butler 
Byars 
Byng 
Byron 
Cache 
Caddo 
Cairo 


54 


1,838 

258 


175 

88 

1,544 

150 

268 

181 

300 

250 

42 

351 

284 

50 

131 

677 

895 

25 


G 4 
N 7 
F 2 
F 1 
F 4 
L6 
F 5 
J 1 
D 3 
H 3 
H 6 
O 4 
C 2 
J 5 
K5 
K 6 
K 5 
K2 
E 1 
J 3 
L 5 
M 3 
E 7 
A 1 
G 4 
K6 
M 1 
N 3 
K 1 
N 3 
K 1 
N 6 
N 6 
K 4 
B 1 
J 5 
L 3 
D 1 
M 6 
M 5 
L 7 
K 6 
C 4 
N 1 
D 4 
G 3 
N 6 
M 1 
J 6 
H 1 
F4 
G 2 
L3 
J 2 
N 3 
H 1 
D 5 
G 4 
L 5 
L4 
K 7 
M 1 
M 2 
K 6 
B 8 
K 6 
N 7 
N 4 
K4 
L 6 
K 2 
J 4 
K 1 
A 1 
L 3 
N 4 
G 5 
M 3 
H 1 
G 5 
G 2 
M 4 
F 3 
C 4 
K3 
G 3 
H 6 


L2 
N 7 
J 6 
M 4 
H 4 
L4 
C 1 
N 3 
J 1 
F 1 
H 7 
D 4 
L 2 
D3 
J 5 
J 5 
F 1 
E 5 
K 6 
IC 5 


No room on mnn fn,- 


Cal era 
Calumet 
Calidn 
Camargo 
Cambridge 
Cameron 
Canadian 
Caney 
Canton 
Canute 
Capron 
Cardin 
Carlton 
Carmen 
Carnegie 
Camey 
Carpenter 
Carrier 
Carter 
Carter Nine 
Cartersville 
Cashlori 
Castle 
Catale 
Catesby 
Catoosa 
Cedardale 
Cement 
Center 
Centrahoma 
Centralia 
Cerrogordo 
Cestos 
Chandler 
Chaney 
Chattanooga 
Checotah 
Cheek 
Chelsea 
Cherokee 
Chester 
Cheyenne 
Chickasha 
Chilocco 
Choctaw 
Chouteau 
Christie 
Claremore 
Clarita 
Clarksville 
Claud 
Clayton 
Clear Lake 
Clearview 
Clemscot 
Cleo Springs 
Cleora 
Cleveland 
Clinton 
Cloud Chief 
Cloudy 
Coal gate 
Coalton 
Cogar 
Colbert 
Colcord 
Cold Springs 
Cole 
Coleman 
Collinsville 
Colony 
Comanche 
Commerce 
Concho 
Connerville 
Coodys Bluff 
Cookson 
Cooperton 
Copan 
CordeU 
Corinne 
Com 
Cornish 
Council Hill 
Countyline 
Courtney 
Covington 
Coweta 
CowUngton 
Cox City 
Coyle 
Crawford 
Crescent 
Cromwell 
Crowder 
Crum Creek 
Crystal 
Cumberland 
Curtis 
Cushing 
Custer 
Cyril 
Dacoma 


arwin 

avcnport 

avidson 


643 

339 

557 

312 

22 

209 

277 

252 

959 

355 

100 

60 

654 

1,719 

227 

32 

135 

400 

100 

182 

144 

40 

27 

438 

19 

1,076 

75 

154 

124 

66 

100 

2,724 

11 

333 

2,638 

75 

1.437 

2,635 

129 

1,133 

15,842 

775 

355 

658 

35 

5,494 

200 


612 

30 

240 

310 

60 

2,464 

7,555 

125 

50 

1,984 

105 

67 

748 

205 

100 

2,011 

400 

2,083 

2,442 

250 

116 

129 

459 

2,920 

75 

350 

152 

166 

400 

150 

769 

1,601 

83 

250 

360 

49 
1,341 

313 

267 

15 

70 

200 

125 

8.414 

479 

998 

250 

30 

205 

50 
841 
490 


K 7 
F3 
K 5 
D 2 
D4 
O 4 
L4 
K 6 
E 2 
D 4 
E 1 
N 1 
F 2 
E 1 


E 4 
J 3 
D 3 
F 2 
D 4 
J 1 
N 4 
G 3 
K4 
M 1 
C 2 
L 2 
D 2 
F 5 
J 5 
K 5 
M 1 
N 7 
D 2 
J 3 
C 1 
E 6 
M 4 
H 6 
B 1 
F 1 
E 2 
C 3 
G 4 
H 1 
H 4 
M 2 
N 3 
M 2 
K 6 
L3 
G 5 
M 5 
B 1 
K4 
G 6 
F 2 
N 1 
K 2 
D 3 
E 4 
M 6 
K 5 
K4 
F4 
K 7 
N 2 
E 5 
G 4 
K 6 
L 2 
E 4 
G 6 
M 1 
G 3 
J 6 
L 1 
N 3 
E 5 
L 1 
E 4 
M 6 
E 4 
G 6 
L 3 
H 6 
G 7 
G 2 
L3 
N 4 
G 5 
H 3 
C 3 
G 3 
J4 
L4 
L5 
LO 
J 6 
D 2 
J 3 
E 3 
F 5 
E 1 
L5 
H 4 
L 0 
J 3 
E 6 


Davis 

1,928 

H 5 

1 Garden City' 763 *ti 2 

Dawson 

L 2 

Garvin 

155 

N7 

Deer Creek 

209 

G 1 

Gate 

197 

B 1 

Del City 

2,504 

H4 

Geary 

1.614 

F 3 

Dela 

20 

L 6 

Gene Autry 

170 

J 6 

Delaware 

582 

L 1 

Geronimo 

103 

P 6 

Delhi 


C 4 

Gerty 

155 

K 5 

Dennis 

48 

N 1 

Gibbon 

14 

G 1 

Denoya 

25 

J 1 

Gideon 

100 

M 2 

Depew 

719 

K3 

Glencoe 

309 

H 2 

Devol 

152 

E 6 

Glenpool 

280 

L3 

Dewar 

1,015 

L 4 

Glover 

89 

N 6 

Dewey 

2,513 

L 1 

Golden 

150 

N 6 

Deivnght 


J 4 

Goltry 

Goodland 

277 

P 1 

Dibble 

148 

G4 


L7 

Dighton 

17 

L4 

Goodnight 

18 

H 3 

Dill City 

453 

D 4 

Good water 

25 

N 7 

Dillard 

155 

H 6 

Goodwell 

714 

D 8 

Dilivorth 

63 

H 1 

Goodwin 


C 2 

Dodge 

12 

N 1 

Gore 

387 

M 3 

Dougherty 

341 

H 6 

Gotebo 

574 

E 4 

Douglas 

114 

G 2 

Gould 

303 

C 5 

Douthat 

700 

N 1 

Gowen 

525 

M 5 

Dover 

400 

G 3 

Gracemont 

301 

F 4 

Dow 

300 

L5 

Grady 

75 

G 6 

Doxey 

75 

C 4 

Graham 

128 

H 6 

Driftwood 

69 

F 1 

Grainola 

79 

J 1 

Drummond 

314 

G 2 

Grand 

3 

C 3 

Drumright 

5,028 

K3 

Grandfleld 

1,232 

E 6 

Duke 

331 

C 5 

Granite 

1,096 

D 5 

Dunbar 

85 

L 6 

Grant 

351 

M 7 

Duncan 

15,325 

G 5 

Gray 

25 

A 1 

Dunlap 


C 1 

Gray Horse 

70 

J 1 

Durant 

10,541 

K 6 

Greenfield 

191 

F 3 

Durham 

84 

C 3 

Griggs 

10 

C 8 

Dustin 

524 

K 4 

Grimes 

50 

C 4 

Eagle City 

106 

E 3 

Grove 

928 

N 1 

Eagletoivn 

Eakly 

600 

N 6 

Guthrie 

10,113 

H 3 

191 

E 4 

Guymon 

4,718 

D 8 

Earlsboro 

278 

J 4 

Gypsy 

53 

J 3 

East Cushing 450 

J 3 

Haileyyille 

1,107 

L5 

East Duke 

325 

D 5 

Hallett 

120 

K 2 

Echota 

157 

N 3 

Hammon 

621 

D 3 

Eddy 

Editn 

10 

H 1 

Hanna 

325 

L4 


D 1 

Hanson 


N 4 

Edmond 

6,086 

G 3 

Harden City 

200 

J5 

Edna 

25 

K 3 

Hardesty 

201 

E 8 

El Reno 

10,991 

F 3 

Hardy 

17 

J 1 

Eldorado 

732 

C 6 

Harjo 

112 

J4 

Elgin 

Elk City 
EllervUle 

428 

F 5 

Hannon 

20 

C 2 

7,962 

D 4 

Harrah 

741 

H 4 

36 

N 2 

Harris 

192 

N 7 

Elmer 

145 

D 6 

Hartshome 

2,330 

M 5 

Elmore City 

743 

H 5 

Haskell 

1,676 

L3 

Elmwood 

15 

B 1 

Hastings 

285 

P 6 

Empire City 

36,017 

G 6 

Hawley 


G 1 

Enid 

G 2 

Haworth 

254 

N 7 

Enterprise 

200 

M 4 

Hayward 

40 

G 2 

Eram 

39 

L3 

Haywood 

200 

L 5 

Erick 

1,579 

C 4 

Headrick 

144 

D 5 

Estella 

10 

M 1 

Hcaldton 

2,578 

H 6 

Eucba 


N 2 

Heavencr 

2,103 

N 5 

Eufaula 

2,540 

L4 

Helena 

484 

F 1 

Eva 

24 

C 8 

Hendrix 

152 

K 7 

Fairfax 

2,017 

J 1 

Hennepin 

300 

H 5 

Fairland 

699 

N 1 

Hennessey 

1,264 

G 2 

Fairmont 

134 

G 2 

Henryetta 

7,987 

K 4 

Fairvalley 


E 1 

Herd 

26 

K 1 

Fair^iew 

2,411 

E 2 

Herring 

25 

C 3 

Fallis 

105 

H 3 

Hess 


D 6 

Fame 

132 

L4 

Hester 

31 

D 5 

Fanshawe 

305 

N 5 

Hickory^ 

112 

J 5 

Fargo 

318 

C 2 

Highland Park 476 

L2 

Farris 

130 

L 6 

Hillsdale 

104 

F 1 

Fairy 

22 

E 1 

Hinton 

1,025 

F 4 

Faxon 

135 

E 6 

Hitchcock 

166 

F 3 

Fay 

175 

E 3 

Hitchita 

141 

L3 

Featherston 

75 

L4 

Hobart 

5,380 

E 5 

Felt 

53 

B 8 

Hochatown 

180 

N 6 

Fillmore 

100 

J 6 

HockerviUo 


N 1 

Finley 

250 

M 6 

Hodgen 

100 

N 5 

Fittstown 

350 

J 5 

Hoffman 

302 

L 4 

Pitzhugh 

200 

J 5 

Holden viUe 

6,192 

K 4 

Fleetwood 

125 

G 7 

Hollis 

3.089 

C 5 

Fletcher 

875 

F 5 

Hollister 

172 

E 6 

Flint 


N 2 

Hollow 

1 

M 1 

Folsom 

16 

K 6 

Homestead 

95 

F 2 

Foraker 

105 

K 1 

Hominy 

Honobla 

2,702 

K 2 

Forgan 

410 

A 1 

100 

M 5 

Fort Cobb 

605 

F 4 

Hooker 

1,842 

E 7 

Fort Gibson 

1,490 

M 3 

Hopeton 

60 

E 1 

Fort Reno 

35 

F 3 

Howe 

486 

N 5 

Fort SUl 


F 5 

Hoyt 

M 4 

Fort Supply 

293 

C 1 

Hugo 

5,984 

M 6 

Fort Towson 

713 

M 7 

Hulah 


K 1 

Foss 

210 

D 4 

Hulbcrt 

800 : 

M 3 

Foster 

175 

H 5 

Humphreys 


D 5 

Fox 

438 

H 6 

Hunter 

279 

G 1 

FojtI 

146 

M 2 

Hydro 

714 

F 3 

Francis 

271 

J 5 

Idabcl 

4,671 

N 7 

Frederick 

5,467 

D 0 

Indlahoma 

319 

E 5 

Freedom 

Frisco 

332 

D 1 

J 5 

Indianapolis 

Indianola 

10 

314 

E 3 
L4 

Frogville 


M 7 

IngersoU 

78 

F 1 

Gage 

648 

C 2 

Inola 

29^1 

L2 

Gano 

4 

J 2 

Isabella 


F 2 

Gans 

300 

N 4 

Jay 

697 

N 2 

Garber 

957 

11 2 

Jefferson 

179 

G 1 


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ta^arm JOan^'Aj 
o Altai I Antler: 


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I A A”'-’”* Oyrr^ i 



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;ai’^»^rOTT.iie^ 'f'lAK ! JdabelP 


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f ^.7 

To-i I i 


OKLAHOMA 

SCALE OF MILES 







OKLAHOMA Continued 


Jenks 

1,037 

L2 

hIcLoud 

718 

H 4 

Jennings 

338 

J 2 

McMan 

28 

H 6 

Jester 

12 

C 5 

McMiUau 

150 

H 6 

Jet 

371 

F 1 

McQueen 


C 5 

Jones 

476 

H 3 

Mead 

200 

K 7 

Jumbo 

82 

L 6 

Medford 

1,305 

G 1 

Kanima 

65 

N4 

Medidne Park 650 

E 5 

Kansas 


N 2 

Meeker 

672 

J4 

Kaw 

561 

J 1 

Meers 

38 

E 5 

Keefeton 

135 

M 3 

Mehan 

51 

H 2 

Kellyville 

528 

K3 

Meno 

76 

F 2 

Kemp 

158 

K 7 

Meridian 

187 

H 3 

Kemp City 



Merrick 

21 

H 3 

(Hendrix) 

152 

K 7 

Mexhoma 


A 8 

Kendrick 

172 

J3 

Miami 

11,801 

N 1 

Keneiic 

115 

K6 

Micawber 

90 

J3 

Kenton 


A 7 

hlidwest City 


Kenwood 

115 

N 2 


10,166 

H 4 

Keota 

619 

N4 

Milbum 

350 

K 6 

Ketchum 

254 

M 1 

Milfay 

160 

J3 

Keyes 

431 

C 8 

Mill Creek 

299 

J 6 

Keystone 

228 

K 2 

Miller 

32 

L 6 

Kiamichi 

100 

M 5 

Millerton 

250 

N 7 

Kiefer 

275 

K 3 

Milo 

109 

H 6 

Kildare 

155 

H 1 

Milton 

100 

N 4 

Kingfisher 

3,345 

G3 

Minco 

978 

G4 

Kingston 

677 

J 7 

Mocane 

7 

B 1 

Kinta 

283 

M4 

Moffett 

380 

N 4 

Kiowa 

802 

L5 

Monroe 

200 

N 4 

Knowles 

91 

B 1 

Moodys 

20 

N 2 

Komalty 


E 4 

Moon 

150 

N 7 

Konawa 

2,707 

J 5 

Moore 

942 

H 4 

Kosoma 

50 

L6 

Mooreland 

867 

D 2 

Krebs 

1,532 

L5 

Moorewood 

36 

D 3 

Kremlin 

143 

G 1 

Morris 

1,122 

L 3 

Kusa 


L4 

Morrison 

297 

H 2 

Lahoma 

190 

F 2 

Mounds 

560 

K 3 

Lamar 

180 

K4 

Mountain Pk. 418 

E 5 

Lambert 

55 

E 1 

Mountain 



Lament 

594 

G 1 

View 

1,009 

E 4 

Lane 


K6 

Moyers 

100 

L 6 

Langley 

204 

M 2 

Muldrow 

828 

N 4 

Langston 

685 

H 3 

MulhaU 

320 

H 2 

Laveme 

1,269 

C 1 

Murphy 

66 

M 2 

La'wrence 

250 

J5 

Muse 

150 

N 5 

La'wton 

34,757 

P5 

Muskogee 

37,289 

M 3 

Leach 

200 

N2 

Mustang 

210 

G4 

Lebanon 

200 

J 7 

Mutual 

130 

D 2 

lieedey 

558 

D 3 

Narclssa 

100 

N 1 

Leflore 

400 

N 5 

Nardin 

184 

H 1 

Lehigh 

352 

K6 

Nash 

290 

F 1 

Lela 


J2 

Nashoba 

100 

M 6 

Lenapah 

328 

L 1 

Navina 

IS 

G 3 

Lenna 


L4 

Nelagoney 

138 

K 1 

Lenora 

33 

D 2 

Nelson 

45 

L 6 

Leon 

122 

H 7 

Neodesha 


L2 

Leonard 

115 

L3 

New Lima 

52 

K4 

Lequire 


M 4 

New Marshall 386 

G 2 

Lerington 

1,176 

H 4 

(Marshall) 


Lima 

99 

J4 

New Woodttoe 


Lindsay 

3,021 

G 5 

(Woodville) 78 

J 7 

Little Chief 

145 

J 1 

Newalla 

150 

H 4 

Little City 

101 

J 6 

1 Newby 

77 

K 3 

Loco 

236 

G 6 

Newcastle 

175 

G 4 

liocust Grove 730 

M 2 

Newkirk 

2,201 

J 1 

Lodi 

83 

M 4 

Newport 

27 

H 6 

Logein 

21 

B 1 

Nichols 



Lone Grove 

285 

H 6 

Hills 

2,606 

*H 3 

Lone Wolf 

660 

D 5 

Nicoma Park 1.200 

H 4 

Long 

50 

N 4 

Nicut 

50 

N 3 

Longdale 

277 

F 2 

Ninnekah 

250 

G 5 

Lookeba 

206 

F 4 

Noble 

724 

H 4 

Lookout 


D 1 

Non 

81 

K 5 

Louis 


C 5 

Norge 

100 

F 5 

Loveland 

96 

E 6 

Norman 

27,006 

H 4 

Lovell 

73 

G 2 

North Enid 

219 

G 2 

Loyal 

125 

F 3 

N. McAlester 

L 5 

Lucien 

200 

H 2 

N. Miami 

486 

M 1 

Ludlow 

64 

N 5 

Nowata 

3,965 

L 1 

Lugert 

68 

D 5 

Numa 

12 

G 1 

Lula 


K 5 

Nuyaka 

40 

K3 

Luther 

409 

H 3 

Oak Bill 

35 

N 6 

Lutie 

50 

M 5 

Oakhurst 

2800 

L2 

Lyman 

75 

J 1 

Oakland 

293 

J 6 

hlacomb 

123 

H4 

Oaks 

70 

N 2 

hladill 

2,791 

J 6 

Oakwood 

161 

E 3 

Manchester 

190 

G 1 

OberUn 

80 

L 7 

Mangnm 

4,271 

C 5 

Ochelata 

357 

L 1 

Manitou 

293 

E 5 

Octavla 

55 

N 5 

hlannford 

426 

K2 

Oilton 

1,109 

J 2 

Mannsville 

311 

J 6 

Okarche 

532 

G 3 

hlaramec 

184 

J 2 

Okay 

427 

M 3 

Marble City 

285 

N 3 

Okeene 

1,170 

F 2 

51 arietta 

1,875 

H 7 

Okemah 

3,454 

K 4 

5Iarkham 


J 2 

Okesa 

25 

K 1 

Marland 

221 

H 1 

OKLAHOMA 


Marlow 

3,399 

F 5 

CITY 243.504 

H 4 

hlarshall 

386 

6 2 

Okmulgee 

18,317 

K 3 

Martha 

222 

D 5 

Oktaha 

207 

M 3 

5Iason 

130 

K3 

Oleta 

50 

M 6 

5Iaud 

1,389 

J 4 

Olive 

165 

K 2 

5Iay 

143 

C 1 

Olney 

75 

K 6 

5Iayfield 

51 

C4 

Olustee 

455 

D 5 

Maysvllle 

1,294 

H 5 

Omega 


F 3 

5Iazie 

70 

M 2 

Oologah 

242 

L 2 

McAI ester 

17,878 

L 5 

Optima 

97 

E 8 

McCurtain 

705 

M 4 

Orienta 

30 

E 2 

X 5IcLain 

100 

M 3 

Orlando 

262 

H 2 


•No 


room on map for name. 


Orr 

70 

Osage 

425 

Oscar 

20 

Oswalt 

10 

Overbrook 

100 

Owasso 

431 

Paden 

426 

Page 

90 

Panama 

1,027 

Panola 

75 

PaoU 

353 

Park HiU 

150 

Parkland 

65 

Pauls Valley 

6,896 

Pawhuska 

5,331 

Pawnee 

2,861 

Payson 

80 

Pearson 

140 

Peckham 

125 

Peek 

3 

Peggs 

51 

Pensacola 

48 

Peoria 

201 

Perkins 

706 

Pernell 

250 

Perry 

5,137 

Pershing 

62 

Pharoah 

200 

Phillips 

181 

Picher 

3,951 

Pickens 


Piedmont 

120 

Pierce 

200 

Pittsburg 

278 

Platter 

275 

Pleasant Valley 16 

Plunkettville 

100 

Pocasset 

220 

Pollard 


Ponca City 20.180 

Pondcreek 

1,066 

Pontotoc 


PooleyiUe 

150 

Port 

50 

Porter 

562 

Porum 

616 

Poteau 

4,776 

Prague 

1,546 

Preston 

525 

Proctor 

175 

Prue 

160 

Pryor 

4,486 

Purcell 

3,546 

Putnam 

106 

Qualls 

10 

Quapaw 

938 

Quay 

70 

Quinlan 

107 

Quinton 

951 

Ralston 

416 

Ramona 

583 

Randlett 

396 

Rattan 

200 

Ravia 

327 

Reagan 


Red Oak 

568 

Redbird 

411 

Redden 

112 

Redland 

25 

Redrock 

253 

Reed 

200 

Regnier 


Renfrow 

68 

Rentiesville 

156 

Reydon 

331 

Rhea 


Richland 

50 

Richmond 

2 

Ringling 

1,092 

Ringold 

106 

Ringwood 

331 

Ripley 

292 

Roberta 

65 

Rock Island 

110 

Rocky 

366 

Roff 

623 

Roland 

443 

Roosevelt 

679 

Rose 

100 

Rosedale 

136 

Rosston 

85 

Roxana 

25 

Rubottom 


Rufe 

125 

Rush 


Springs 

1,402 

Russell 

63 

Ryan 

1,019 

Sacred Heart 

30 

Saddle 


Mountain 

2 

Sageeyah 

50 

Saint Louis 

290 

Salina 

905 


Sallisaw 2,885 
Saltfork 50 

Sand Creek 38 
Sand Springs 6.994 


H 6 
K 2 
G 7 
H 6 
H 6 
L 2 
J3 
N 5 
N 4 
M 5 
H 5 
M 3 
J 3 
H 5 
K 1 
J2 
J 3 
J4 
H 1 
C 3 
M 2 
M 2 
N 1 
H 3 
H 5 
H 2 
K 1 
K 4 
K 6 
N 1 
N 6 
G 3 
1,4 
1 5 
K 7 
H 3 
N 6 
G 4 
N 7 
H 1 
G 1 
J 6 
H 6 
D 4 
M 3 
M 4 
N 4 
J 4 
1 3 
N 3 
K2 
M 2 
H 4 
E 3 
M 3 
N 1 
J 2 
E 2 
M 4 
J 2 
1 1 
F 6 
M 6 
J 6 
J 6 
M-5 
13 
15 
N 4 
H 2 
C 5 
B 7 
G 1 
M 4 
C 3 
D 3 
G 3 
D 2 
G 6 
M 6 
F 2 
J 2 
K 7 

0 4 
E 4 
J 5 
N 4 
E 5 
M 2 
H 5 
C 1 
G 2 
H 7 
M 6 

G 5 
C 5 
G 6 
J5 

E 5 

1 2 
J4 

M 2 
N 4 
G 1 
FI 
K 2 


Santa Fe 

Sapulpa 

Sardis 

Sasakwa 

Savanna 

Sawyer 

Sayre 

Schulter 

Sdpio 

Scraper' 

SculUn 

Selling 

Selman 

Seminole 

Sentinel 

Seward 

Shadypoint 

Shamrock 

Sharon 

Shattuck 

Shawnee 

Shay 

Sherman 

Sherwood 

Shldler 

Shinewell 

Short 

Shrewder 

Silo 

Simpson 

Skedee 

Sklatook 

Slick 

Smithville 

Snomac 

Snow 

Snyder 

Soper 

S. Cofleyville 
Southard 
Sparks 
Spaulding 
Spavinaw 
Speer 
Spencer 
SpencervlUe 
Sperry 
Spiro 
Springer 
Stafford 
Stanley 
Stapp 
Stacker 
Steedman 
Sterling 
Stidham 
Stigler 
Stillwater 
StilweU 
Stoneblufl 
Stonewall 
Strang 
Stratford 
Stringtown 
Strong City 
Stroud 
Stuart 
Sugden 
Sulphur 
Summerfleld 

S umn er 

Sunkist 

Sweetwater 

S wink 

Tabler 

Taft 

Tahlequah 

Tahona 

Talala 

Tallhlna 

Tallant 

Taloga 

Tamaha 

Tangier 

Tatums 

Tecumseh 

Tegarden 

Temple 

Teresita 

Terlton 

Terral 

Texanna 

Texhoma 

Texola 

ThackervUle 

Thomas 

Three Sands 

Ti 

Tiawah 

Tip 

Tipton 

Tishomingo 

Tom 

Tomy Town 

Tonkawa 

Tribbey 

Trousdale 

Troy 


8 

13,031 
85 
365 
900 
200 
3,362 
700 
250 
50 
21 
700 
58 . D 1 
11,863 J 4 
1,131 
75 
315 
263 
133 
1,692 
22,948 
75 


G 6 
K 3 
M’5 
J5 
L 5 
M 7 
C 4 
L 3 
L4 
N 2 
J 5 
E 2 


Tryon 285 

Tallahassee 209 
Tulsa 182,740 


Tupelo 
Turkey Ford 
Turley 
Turpin 
Tushka 
Tuskahoma 
Tuskegee 
Tussy 
Tuttle 


J3 
L3 
K2 
K5 
Nl 
L2 
A1 
K6 
325 MS 
84 E3 


376 

100 


96 

715 


840 


75 

150 
170 

1,734 

151 
256 

55 

100 

1,646 

337 

527 

452 

233 

75 

213 

300 

100 

665 

1,365 

325 

60 

50 

60 

75 

447 

46 

2,125 

20,238 

1,813 

300 

634 

201 

1,065 

499 

107 

2,450 

303 

105 

4,389 

300 

46 

60 

96 

541 

4,750 

45 

21p 

965 

130 

430 

117 

25 

210 

2,275 

14 

1,442 

50 

122 

616 

25 

1,464 

265 

178 

1.171 
50 
23 

100 

25 

1.172 
2,325 

75 

3,643 

100 

50 


D 4 
H 3 
N4 
K3 
D 2 
C 2 
J4 
J 7 
E 2 
N 6 
J 1 
O 7 
N 3 
C 5 
J 6 
J 6 
J2 
K2 
K3 
N 6 
J4 
M 6 
E 5 
L6 
L 1 
F 2 
J3 
k:4 
M 2 
M 6 
H 3 
M 6 
L2 
N 4 
H 6 
D 3 
M 5 
N5 
F 5 
J 5 
F 5 
L4 
M 4 
J 2 
N 3 
L3 
K 5 
M 2 
H 5 
L, 6 
C 3 
J3 
K 5 
G 6 
J5 
K 5 
H 2 
L. 6 
C 4 
M 6 
G4 
M 3 
M 3 
N4 
L 1 
N 5 
K 1 
E 2 
N 4 
C 2 
H 6 
J4 
E 1 
F 6 
N 2 
K 2 
G 7 
M 4 
D 8 
C 4 
H 7 
E 3 
H 1 
L 5 
L2 
M 2 
D 6 
J 6 
N 7 
N 3 
H 1 
H 4 
H 4 
J 6 


Tuxedo Park 1,179 


G6 

G4 

Li 

E7 

L4 

Hi 

G4 

K7 


Tyrone 261 

Ulan 30 

Uncas 100 

Union 301 

Utica 100 

Talliant 661 M 6 

Vanoss 118 J 5 

Velma 1,034 G 6 

Vera 164 L 2 

Verden 508 F 4 

Verdigris 150 L 2 

Vernon 450 L 4 

Veterans 

Village 3,355 ♦H 2 
Vian 927 N 4 

Vicl 620 D 2 

Vlnco 25 H 3 

Vlnita 5,518 51 1 

Vinson 125 C 5 

Virgil 55 516 

Vi'vian 75 L 4 

Wade 150 K 7 

TTagoner 4,395 51 3 
Wainwrlght 138 51 3 
Waklta 440 G 1 

Walters 2,743 F6 
Wanette 594 H 5 

Wann 99 LI 

Wapanucka 592 J 6 
WardviUe 89 L 5 
Warner 382 51 4 

Warr Acres 2,378 G 3 
Warwick 132 H 3 
Washington 292 H 4 
Washita 45 F 4 

Washunga 91 J 1 
Watonga 3,249 F 3 
Watova 250 LI 

Watson IW N 6 

Watts 267 N 2 

Wauhillau 48 N 3 
Waukomis 537 F 2 
Waurika 2,327 G 6 
Wayne 501 H 5 

Waynoka 2,018 E 1 
Weatherford 3,529 E 4 
Weathers 200 L 5 
Webb 33 D 3 

Webb City 284 J 1 
Webbers' Falls 489 513 
Welch 483 Ml 


Weleetka 

Welling 

WeUston 

"Welty 

Wesley 

WestT^e 

Wetumka 

Wewoka 

Wheatland 

Wheel ess 

VTiitefleld 

Whiteoak 

■Whitesboro 

Wilbmton 

Wildcat 

Willard 

Williams 

Willis 

"Willow ■ 

Wilson 

Wirt 

Wlster 

Wolco 

Woodford 

Woodville 

Woodward 


1,548 
77 
643 
50 
35 
781 
2,025 
6,747 
300 

350 514 

100 ni 

1,939 515 
147 L3 


K4 
N3 
H3 
K3 
LS 
N2 
K4 
K4 
G4 
B 8 


200 

115 

223 

1,832 

700 

729 

100 

105 

78 

5,915 


01 

04 

J7 

04 

H6 

G6 

N5 

K1 

J7 

D2 


WOOUWillu w c 

Wright City 1,121 M 6 

TTT 942 £* * 


Wyandotte 

Wybark 

Wynne 

Wood 

Wynona 

Yahola 

Yale 

Yanush 

Yamaby 

Yeager 

Yewed 

Yonkers 

Yuba 

Yukon 

Zena 

Zincville 

Zde 


242 N- 
50 51 3 


2,423 

678 

65 

1.359 


H5 
K 1 
L3 
J2 


156 MS 

I 

^ 2 ^ 4 

108 KZ 


1,990 

25 

so 


G3 
N2 
N 1 

iV5 


1372} 



- 373 


OKLAHOMA 


gasoline for fuel and oil for lubrication. Within a 
relatively few years the demand for petroleiun prod- 
ucts grew enoiTOously. Petroleum production soon 
became one of Oklahoma’s most important industries. 

The Lay of the Land 

Oklahoma is a part of the great IMississippi basin. 
As is indicated by the eastward-flowing Arkansas and 
Red rivers, the surface is in general a gradual .slope 
to the southeast. The western end of the state’s long 
“panhandle” lies in the Great Plains where the alti- 
tude is almost 5,000 feet. The valley of the Red River 
slopes to as low as 300 feet above sea level in the 
southeastern corner, at the Arkansas boundary. 

The state’s long slope is often 
broken by hilly regions. In the 
northeast the Ozark Plateau ex- 
tends over from Arkansas. The 
Ouachitas, in the southeast, form 
parallel ridges covered with for- 
ests of pine, hickory, oak, and 
other hardwoods. Part of this area 
is included in the Ouachita Nation- 
al Forest. The Arbuckle Moun- 
tains, in the south-central section, 
rise only 700 feet above the plains. 

In this region is Platt National 
Park, noted for its medicinal 
springs (see National Parks). The 
Wichitas in the south- 
west are the tops of 
an ancient range. 

Here is the Wichita 
Mountains Wildlife 
Refuge, a federal 
game preserve with 
herds of wild animals. 

Farm Products 

About one fifth of 
Oklahoma’s gainfully 
employed people are 
engaged in agricul- 
ture, which is the 
state’s leading indus- 
try. Winter wheat, 
cotton, corn, and sor- 
ghum are the most 
valuable cash crops. 

Other important field 
crops are hay, oats, 
and peanuts. 

Soil and average annual rainfall vary greatly in 
different sections of Oklahoma. The Panhandle 
plateau has fertile land but it has less rainfall than 
other parts of the state. Sorghum and broom corn are 
most successful here. East of the Paiihandle is a 
wheat-growing area. Cotton is a specialty in the 
southwest. The central section of the state is suited 
to diversified farming. Corn and oats are grown ex- 
tensively in the east. Fruit, pecans, and vegetables 
tl'dwe in the rich eastern valleys. Cattle, hogs, an 
chickens are raised throughout the state. an 


eggs are also important sources of farm income. In 
average years, Oklahoma’s farm income far exceeds 
its income from manufacturing. 

Mining and Manufacturing 
Today Oklahoma ranks high among the states of the 
Union in petroleum production. Within a 60-mile 
radius of Oklahoma City are more than 5,000 oil wells 
which 5 deld more than half of the state’s total produc- 
tion. This area and other large fields in the state also 
produce natural gas and natural-gas liquids. 

Bituminous coal ranks high in importance. All Okla- 
homa’s coal is mined in the east. Oklahoma is one of 
the leading states in producing zinc and lead. Stone, 
sand and gravel, native asphalt, 
clays, cement, gj^psum, lime, pum- 
ice and pumicite, salt, ground sand, 
and sandstone are also mined. ' 
Petroleum refining is the state’s 
most valuable manufacturing in- 
dustry. Quantities of oil and nat- 
ural gas are not only processed and 
used within the state but also are 
pipelined to refineries and con- 
sumers in other states. 

Other important manufactures 
are meat and grain products, oil- 
field machinerj" and tools, and 
fabricated metals. The manufac- 
ture of glass products, 
such as containers 
and flat glass, is 
another of Oklaho- 
ma’s large industries. 
Towns and Cities 
The development of 
the petroleum indus- 
try in a few years 
transformed Oklaho- 
ma from a state of 
one-street villages to 
one with skyscraper 
cities. Tulsa is now 
one of the nation’s 
biggest oil centers (sec 
Tulsa). It is called 
the “millionaire city” 
because of the for- 
tunes made in the oil 
fields. Oklahoma 
City, the capital, is 
the leading indu.strial and commercial center (see 
Oklahoma City). Turner Turnpike connects the two 
cities. Extensions of this toll road from Tulsa north- 
east toward Joplin, Mo., and from Oklahoma City 
southwest toward Wichita Falls, Tex., and north 
toward Wichita, Kan., were approved in 1954. 

Muskogee, once a fur-trade center, now serves a 
large farm area. Enid is a market for wheat and pure- 
bred stock. Shawnee is an oil, flour-mill, and farm 
center. Lawton is a cotton and oil countr}% Ardmore, 
Ponca City, Bartlesville, and Okmulgee are among 


A SKYSCRAPER CHURCH 



l yyy T,.iga was a “cow town’’ and an Indian trading post, 

ily a few years Tulsa . j jjjg Boston Avenue Methodist 

:,Trch rstriMnfeWe of the modernistic in ecclesiastical buildings. 



GROWTH FROM INDIAN TERRITORY TO A MODERN STATE 




jC- ~fj 













A gang of busy wheat combines raises a cloud of dust as it gathers the number one field crop of the Sooner State. Oklahoma is 
the grain from the rich rolling prairies of Oklahoma. Wheat is one of the top-ranking wheat-producing states in the country. 




Against the impressive sky line at the left may be seen some of “Oil Capital of the World.*^ At the right is a cattle ranch char- 
the oil refineries that have helped to earn for Tulsa the name acteristic of the southern and western parts of Oklahoma 







OKLAHOMA 

gives TULSA ITS WATER SUPPLY 













r,-#^-'-- ■■ j ■ ■• v, -'q 

rA'^:V -■ '■ - - 











Lake Spavinaw, a reservoir 55 miles east of Tulsa in the Ozark Hills, furnishes the cit 7 with all its water. Though the difference in 
elevation is only 90 feet, the water is brought the entire distance by the force of gravity alone. During the peak months 23 million 
gallons of water are consumed daily, with no appreciable drop in the lake level. 


other cities that owe their rapid growth largely to the of New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and Kansas, it 
oil industry of Oklahoma. Norman and Stillwater are also included this Panhandle in Oklahoma north of 
oducational centers in agricultural and oil areas. parallel 36° 30'. Until 1890, when this strip was in- 

Provisions for Education eluded in Oklahoma Territory, it was a part of the 

Within Oklahoma, appropriations for public educa- public domain, popularly called “No Man’s Land.” 
tional institutions draw upon a 85,000,000 fund set up W^ashington Irving himted in this country in 1832 
'Then the territory became a state and upon income n^nd wrote about it in his Tour of the Prairies’; “In 
from public lands. f'f'® oft-vaunted regions of the far West . . . there is 

^^foday Oklahoma has 12 state-supported colleges, to be seen neither the log house of the white man 
^ese include the University of Oklahoma established nor the wigwam of the Indian. . . . Over these fertile 
in 1892 at Norman, an agricultural and mechanical wastes still roam the elk, the buffalo, and the wild 
<=oilege at Stillwater, six teachers colleges, and Lang- horse in all their native freedom. These are the 
ston University (Negro). Among other colleges for hunting grounds of the tribes of the far West.” 

^hites are Oklahoma City University, University of From Indian Territory to Statehood 

^Isa, Oklahoma Baptist University at Shawnee, and In 1830 this region was recognized by Congress as 
Phillips University at Enid. “unorganized or Indian territorj'.” Here 

History of the State Indians from east of the Mississippi were to be seU 

InquestofthefabledrichesofQuivira, the Spaniard tied. In anticipation of the removal of the Indians 
Coronado in 1541 hurried through what is now Oklaho- to these lands. Fort Gibson and Fort Towson had been 
ina. Here the Frenchman De la Harpe camped in 1719. built in 1824. Tire Five Civilized Tribes— the Cher- 
'Ihe Louisiana Purchase of 1803 embraced all Okla- okees. Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, and Seminoles 
™ina except the long narrow strip in the northwest, —were forced to move from Georgia, Alabama, .Missis- 
strip originally belonged to Texas. Vlien Texas sippi, and Florida to Oklahoma. Their tragic journey 
1850 sold to the United States territory now part from 1828 to 1846 is known as the Trail of Tears. 


OKLAHOMA 


376 


Many Indians died from exposure, poor food, and dis- 
ease. In their new home, the Indians prospered. Each 
tribe or nation governed itself by its own laws and 
courts. They improved their farms and built schools. 

In 1828 Sequoyah, the great Cherokee, came to 
Oklahoma. He had invented the Cherokee alphabet in 
1821 and now he taught it to his people. Within a 
few years the Cherokee nation became literate. 

Many of the Indians owned slaves, and in the Civil 
War their sympathies were with the South. At the end 
of the war these “rebel” tribes were forced to free 
their slaves and to cede back to the United States 
much of their western territory. This land became the 
home of many tribes from the western plains north of 
what is now Oklahoma. 

In the Wichita Mountains, Sheridan, Custer, and 
McClellan campaigned against the Wichitas, Coman- 
ches, and Kiowas in 1850-60. At Fort Sill near Law- 
ton, the noted Apache chief Geronimo was held pris- 
oner for years before his death in 1909. 

After 1867, cattle were driven from the ranches of 


Because the Federal government was unable to keep 
out white settlers, it finally purchased title to the 
land of the Creeks and Seminoles. In 1889 the govern- 
ment opened the area to white settlement, and 
100,000 farm seekers rushed in to stake out claims 
In 1890 a territorial government was set up. ' 

When statehood was first considered, the Five Chd- 
lized Tribes made efforts to form a separate state. 
However, in 1907 they finally joined with Oklahoma 
Territory to make the present state of Oklahoma. The 
capital was set up at Guthrie and later moved to 
Oklahoma City, its present site. 

From the beginning, residents with Indian blood 
took a prominent place in the affairs of the state. They 
sat in the convention that drew up the state constitu- 
tion in 1906. Since then, they have been elected to the 
state and the national legislatures. 

Discovery of petroleum on tribal lands made some 
Indians wealthy. A small number of full-blooded In- 
dians occupy remote areas. Intermarriage with whites 
is common. The Indians number some 110,000, or 


Texas through Indian Territory over the old Chisholm 
Trail to Abilene, Kan. From there they were shipped 
to Kansas City and Chicago. In the Indian Terri- 
tory, “cattle kings” also leased grazing lands from the 
Indians. These cattlemen were hostile to the “boom- 
ers” who kept trying to set up crop farms in the coun- 
try even though white settlement was forbidden. 

President Hayes had to send troops to drive out il- 
legal homesteaders led by Capt. David L. Payne, 
“the Cimarron scout.” Old homesteaders returned 
and new ones came, all aided by the completion of the 
Santa Fe railroad across the territory in 1886-87. 

OIL IS KING WHEREVER FOUND 





about one third of all the Indians in the nation. 

Oklahoma’s constitution provides for the initiative 
and referendum. Although one of the youngest state 
constitutions, it has more than 40 amendments. Some 
of these provide for employers’ liability for acci- 
dents, child-labor restrictions, regulation of public- 
service corporations, and a balanced budget. (See also 
chronology in Oklahoma Fact Summary; United 
States, sections “The South” and “Great Plains.”) 
Oklahoma city, Okla. The first day that the- 
Oklahoma country was thrown open to settlement, 
April 22, 1889, thousands of men poured into what 
is now Oklahoma City. In a few decades it became 
the largest city in the state. Since 1910 it has been 
the state’s capital and a fast-growing community. 

“Oil” is written in big black letters in the histoiy of 
the community. The city stands above a vast, deep- 
lying pool of petroleum, ranked as one of the richest 
on the continent. Wells have been drilled at the very 
doors of the capitol to tap this flowing wealth. The 





Oklahoma City is underlaid with petroleum deposits, and scenes such as this are common. Oil derricks stand in 
that leads south from the State Capitol. Overlooking them is a statue that commemorates the Pioneer Horseman of eariiei 


377 


OLEOMARGARINE 


large oil and gas companies making their headquarters 
here have helped to finance construction of many of 
the city’s big buildings. 

West of the business district are stockyards, meat- 
packing plants, and many industrial plants that proc- 
ess products of the state’s farms, 
ranches, mines, quarries, and wells. 

They include flour mills, cotton gins, 
cottonseed-oil plants, oil refineries, 
foundries, and factories making air- 
craft, furniture, tools, plastics, paper, 
and oil-well equipment, The Air Force’s 
Tinker Field, to the southeast, is one 
of the world’s largest air materiel and 
plane-repair depots. Oklahoma City 
serves as a wholesale distribution cen 
ter for a wide area. 

At the corners of the city lie four 
large parks connected by a circling 
boulevard. The use of gas as fuel by 
home orvmers and industry keeps Okla- 
homa City unusually clean. In the 
city are Oklahoma City University, 

Oklahoma City College of Law, and 
the medical school of the University of 
Oklahoma. The state fair and a live- 
stock show are annual events. 

In 1927 city-manager government 
was instituted. In the 1930’s a six- 
block area was built up with government buildings and 
an auditorium. An exToress toll road between TuLsa 
and Oklahoma Cit}' was completed in 1953. Revenues 
from wells drilled on city-o^vned land make low tax 
rates possible. Population (1950 census), 243,504. 
Okra. The long, heavily ribbed pods of the peren- 
nial okra plant yield an important vegetable. The 
green pod contains a mucilage used to thicken soups 
and stews. In the southern United States okra soup 
is called “gumbo,” and there the plant also is knorni 


OKRA, OR GUMBO 

I 



The okra pod contains a mucilage 
used to thicken soups and stews. 
The pods also are cooked and eaten 
as a vegetable. 


by that name. The pods can be cooked like asparagus 

OLEANDER SHRUBS FROM OPPOSITE 


Dried, they provide a nutritious winter dish. The 
plants grow from two to seven feet high. The lobed, 
heart-shaped leaves measure 12 inches across, and the 
yellow flower has a red center. Okra was native to 
the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere but now is culti- 
vated widely. In northern climates, 
because the seeds will not sundve win- 
ter’s moist cold, it must be newly 
planted each year. The scientific name 
of okra is Hibiscus esculentus. It 
belongs to the Malvaceae (mallow) 
familj’- and is related to the hollyhock. 
Olean'DER. The flowers of the ole- 
ander make it one of the most beauti- 
ful of the ei'ergreen shrubs. The 
sweet-scented oleander, the Nerium 
indicum, grows to a height of eight 
feet; and the Nerium oleander, to 20 
feet. The oleander is native to the 
warm regions from the Mediterranean 
to Japan and has been naturalized in 
other warm climates. In colder places 
it is cultivated indoors in tubs. The 
flowers of the smaller oleander vary 
from rosy pink to white and are very 
fragrant. The larger species has white 
and yellow flowers. The blossoms of 
both are funnellike, and the leaves are 
shaped like a lance. A milky juice 
exuded by the leaves is an alkaloid poison and has 
been used in medicine as a heart stimulant. Tire 
poison can kill a person, and proper care should 
be taken when handling the leaves. The oleander is 
a member of the Apocynaceae (dogbane) family. 
Oleomar'GARINE {d-le-o-rnar'gd-rm). a butterlike 
spread made of animal or vegetable fats is called oleo- 
margarine or margarine. A French chemist, hlege- 
Mouries, patented the process for making it just be- 
fore the Franco-Prussian War to fill the French need 
for a butter substitute. His substitute could be made 

THE WORLD 



— - fright) shows Algerian oleander blossoms. The oleander 

oleanders flaunt sweet-scented blooms (left). A ciose-up oleander is grown mdoors in great tubs, 

is popular the world over. It thrives m warm climates, in 



OLEOMARGARINE 


378 


THE OLIVE TREE PROVIDES FOOD AND A SYMBOL 



A famous olive tree (left) rises near the Golden Gate of the Garden of Gethsemane in Jerusalem. It is centuries old and was grow- 
ing at the time Christ suffered in the Garden. A California olive tree (right) spreads its branches widely. Through the centuries the 
olive has yielded an important food product and its branches have been symbols of peace, plenty, and victory. 

to sell for less than butter. It had most of butter’s 
food values and its use spread rapidly. 

The first oleomargarine was made from beef fat. 

Later processes used other animal fats and vegetable 
oils. Today most margarine is made from vegetable 
oils, chiefly cottonseed oil. Other vegetable oils used 
are soybean, coconut, peanut, and corn oils. 

By a chemical process called hydrogenation, all color 
and taste are removed and the oils hardened (see 
Hydrocarbons). Pasteurized skim milk, which has been 
ripened or soured with a whole milk culture, is added 
to give a butter flavor. Other ingredients are benzo- 
ate of soda and lecithin. The whole is fortified with 
vitamin A. The mixture is churned until emulsified, 
then chilled, the excess water removed, and salt added. 

The food value of today’s margarine is equal to 
butter, although the flavor of butter is preferred. 

On the other hand, margarine does not become rancid 
as quickly as butter. Margarine is increasingly used 
as a cooking fat and as a substitute for butter. In 
1939 about 300 million pounds were sold in the 


United States; present- 
day sales exceed one 
billion pounds. 

To protect their dairy 
industries, many coun- 
tries imposed licensing 
and taxing restrictions 
on the manufacture and 
sale of margarine. For 
many years Canada for- 
bade its sale. The Unit- 
ed States imposed its 
first restrictions in 1886, 
and various states also 
restricted sale. The Fed- 
eral government imposed 
a tax of ten cents on 
each pound of colored 
and one-fourth cent on 


PREPARING OLIVES TO EAT 



The men in the foreground are washing olives in a bath of lye water. 
This removes the olive’s bitter taste. After washing, the olives are 
pickled in the huge brine tanks in the background. 


each pound of uncolored margarine. This resulted in 
a larger sale of uncolored margarine. Coloring matter 
was added to each package, which the buyer could 
mix with the margarine. In 1950 the United States 
removed the tax and license restrictions against 
margarine, and many states eased or eliminated 
their restrictive law,s. 

Olive. The fruit of the evergreen olive tree is one 
of the world’s important sources of fats. Pickled 
olives are table delicacies. Olive oil serves as salad 
dressing, as a spread in place of butter, and as a 
cooking fat. The oil also is used in making soap, 
as fuel, and for some industrial purposes. 

The olive tree was native to Asia Minor. In ancient 
times its cultivation spread to North Africa and south- 
ern Europe. In Greece the olive became sacred to 
Athena, and the olive branch is still a symbol of peace 
and plenty (see Athena). The Greek winners m 
Olympic Games were crowned with wreaths of olive 
leaves (see Olympic Games). The^ Greeks 
and Romans cleansed themselves with olive oil. 

Today Spain is the 
world’s largest grower of 
olives. Olives now are 
grown in South Africa, 
China, Peru, Chile, Cen- 
tral America, Mexico, 
Australia, and the Unit- 
ed States. 

California produces 99 
per cent of the olives 
grown in the Unite 

States. Spanish priests 

brought the first olives 
to the San 
Alission, and today the 
state has some 25,009 
acres planted in olivte. 
In California orchards 
the trees are spaced 




379 — OLYMPIC GAMES 


from 25 to 40 feet apart and usually are irrigated. 
New trees are started from four- to five-inch long 
pranings. These are planted in sand under artificial 
heat. After they have rooted, the tiny trees are 
transferred to a nursery. There they grow for tw^o 
or three years before being transplanted in an orchard. 
Seven more years pass before the trees bear olives. 
The trees mature in 25 to 30 years, and some live 
more than 1,000 years. 

Olives are hand-picked, and in America they are 
separated by machines into sizes called super tolos- 
sal, colossal, jumbo, giant, mammoth, extra large, large, 
medium, and standard. Both green and ripe olives 
are soaked in a lye solution to remove a bitter taste, 
then washed. They are soaked for several days in 
big brine (salt water) vats. Ripe olives are darkened 
in the bath by aerating the brine. Olives are packed 
in brine in jars and cans. Oil is pressed from the 
small fruits. More than half of California’s aimual 
yield is pressed for oil. The United States imports 
more olives and olive oil than it produces. 

The olive tree grows to a height of about 25 feet. 
It has a gray bark and thick smooth leaves that are 
green above and white underneath. Olive wood is hard 
and finely grained, and cabinetmakers use it for or- 
nament. The scientific name of the common olive tree 
is Oka europaea; it is a member of the Oleaceae family. 
Olympia, Wash. Although it is about 190 miles 
from the point where Puget Sound opens upon the Pa- 
cific Ocean, Olympia, the capital of the state of Wash- 
ington, is a busy port. It lies on Budd Inlet, at the end 
of Puget Sound’s southernmost arm, 45 airline miles 
southwest of Seattle. The Port of Olympia Terminal 
stretches for 2,000 feet along its harbor basin; the 


terminal has transit sheds, cranes, and a cold-stor- 
age plant. 

From the edge of the inlet, Oljmipia forms a semi- 
circle on rising wooded hills. The Des Chutes River 
and Moxlie Creek cut it into three sections. In the 
southernmost of these, atop a broad knoll, is the 
state’s impressive Capitol Group. From the knoll the 
Oly’mpic Mountains to the north and Mount Rainier 
to the east can be seen. The Group, started in 1911 
and completed in 1935, dominates the city. The 
Group has six white sandstone buildings, the highest 
of which is the Legislative Building (for picture, see 
AVashington, State of). In the rear of the Group is the 
Governor’s Mansion. The city has several parks 
within and near it. St. Martin’s College, a Roman 
Catholic institution, is four miles east. 

Government employees make up a large part of the 
city’s workers. Others find employment in the wood 
industries (the city’s production of plywood and 
veneer is one of the largest in the country) and in 
the fisheries. The small Olyunpia oysters are a cele- 
brated delicac 5 ^ 

The Olympia townsite was laid out by Edmund 
Sylvester in 1850. Known first as Smithter and then 
as Smithfield, it adopted its present name in 1851. It 
became capital of Washington Territory in 1853 and 
remained the capital when AA’^ashington became a state 
in 1889. It was incorporated with a population of 
1,489 in 1859. Olympia has the commission form of 
government. Population (1950 census), 15,819. 
Olympic games. Every four years the best ama- 
teur athletes in the world match skill and endurance in 
a series of contests called the Olympic Games. Al- 
most every nation sends teams of selected athletes 


ALL HAIL TO THE WINNERI 



r — : — — . ' — ■ ' , . „ J cheered wildly, the trumpeters blew great blasts on 

here pictures the finish of the foot race, the last ra|t/j„stniments, and the air was. filled with waving olive 

el ancient Greece’s Olympic Games. As the first roMer tnmr^ jj, runmng distance was usuaUy 

orked line, thereat crowd, which had .^ady 

ersed Itself to a high stage of enthusiasm jumped to its 


OLYMPIC GAMES 380 

TWO WINNERS AND A WINNER’S MEDAL 



In 1952 at Oslo, Norway, Andrea Mead Lawrence (left) of Rut- was the Norwegian hero, winning the 1,500-, 5,000-, and 10,00(^ 
land, Vt., won the slalom and the giant slalom ski titles, the first meter ice-skating races. At the right is the gold medal awarded 
woman to win two winter contests. Hjalmar Andersen (center) each winner in the 1952 summer games at Helsinki, Finland. 


to take part. The purposes of the Olympic Games are 
to foster the ideal of a “sound mind in a sound body” 
and to promote friendship among nations. 

The Olympic Games are named for athletic con- 
tests held in ancient Greece for more than 1,000 
years. They were banned in A.n. 394 but in 1896 
they were revived and made international. The reg- 
ular Olympics are held in a large city in the summer. 
Winter sports, added to the Olympic program in 
1924, are staged at a winter resort. The first and sec- 
ond World Wars prevented the Olympics in 1916, 
1940, and 1944, but they were resumed in 1948. 

Olympic Athletes Represent Many Lands 

Through the years the modern Olympics have 
grown steadily in interest. In 1896 teams from 9 na- 
tions competed in 12 events. At the 1948 Olympics, 
59 nations sent more than 5,000 athletes to take part 
in 134 events. In 1952 the XV Olympiad at Helsinki, 
Finland, drew a record number of 5,870 athletes rep- 
resenting 67 nations. They contested for 151 gold 
medals. Russia was among the nations competing for 
the first time. 

Olympic Games emphasize individual achievement. 
There is no formal recognition of any nation as “win- 
ner” of these games; but unofficial team scores are 
kept by most newspapers. On the basis of these scores 
the United States made the most points in the regular 
Olympic contests from 1896 through 1932. Germany 
scored the highest total in 1936 but the United 
States “won” again in 1948. In 1952 the United 
States and Russia staged a close race for national 
honors. Russia led until the last day when the Ameri- 
can athletes rallied to win. 

lAthe winter Olympic Games the highest team 
totjjf,; were scored by the United States in 1924, 
19^, and 1932; by Norway in 1936; by Sweden in 
1948; and by Norway again in 1952. 

The summer Olympics usually consist of boxing, 
canoeing, cycling, fencing, gymnastics, handball, 
horseback riding (equestrian), rowing, shooting (pis- 
tol and rifle), swimming, track and field events. 


weight lifting, wrestling, and yachting. Team sports 
include basketball, field hockey, polo, soccer, and wa- 
ter polo. The winter sports consist of speed and fig- 
ure skating, skiing, bobsledding, and ice hockey. Curl- 
ing was restored to the schedule for the 1952 games. 

The most exacting track and field event is the de- 
cathlon (from the Greek words deka meaning "ten” 
and cathlon, “contest”). Contestants compete in ten 
different running, jumping, and throwing events. The 
athlete scoring the greatest total of points is the 
winner. The 'pentathlon, consisting of five such 
events, was discontinued after 1924. It was restored 
in the 1948 games as the modern pentathlon, based 
upon five military skills — fencing, riding, running, 
shooting, and swimming. The marathon race, cover- 
ing 26 miles 385 yards, honors the ancient Greek run- 
ner Pheidippides (see Marathon). Women take part 
in separate track and field and swimming events. 

Winners Are National Heroes 

One of the most dramatic feats of the modern 
Olympics was the triumph of the United States team 
in 1896. Competing only as unofficial representatives 
of their nation, a ten-man squad hurried to Athens 
barely in time to participate. The Americans then 
startled the world by winning 9 out of 12 events. 

In 1912 Jim Thorpe, an American-Indian athlete, 
became the only man to win both the decathlon an 
pentathlon in one year. Olympic officials later can- 
celed his record when they learned that he had pm* 
viously played professional baseball. In 1936 Jesse 
Owens, American Negro, gained fame by winning 
three individual events. In 1948 Fanny Blankers- 
Koen, of the Netherlands, mother of two children, be- 
came the first woman to win three championships. 

Dick Button of the United States won the^hgu/'® 
skating championship in 1948 and 1952. In 1952 Vic 
tor Tchoukarine, a triple winner, led the Russian 
athletes in dominating the gymnastics. Czechos^ 
vakia’s husband-and-wife team, Emil and 
Zatopek, captured a total of four gold medals m 
track and field events. 


THREE 


— - ■ - 28J e> 

CHAMPIONS IN 


OLYMPIC GAMES 





THE XV OLYMPIAD 



: i!- 


t:c-x:iL 




A star athlete in the 19S2 games was Emil Zatopek (left,) a tireless runner from Czechoslovakia. He won the 5,000- and 10,000-meter 
races and the marathon. In the women’s swimming events, Patricia McCormick of Long Beach, Calif, (center), won both the 
springboard- and high-diving contests. The women’s discus throw was won by husky Ifina Romaschkova of Russia (right). 


The host cities for modern Olympic Games (with 
the location of the winter sports in parentheses), have 
been; 1896, Athens; 1900, Paris; 1904, St. Louis; 1906, 
Athens; 1908, London; 1912, Stockholm; 1920, Ant- 
'verp; 1924, Paris (Chamonix, France); 1928, Am- 
sterdam (St. Moritz, Switzerland) ; 1932, Los Angeles 
(Lake Placid, N. Y .) ; 1936, Berlin (Garmisch-Parten- 
kirehen, Germany) ; 1948, London (St. Moritz) ; 1952, 
Helsinki (Oslo, Norway). The International Olympic 
Committee chose Melbourne, Australia, for the 1956 
summer games and Cortina, Italy, for winter sports. 

Ancient Olympics Dedicated to Zeus 
The recorded history of the Olympic Games began 
in Greece in '776 b.c. The Greeks later took this date 
ns a convenient basis for com- 
puting time. They used the 
olympiad,” or four- 3 mar inter- 
'ul between celebrations, as the 
Puit of their calendar. 

The games were staged in one 
of the fairest spots in Greece — 
the wooded valley of OljTOpia 
■u E!is.^ Here the best artists 
ot the time erected statues and 
juilt temples in a sacred grove 
fouicated to Zeus, supreme 
among the gods. Greatest of all 
■0 shrines urns an ivorj’' and gold 
5 atue of Zeus himself. Created 
J me sculptor Phidias it was 
considered one of the Seven 
bonders of the IVorld (see 
‘-even Wonders of the World). 

her sacrifices had been 
,, ® ^ t.he grove to Zeus and 
. 6ods the athletes marched 
'0 nearb,)’ stadium. At first 
® only event was a 200 - 3 'ard 


dash. Later this was supplemented by the pentathlon, 
a five-fold match consisting of running, wrestling, 
leaping, throwing the discus, and hurling the jave- 
lin. (This was the forerunner of the pentathlon con- 
tested in the modem Olympics.) In time other events 
were added, including boxing and a chariot race. 

The victors were crowned with simple wreaths from 
a sacred olive-tree which grew behind the temple of 
Zeus. According to tradition this tree was planted 
by Hercules (Heracles), the founder of the games. 
The wdnners then marched around the sacred grove to 
the accompaniment of a flute while their admirers 
chanted triumphal songs written for the occasion by^ 
some great poet. When the victors returned to their 

WINNER REPEATS IN 1952 



OLYMPIC GAMES 


382 


OMAHA — GATEWA Y TO THE WEST 



homes they received 
great honors. Cities 
erected statues to them, 
gave them places of 
honor on public occa- 
sions and exempted them 
from taxes. In some 
cities the heroes lived 
thereafter at public ex- 
pense. 

These ancient contests 
also had a religious sig- 
nificance, for the Greeks 
believed that the body 
of man had a glory as 
well as his spirit. They 
thought that men could 
best honor Zeus by de- 
veloping mind and body 
in harmony. The 
Olympics also exerted an 
ennobling influence on 
the life of the Greeks. A 
sacred truce was proclaimed before the opening of a 
festival, and if any cities were at war, fighting ceased 
during the celebration. Men from all parts of the 
Greek world came together on these occasions, 
strengthening friendship and unity. Under Roman 
rule the games continued but relations between the 
Romans and Greeks became so bitter that Em- 
peror Theodosius abolished the Olympics in a.d. 394. 
Omaha, Neb. During the middle 1800’s, a spot on 
the west bank of the Missouri River, now the site of 
Omaha, was the “gateway to the West.” Explorers, 
trappers, traders, gold seekers, and settlers paused 
here for rest and a last inspection of equipment 
before plunging on into the wilds. Frontier store- 
keepers sold the adventurers supplies for the danger- 
ous trek ahead. 

Today Omaha is Nebraska’s greatest city. It lies 
at the eastern end of the state, across the river from 
Council Bluffs, Iowa. From the surrounding large fer- 
tile areas, livestock and grain pour into the city’s 


Top, the Joslyn Memorial Building contains a splendid art collec- 
tion. It is one of the most popular art museums in the United States. 
Bottom, in the foreground rises the administration building of 
Omaha’s giant Union Stock Yards. The receiving sheds are at the 
left and animal pens cover the rest of the area. 


markets. Omaha’s stockyards and meat- 
packing plants slaughter and process about 
4 million animals a year. Its dairies chum 
more butter than those of any other Ameri- 
city. A large distilling plant produces 
millions of gallons of alcohol and many tons 
of corn oil. Lead ore is brought from Colo- 
rado mines to be refined in Omaha’s great 
smelter. Many large insurance companies 
make the city their headquarters. Rail, air, 
bus, and truck lines radiate from the city. 
And Omaha is a wholesale- and retail-trade 
center for a wide-spreading area. 

Omaha has been built into a modem city. 
An extensive boulevard system connects 
its large, beautiful parks. 
It is the seat of the 
University of Omaha, 
Creighton University, 
Duchesne College of Arts 
and Sciences, and a 
Presbyterian theological 
seminary. The great 
Josljm Memorial houses 
a permanent art collec- 
tion and brings guest 
exhibits to the city; the 
memorial also supports 
an extensive art library 
and a fine concert hall. 

Ak-Sar-Ben (the name 
is Nebraska spelled back- 
ward), a civic organiza- 
tion established in 1895, 
carries on many activi- 
ties to promote interest 

in Omaha and Nebraska s 

history and progress. 
They conduct annual 
stock shows, horse-race 
meets, and elaborate 
balls. Boys Town, the famous shelter for homeless 
boys established by Father Flanagan in 1917, les 
about ten miles west of the city. , 

The site of Omaha was the start of an overlan 
route first used by the Indians and later by white men. 
During the winter of 1846-47, some 12,000 Mormon 
camped here before beginning their heroic tre ' ■ 
Utah. Many of the Oregon settlers as well as tnc 
California gold seekers passed through 
From Omaha outfitters the pioneers hought i 

Omaha was called tne 


last supplies for the trail. 

“provisioner of the West.” _ iojU ’ 

The settlement was formally established m ' 
when the Omaha tribe of the Sioux Indians cede 

site to the whites. Omaha was the capital of A e ra ^ 

Territory until it became a state in 1867. 

1923 the city has had the commission form of go 
ment, and in 1946 it adopted long-range P 
for city development. (See also Nebraska.) Popu 
(1950 census), 251,117. 


383 


ONION 


O’NEILL, Eugene Gladstone (1888-1953). From 
his experiences as a sailor, roustabout, salesman, re- 
porter, and actor, Eugene O’Neill drew material for 
his plays. They deal realistically with psychologi- 
cal and social problems. O’Neill as read- 
ily broke theatrical conventions as 
in his life he broke the conventions 
of society. Some of his works are so 
long that audiences must be given re- 
cesses so that they may eat. As a 
dramatist, O’Neill was one of the 
world’s most respected and widely read. 

He was born Oct. 16, 1888, in New 
York City. His father was an actor, 
famed for his role of Edmond Dantes 
in ‘The Count of Monte Cristo’. 

Until he was eight years old, Eugene 
traveled with his father’s company. 

He w'as then sent to private schools. 

As a boy he was shy and often moody. 

He entered Princeton in 1906 but was 
dropped at the end of his freshman 
year for failing three subjects. 

O’Neill determined to see something 
of the world. But before he sailed to 
hunt gold in Honduras, he married. Wiile he was 
gone his wife bore him a son. O’Neill’s hunt uncov- 
ered no gold, and he worked as seaman, salesman, 
and stevedore. In 1911 he drifted back to New York 
City. He did not find regular work or return to his 
wife. lATien money was short, he slept in barrooms. 
In 1912 his wdfe divorced him. 

O’Neill went to sea again, played bit parts for 
his father, and was a reporter for a Connecticut paper. 
His editor liked his modesty and literary style. But 
O’Neill had contracted tuberculosis on his wander- 
ings. Late in 1912 he entered a sanatorium. 

Here he read Ibsen and Strindberg and, after a 
partial recovery, began writing one-act plays. The 
Provincetown Players staged some of these. Three 
were published in The Smart Set, a magazine edited 
George Jean Nathan and Henry L. Mencken. 
0 Neill married a second time in 1918. He had two 
children by his second wife; again he was divorced. 



EUGENE O’NEILL 
O’Neill was one of America’s best- 
known dramatists. He won both the 
Nobel and the Pulitzer prizes. 


In 1920 his full-length pla}’ ‘Beyond the Horizon’ 
won the Pulitzer prize. In 1922 ‘Anna Christie’ tvon 
another. O’Neill’s philosophy rejected formalized re- 
ligion, but he believed in spiritual values. He liked 
physical exercise and to tvatch sports 
events. Yet he was much alone. In 
1928 ‘Strange Interlude’ tvon him a 
third Pulitzer prize. He journeyed 
to Paris and there in 1929 he mar- 
ried a third time. In Paris he began 
‘Mourning Becomes Electra’. It was 
first played in 1931. 

In 1936 O’Neill was awarded the 
Nobel prize in literature, the first 
American dramatist to win it. For a 
time he abandoned work, but in 1946 
- his very successful ‘The Iceman 
Cometh’ was produced. Other w'ell- 
known works are ‘The Emperor 
Jones’ (1920) ; ‘Desire under the Elms’ 
(1924); ‘The Great God Browm’ (1926); 
‘Marco Millions’ (1927); and ‘Ah, 
Wilderness!’ (1933), his only comedy. 
Onion. Men cultivated onions be- 
fore the beginning of history. Ancient 
Eg3T)t sacrificed one variety to a god. The onion, 
native to Southw’estern Asia, now is cultivated 
over much of the world. It needs a fertile, well- 
worked soil that is moist in the early season and dry in 
the late. Either seeds or sets are planted. Sets are 
small bulbs or a clove of a separable bulb, or bulbels 
(which appear in the growing onion’s flower cluster). 
Green, or table, onions are pulled before maturity. 
Kipe onions are kept in the ground until the tops 
wither. Then the bulbs are pulled. There are many 
onion varieties, including the mild Spanish and 
Bermuda, and the more strongly flavored Danvers, 
Wethersfield, and Southport. A hybrid onion has 
been developed that yields from 46,000 to 75,000 
pounds to an acre. The United States crop is about 
800,000 tons a year. The common onion (scientific 
name. Allium cepa) belongs to the lily family 
Liliaceae. Closely related plants are the shallot, the 
chive, the leek, and the garlic. 



unions 


ARE GROWN OVER MOST OF THE jj bulbels (small bulbs) grow among or in place of the 

Sy,* Ereat field of onions pushes its blossoms high »n the au. vm planted in the spring after their appearance. Onion 

iIos5 ’ hh'on blossoms or “buds” are shown in a close-up. The ^ ,j,e highest growing to about four feet, 

range in color from lilac to white. In some onion pnui 




ONTARIO 


384 


rhe INDUSTRIAL HEART of the CANADIAN NATION 


£x/en(.— Greatest length east to 
west, about 1,000 miles; north to 
south, 1,07S miles. Area, 412,582 
square miles, includmg 49,300 
sQuaxe miles of water surface. 
Population (1951 census), 
4,597,542. ^ . 

Natural Features.— OreaX Lakes 
(Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario) 
and St. Lawrence River; James 
Bay (an arm of Hudson Bay). 
Lakes: Nipissing, Nipigon, Lake 
of the Woods, and numerous les- 
ser lakes. Principal rivers: Otta- 
wa (entering St. Lawrence), Al- 
bany, Moose, Attawapiskat, and 
Severn (entering Hudson ^V)- 
Highest point. Tip Top Hill, 
2,120 feet; lowest point, sea 
level, at James Bay. 

Producfs.— Automobiles, meat, 
pulp and paper, nonferrous metal 
smelting, iron and steel, farm 
implements, electrical machmery, 
rubber goods, petroleum prod- 
ucts; hay and clover, oats, wheat, 
mixed grains, alfalfa, potatoes, 
fodder corn; milk, hogs, cattle, 
eggs, poultry; nickel, gold, cop- 
per, sand and gravel, iron ore, 
platinum; lumber; furs; fish. 

Cifies.— Toronto (capital— 675,754, 
1951 census; 1,117,470, after 
1953 federation with suburbs); 
Hamilton (208,321); Ottawa 
(202,045); Windsor (120,049); 
London (95,343). 



This roiling farmland is typical of Old Ontoio the peninsula m the so^^ fraU ^^owiag: 
The rich soil and favorable climate are ideal for mixed farmmg, dairymg, ana iim s 


O ntario, Canada. Canada’s richest and most 
populous province is Ontario. It has nearly one 
third of Canada’s people. Half of Canada’s manufac- 
tures, a third of its minerals, and a third of its farm 
wealth come from Ontario. The nation’s political life 
centers in Ottawa, capital of the nation. Toronto, 
capital of Ontario, became Canada’s largest city in 
1953 by federation with its suburbs. 

Ontario sweeps for a thousand miles from Quebec 
on the east to the prairies of Manitoba on the west 
and for almost 1,100 miles northward from the Great 
Lakes to Hudson Bay. Its vast area of 412,582 
square miles is nearly five times larger than Great 
Britain and as great as the section of the United 
States from Illinois to Maine. 

The land is divided into two regions. These are the 
southeastern peninsula, or the Wedge; and the Lau- 
rentian Blateau, also called the Canadian Shield. 
Popularly, they are known as Old and New Ontario. 

Old Ontario is a wedge-shaped peninsula which juts 
southward between Lake Huron on the west and Lakes 
Erie and Ontario on the east. The tip of the wedge 
almost touches Detroit, Mich., across the Detroit 
River. The base of the wedge is on the Ottawa River 
and the Quebec boundary. In this area are the great 
majority of Ontario’s people, practically all its agri- 
culture, and most of its manufacturing. 

Northwest of the peninsula lies the major portion 
of Ontario’s area. It is part of the vast Laurentian 
Plateau (see Laurentian Plateau). This is a rocky 
upland v-ith countless lakes and rushing streams and 
blanketed with evergreen forests. The ancient pre- 
Cambrian rocks of the plateau are great treasure 
chests, producing enormous fortunes in minerals. The 
rapid development of the mines and smelters, the 
lumber, pulp, and paper mills, and the growth of 


population around these centers have earned the 
plateau the title of New Ontario. 

Agriculture in New and Old Ontario 
The southern peninsula leads in agriculture because 
it is the only section of the province with both a miia 
climate and a deep, fertile soil. Like the nearby s a 
of Michigan and New York, its climate is tempered 
by westerly vdnds that blow across the Grea a ■ 
The region specializes in growing fruits, grapes, a 
vegetables. It is famous for its dairy and meat proa- 

nets. It makes three fourths of the cheese pro uc 

Canada. Hay, alfalfa, potatoes, tobacco, and oars, 
wheat, and other grains are leading crops. 

The thin, sandy soils of the Laurentian P a 
unsuited to agriculture. Scattered clay poc 
support a few farms, but they are ^ , 

forests. The long, severe winters and lac o 
munication also discourage settlement. , 

On the northern edge of the plateau, bm e , 
south and west shores of James Bay, is t ® , . 

clay belt of northern Ontario. This is a s rip . 
land under 500 feet in elevation and varying i 
from 100 to 200 miles. The soil is a deep, 
Temperatures are extreme, but not as severe 
south where the altitude is higher. Severa P .. 
experimental farms are demonstrating t c pc 
of mixed farming adapted to the short S^ouicg 
but some 16 million acres of rich cgncultura 
still virtually untouched. Air express may 
problem of settlement in this distant region 
ing in farmers’ supplies and flying the pro uc 

Busy Industries in Old Ontario 
Manufacturing has been drawn to ® x ‘ ted 

insula for several reasons. The large and con _ ^ 
population provides a ready labor inar 'e . 
hand are raw materials — timber and mme 



ONTARIO 


385 — - — 

GRAIN ELEVATORS OF PORT ARTHUR-FORT WILLIAM 



^ . MTnUe Sunenor are the world’s greatest shippers of grain. It 

The twin ports of Port Arthur and Fort William gj-t-.g.- on the Great Lakes to eastern mills and export points, 

comes from the wheat fields of western Canada and goes by freighters on rne urea 

The chief cities of the Laurentian Plateau are the 
mining centers of Sudbui’y, Kirkland Lake, and Isorth 
Bay; Sault Sainte Marie on the ship canal between 
Lakes Superior and Huron; and the twin cities of Port 
Arthur and Fort William, world’s greatest grain-ship- 
ping ports, at the head of Lake Superior (see Fort Wil- 
liam; Sault Sainte Marie). Most of the cities and 
towns are strung along the two railroad lines, the 

Canadian Pacific and the 


north and farm products in the neighboring countrj’- 
Eide. Cheap fuel and cheap transportation are avail- 
able. Coal is lacking, but the region is abundantly 
supplied vith water power from Niagara Falls^ and 
from the rapids of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers 
and their tributaries. The Ontario Hydroelectric Pow- 
er Commission is one of the world’s largest power pro- 
ducers. It is a cooperative enterpiise, owned and oper- 
ated by the participating 


municipalities, which pro- 
vides electricity to con- 
sumers at cost. 

The Great Lakes carry 
iron from the mines of 
klinnesota and western 
Ontario, and coal from 
Pennsylvania directly to 
the peninsula’s steel mills. 
Tlie products of mill and 
factory are distributed by 
air, rail, and water to all 
sections of the country, 
(See Canals; Great Lakes, 
Sault Sainte Marie; Wel- 
land Ship Canal.) The 
leading industries are au- 
tomobiles, meat packing, 
pulp and paper, nonferrous 
[uetals, iron and steel, farm 
■uiplements, electrical ma- 
chinery, and rubber goods. 
Along the shores of the 


uuainai cities — ioronto; 

Hamilton, center of Can- , 

a^’s steel industry; Windsor, center of the autom^ 
hile industry; Kingston, and Sarnia. In the ear 
the peninsula is London, metropolis of the "uh apic 
^ral area; and to the north on the Ottawa ii 
Ottawa, capital of Canada (see Hamilton, iGngs 1 
tendon; Ottawa; Toronto; Windsor). 


TORONTO’S PLEASING_^KY LINE 



Canadian National, which 
run east and west across 
the southern half of the 
plateau. Only one line, 
the provinciallj’ owned 
Temiskaming and North- 
ern Ontario, runs north, 
from North Bay to Mooso- 
nee on James Baj’. The 
fiist motor road across 
the plateau, the Ontario 
section of the Trans- 
Canada Highway, was 
opened in 1942. 

Mineral and Forest 
Resources 

Ontario leads all the 
provinces in the total 
production of minerals. 
Only a small part of the 
plateau has been pros- 
pected, and possibilities 
for future production 
are great. The mines 
at Sudbury jdeld 90 per 
cent of the world’s nickel 
and almost half its platinum. Porcupine Kirkland 
T -,L'P Red Lake, and other Ontano fields make Canada 
third’ in the world’s production of gold. Cobalt is fa- 
mous for its silver and cobalt. At Steep Rock Lake, 
west of Port Arthur, high-grade iron ore is extracted. 
Lead, copper, and zinc are abundant, and uranium ore 


ONTARIO 


386 


is also mined. The southern peninsula produces natu- 
ral gas, petroleum, feldspar, mica, salt, and clay. 

The forests are another of Ontario’s profitable 
resources. The province has under supervision and 
fire protection more than 150 million acres of timber- 
land, and vast areas in the north are still unsurveyed. 


WAR BRINGS SYNTHETIC RUBBER TO SARNIA 



The Polymer plant near Sarnia was built during the second 
World War to manufacture synthetic rubber. The sphere in 
the foreground is one of 13 in which hydrocarbons are stored. 
The plant makes two types of rubber, buna>S and butyl. By- 
products are used in adjacent plants making plastics. 


With unlimited water power at hand, lumber, pulp, 
and paper mills have sprung up across the southern 
part of the plateau. Ontario is second to Quebec in 
the production of wood pulp and paper, chiefly 
newsprint, and is third in sawed lumber. 

Ontario’s Progressive People 

Ontario is particularly exposed to the commercial 
goods, the movies, radio, and advertising of the 
United States and is more American 
in appearance than any other province. 

Its people are nevertheless stanchly 
British. About 67 per cent of them are 
English, Scottish, or Irish in origin. 

Another 10 per cent of the population 
is French. The remainder is chief!}’’ a 
mixture of north European peoples. 

There are about 37,000 Indians. 

Ontario draws 70 per cent of the na- 
tion’s total tourist business, most of 
it from the United States. Fine high- 
ways throughout the southern penin- 
sula and the Trans-Canada Highway 
north of Lake Superior have made the 
forests, lakes, and streams of the prov- 
ince accessible to campers and sports- 
men. Georgian Bay and the Thousand 
Islands of the St. La'wrence River are 
among the most popular vacation re- 
sorts. A number of islands in both 


regions are now national parks. On Lake Erie is 
Point Pelee National Park. Algonquin Provincial 
Park has nearly 3,000 lakes in its 2,741 square miles. 
Quetico Provincial Park, in the Rainy Lake district 
northwest of Lake Superior is a game sanctuary cover- 
ing 1,860 square miles (see National Parks). Muskoka 
district, Haliburton, Lake Timagami, Lake Nipigon, 
and Lake of the Woods are also popular. 

Government and Education 
The representative of the British Crown and sover- 
eignty is the heutenant governor. He is appointed 
for a term of five years by the governor general of the 
country. He functions through an executive council 
whose members must also be members of the legisla- 
ture. The actual executive head of the province and 
the executive head of the council is the prime minister. 
The legislature consists of a single house of 90 mem- 
bers elected for a five-year term. 

The minister of education, who is a member of the 
Provincial Cabinet of Ministers, heads the Ontario 
Department of Education. Along with all other cabi- 
net ministers he gains office when his party wins con- 
trol of the government. The permanent administra- 
tive head of the department is the chief director of 
education, who is appointed by order in council. 

Local administration is under the control of school 
boards. The elementary school boards are elected by 
popular vote. Roman Catholics may establish “sep- 
arate” elementary schools and elect their oum boards 
to administer them. Thus there are “public” schools, 
mainly Protestant, and “separate” schools, mainly 
Roman Catholic. Public secondary education in the 
main is nonsectarian and is administered by the 
elected boards of education or by appointed high 
school boards. 

Higher education is provided by the University of 
Toronto at Toronto, Queen’s University at Kingston, 
the University of Western Ontario at London, Mc- 
Master University (Baptist) at Hamilton, the Univer- 
sity of Ottawa (Roman Cathohc) at the national 

IRON MINING AT STEEP ROCK LAKE 



At Steep Rock Lake, 140 miles west of Port Arthur, is Canada’s 
Drought into production in 1944. The lake was drained to reach the ore oeio 



387 - 


capital, and the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph. 
These are supported by the province. The Eoyal 
Military College at Kingston is maintained by the 
federal government. 

Landmarks in Ontario History 
Ontario claims the oldest evidence of European ex- 
ploration in the Western Hemisphere. In 1931 near 
the town of Beardmore near Lake Nipigon, Viking 
weapons of the late 10th century were discovered. 
(See Canadian His- 
tory.) For nearly 200 
years after the found- 
ing of New France in 
eastern Canada, On- 
tario remained un- 
touched by civihza- 
tion. The hostility of 
the Iroquois barred 
the French from 
permanent settle- 
'ment beyond Mont- 
real. Between Geor- 
gian Bay and Lake 
Simcoe lay Huronia, 
land of the Huron 
Indians. These were 
a peaceful people 
who lived in pali- 
saded villages and 


SYMBOLS OF POWER FOR ONTARIO 





Hvdroelectric power is generated at Niagara Falls, in the southern pen- 
Sa of Ontor This view of transmission I ne ‘“wers was taken from 
the roof of the power plant at Queenston, helcw the Beyond the 

towers, the Niagara River races toward Lake Ontario. 


praeticed a primitive agriculture. They traded with 
the French and welcomed the Jesuit missionaries who 
came to live among them. In 1649 the Iroquois mas- 
sacred all but a few score of the Hurons. Almost 25 
years later, in 1673, Count Frontenac, governor of 
New France, challenged the power of the Iroquois 
hy building Fort Frontenac at the outlet of the 
bt. Lawrence River, \vhere the city of Kingston now 
stands (see Frontenac). The country beyond, how'- 
ever, remained almost entirely unsettled. 

The real founders of the province were a band of 
British sympathizers who suffered persecution as 
Tories in the United States during the American Revo- 
lution. In 1783 about 10,000 of these United Empire 
Loyalists settled on the northern shores of Lakes Erie 
und Ontario and the upper St. Lawrence River. They 
became an independent people, with a tradition of 
self-government, and exerted a powerful influence on 
^0 political development of Canada (see Canadian 
History). Refusing to adopt the French civil law' and 
Homan Catholic faith of their neighbors to the east, 
’u 1791 they forced the division of Canada into two 
^oparate colonies known as Upper Canada (Ontario) 
und Lower Canada (Quebec). , 

Ontario bore the brunt of the War of 1812 (see U ar 
uf 1812). The Americans underestimated the loja y 
^ud ability of the handful of farmers in Upper Canada. 
Ibey were defeated by the Canadians when Isaac 
“rock and his Indian ally Tecumseh seized Detroit at 
be war’s -outset. York, now Toronto, the capitel,_ was 
f'uce buL-ned by the Americans. -A-t the mdecisnm 
battles of Queenston Heights, where Brock was killed. 


ONTARIO, LAKE 

Lundy’s Lane, and others, the Lojmlists again showed 
their determination to remain British. 

In 1837 the rebellion headed by William Ljmn Mac- 
kenzie took place. Although promptly quelled, it has- 
tened the redress of the poUtical evils w'hich had pro- 
voked it (see Mackenzie). Ontario was reunited writh 
Low'er Canada, or Quebec, in 1841. In 1867 Ontario 
became a part of the newly formed Dominion of 
Canada as a separate province. The first prime min- 
ister of Canada was 
Sir J. A. Macdonald, 
w'ho led the young 
nation for the next 
quarter centurj' (see 
Macdonald). In 
1872-96 Sir Oliver 
Mowat w'as prime 
minister of the jirov- 
ince. He w’as influen- 
tial in defining the • 
limits of federal and 
provincial authority. 

Before World War 
I, population grew 
rapidly by immigra- 
tion from Europe. 
During World War II 
Ontario’s mineral and 
industrial output ex- 
panded. After the war, Ontario encouraged immigra- 
tion from the British Isles and developed its re- 
sources. A treaty betw-een the United States and Can- 
ada in 1950 provided for increased powmr at Niagara 
Falls. The St. Lawrence Seaway Authority began work 
on a power and navigation project in 1952. Expansion 
of Canada’s largest atomic reactor at Chalk River was 
planned. An oil pipeline to Sarnia from Alberta by 
way of Superior, Wis., was completed in 1953. Popu- 
lation (1951 census), 4,597,542. (For Reference-Out- 
line and Bibliography, see Canada; Canadian History.) 
Ontario, Lake. The smallest and easternmost of 
the Great Lakes was discovered by Etienne Brfil6 
and explored by Samuel de Champlain in 1615. It w-as 
the first to carry the commerce of the New World. 
The first steamboat on the Great Lakes, the Frontenac, 
was launched near Kingston, Ontario, in 1816, and in 
1817 the Ontario was launched on the American side. 
The lake is 193 miles long and 53 miles wide, with an 
area of 7,540 square miles. Its surface lies 246 feet 
above sea level and its greatest depth is 774 feet. 

It is fed principally by the Niagara River, through 
which the waters of Lake Erie rush in a terrific tumble 
of 326 feet in 36 miles. Since 1829 vessels from Lake 
Erie have been able to go around Niagara Falls and 
into Lake Ontario through the Welland Ship Canal. 
The lake is connected with the Hudson River by the 
New York State Barge Canal, with Georgian Bay by 
the Trent Canal, and with the Ottawa River by the 
Rideau Canal. The principal ports are Toronto, Ham- 
ilton, and Kingston, in Ontario; and Oswego, in New 
York. (See Canals; Great Lakes; Welland Ship Canal.) 



OPERA 


388 


Opera. Like many beautiful things in our modern 
world, grand opera had its beginnings in ancient 
Greece. The great tragedians combined music, poetry, 
and dance to tell their dramatic tale; the actors 
would recite their dialogue with special intonations, 
while with their voices moved the music of lyre or 
flute, in harmony with the theme of the drama. This 
was not precisely grand opera, but from it came opera, 
centuries later. (See Drama; Greece; Greek Language 
and Literature.) 

The old Greek entertainment was forgotten during 
the Middle Ages, but then came the Renaissance, 
and Europe turned back to the splendid, lost, pagan 
world (see Renaissance). A group of cultivated men 
in Florence, called the Camerata, revived some of the 
old Greek plays, with musical accompaniment, at the 
aristocratic house of Bardi in 1584. Music, finding 
new wings in these stirring days, suggested fresh 
harmonies for this new-old entertainment, and poets 
supplied new plays. In 1600 the first opera was given 
in public, Jacopo Peri’s musical setting of the poet 
Ottavio Rinuccini’s ‘Eurydice’. 

It is sometimes erroneously stated that the first 
opera was ‘Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion’, by Adam de 
la Halle, produced in Naples in 1285. This produc- 
tion, however, was nothing more 
than a pastoral in dramatic form, 
with the dialogue broken by 
extraneous ballads. The music 
had no connection with the drama, 
nor was any part of the drama 
enhanced, interpreted, or accom- 
panied by music. Opera did not 
begin with this pastoral, but with 
the efforts of the Camerata. 

Monteverde’s Bold Step 

Claudio Monteverde, one of the 
pioneering spirits of the period, at 
once recognized the possibilities of 
the Camerata ’s new plaything, 
and made a living work of art out 
of their previous wooden imita- 
tions of the Greeks. His pupil, 

Pietro Francesco Caletti-Bruni, 
better known as Cavalli, permit- 
ted the actors to halt the action 
and sing a song, the first operatic 
aria. In so doing he nearly de- 
stroyed opera, for his successors allowed the aria to 
“run away with the show.” Even Alessandro Scar- 
latti, who founded the Neapolitan school in the late 
17th century, was unable to give drama its proper 
dominance in ^^era. He did produce the first operas 
in which all thi/ words were sung, udth no recitative. 

All forms of Italian art were rapidly spreading to 
other countries. Opera entered France with the red 
cloak of Cardinal Mazarin, who brought in his wake 
a kitchen scullion, Giovanni Battista Lulli, who be- 
came known as Jean Baptiste Lully. By a rapid rise 
he became head of the Royal Academy of Music, 


MME. SCHUM ANN-HEINK 



The great contralto as Erda, the earth god- 
dess, in Wagner’s opera ‘Siegfried’, 


fostered the baUet in opera, and originated the over- 
ture. France was always inclined to emphasize the 
ballet and the pageantry of opera, Italy the music and 
the aria, Germany the drama. 

The downfall of the ranting and oppressive aria 
came only with the German, Christoph Willibald 
Gluck, in the 18th century. Disgusted with the 
Italian operas, in which composers showed off their 
learning and singers their voices, he stirred up a 
tempest by -writing operas in which choruses and solos 
were not allowed to bring the drama up short, at an 
awkward moment. 

At about the same time the humorous Neapolitans, 
who had never taken the heroics of opera too seriously, 
introduced between acts lively musical farces, often 
parodies of grand opera, which they called opera huSa 
(funny opera). Opera buffa became the ancestor of 
both opera comique and opera boiiffe in France. Op6ra 
comique was not comic at all, but differed from grand 
opera only in having some of its dialogue spoken, not 
sung. Opdra bouffe was farcical, irreverent, and light. 
The work of Jacques Offenbach cry^stallized the dis- 
tinction between them. In Germany, opera buffa 
developed, in the hands of the genius Wolfgang Ama- 
deus Mozart, into fine productions such as the dash- 
ing and tuneful ‘The Marriage 
of Figaro’. The German opdra 
comique, called a Singspiel, in- 
cludes Ludwig van Beethoven’s 
‘Fidelio’ and Carl Maria von 
Weber’s 'Der Freischiitz’. 

Great as were the improvements 
made by Mozart in opera, they 
had no lasting effect. The Italians 
slipped back under the tuneful 
spell of the interfering aria, though 
Gioacchino Rossini in light opera 
and Gaetano Donizetti and Vin- 
cenzo Bellini in the more serious 
vein sought to raise the level of 
operatic standards. Giacomo 
Meyerbeer cleverly catered to the 
romantic taste of the times. 

The next great upheaval came 
from Richard Wagner, who, true to 
German preferences, thundered 
with all his strength against the 
aria and the tinkling tune, wrote 
his librettos on mighty themes, made the music fit the 
mood, and the drama dominate the entire production. 
To him we owe the leitmotif, a recurring brief air to 
symbolize the return to the scene of a certain mood or 
a certain character. When Lohengrin conies on the 


stage, we hear the Lohengrin theme running in 


the 

music; when tragedy draws near, the music broods. 
(See Wagner, Wilhelm Richard.) 

Great Names in Opera _ tt l rl 
Wagner’s influence was felt in all countries. He ha 
refused to call his later operas by the old name, bu 
termed them “music dramas.” Since his time, gran 



-» 389 »- 


OPERA 


opera has been more sincerely a drama set to music, 
and less of a musical “grand uproar,” as the impious 
have sometimes called it. 

In so brief a space, it is possible only to mention a 
few of the outstanding names on the long roster of 
famous composers of opera. These include, in France, 
Leo Delibes, Charles Frangois Gounod, Georges Bizet, 
Jules Massenet, Charles Camille Saint-Saens, and 


Claude Debussy; in Italj', Giuseppe Verdi, Arrigo 
Boito, Pietro Mascagni, Ruggiero Leoncavallo, 
Giacomo Puccini, Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, and Italo 
Montemezzi; in Russia, Michael Ivano\dch Glinka, 
Modest Moussorgsky, Nicholas Rimsky-Korsakof, 
and Peter Tschaikovsky. 

A summarj' of the stories of a number of well- 
known operas is given in the following pages. 




Ife-AS 








beauty. As the repentant Thais lies dying in the convent 

Ko one who has seen the last act of ‘Thais’ can ever “S “3“ <]yieditation’ are heard again, richer and more triumphant, 

garden, and the nuns chant their prayers, the lovely strains of the meoiianon a 


Aida (fl-e'da), Rhadames, an Egyptian general (tenor) 
loves the captive princess Aida (soprano). Through his love 
he unwittin^y betrays his country and is sentenced to deatm 
the Egyptian princess Amneris also loves Rhadames and 
olicrs to save his life if he will marry her. He refuses and is 
placed in a tomb, together with Aida, and there the lovers di^ 
The work is majestic in conception, allowing of unbounde 
s'oge display. Best-known selections are: Celeste Atm 
mhadames), Ritorna vincitor (Aida), Act I, Scene I, t o 
wand March, Act II, Scene II; O patria mia (Aida), Act 111, 
0 (crra addio (Aida and Rhadames), Act IV, Scene IL 
Music by Verdi. Written 1869 at request of Khedive ol 
SlTt; produced at Royal Opera House, Cairo (18r 1) to com 
memorate completion of Suez Canal. Italian. Four Acts. 

L’Amore dei Tre Re {la-mo’ra da'e tra ra). (The Love of 
three Kings). Flora (soprano) has been (of^ed to mai^ 
lanfredo (barytone), son of the blind old King Archrbaldo 
(haM). Secretly she meets Avito (tenor), her former fianca 
ahibaldo suspects her and when she admits her gui , 
^rangles her. As she lies on her bier, Avdto kisses her and 
of the poison Archibaldo has placed there to trap hun. 
redo kisses the lips also and dies. 
lusic by Italo Montemezzi; text by Benelh. Pro 


Ti."’ Italian. Three Acts. , c-,. 

Barter of Seville. The libretto is based upon the famt 

^ Irilogy of "Figaro' comedies by Beaumarchais. Po 

lie _ . \ T\nn t.n0 


.bigaro’ comedies by 

the efforts of Count Almavdva (tenor) to "i" 
ul and wealthy Rosina (soprano). Her gu 
) (bass), watches her carefully, trying to keep 


her money for himself. Through the aid of the barber, Figaro 
(barytone), the Count wins the girl, making great sport of 
Basilio (bass), a music master and marriage agent. _ 

Music by Rossini allows excellent chance for display of 
vocal skill, especially the well-known Largo al faciolum 
(Figaro), Una Voce pocofa (Rosina), and La Calunnia (Basi- 
lio), Act I. Produced Rome, 1816. Italian. Two Acts. 

La Boheme {la bo-cm'). In an attic of the Paris Latin 
Quarter, four friends are living gaily but precariously. 
Rudolph, a poet (tenor) is in love with Mimi, a frail little 
embroiderer (soprano), and Marcel, a painter (barytone) 
with Musetta (soprano). The lovers quarrel and part, but 
are reunited in the last act when Mimi, dj-ing of consump- 
tion is brought back to Rudolph. Well-known selections 
arc-’ Racconto di Rodolfo (Rudolph), Mi chiamano Mimi 
(Mimi). Act I; ‘Musetta’s Waltz,’ Act 11; Addio (Mimi), fol- 
lowed by quartet Addio, dolce svcgliare (Mimi, Rudolph, 
Musetta. Marcel). Act III; Ah. Mimi, tu piu (Rudolph and 

Marcel), Act IV. > u i -t vr- 

Music by Puccini; text founded on Murgor s book La Vie 
dc Boheme’ Produced Turin. 1896. Italian. Four Acts. 

Car'men. The fiery Spanish gipsj'. Carmen (soprano) is 
arrested for stabbing one of her companions, but she so 
fascinates Don Jose (tenor) that he allows her to escape. He 
deserts his old sweetheart Micaela (soprano), and follows 
Carmen but when C:armen transfers her love to Escamillo 
(barj-tone), a bull-fighter, Don Jos6. madly jealous, kills her. 
^ The original spirited music is highly esteemed by both 
musicians and pubUc. Most celebrated in role of Carmen was 




OPERA 


390 


Emma Calve. Well-known selections are: The ‘Prelude’, 
Habanera (Carmen), Act I; the ‘Toreador Song’ (Escamillo), 
the ‘Flower Song’ (Don Jos6), Act II; the ‘Card Song’ 
(Carmen), Je dis gue rien ne m’epouvanle (Micaela), Act III. 


DIABOLICAL LAUGH 



Virgilio Lazzari singing the role of the suave, demoniacal 

tempter Mephistopheles in Gounod’s popular opera ‘Faust*. 

Music by Bizet. Text based on story of Prosper Mwimfe. 
Produced Paris, 1875. French. Four Acts. 

Cavalleria Kusticana (kd-vaUla-re'd rus'te-kd’nd) 
(Rustic chivalry). Action takes place in square outside a 
church in a Sicilian town on a glorious Easter morning. 
Turiddu (tenor), a soldier, has just returned from war to find 
his sweetheart Lola (mezzo soprano) married to Alfio 
(barytone). Turiddu then takes Santuzza (soprano), a 
village maiden, as his beloved but the jealous Lola wins him 
back. This leads to a duel with Alfio in which Turiddu is killed. 

Music by Mascagni. Libretto based upon 
story of Giovanni Verga. Best-known 
numbers are the ‘Prelude’, including the 
simple love song Siciliana sung off-stage 
by Turiddu, and the ‘Intermezzo’. First 
production Rome, 1890. Italian. One 
Act. 

Faust. Weary of life, Faust (tenor), an 
aged philosopher, is offered youth and power 
by Mephistopheles (bass) in exchange for 
his soul. Shonm a vision of the lovely 
Marguerite (soprano), Faust signs the com- 
pact. He wins Marguerite’s love but be- 
trays her. She finally dies in prison, her soul 
ascending to heaven, and Faust is carried 
off to the underworld. 

Work abounds with lovely melodies popu- 
lar the world over. Among them are 
‘Even Bravest Heart’ sung by Valentine, 

Marguerite’s brother, and ‘The Calf of 
Gold’ (Mephistopheles), Act II; the whole 
garden scene. Act III, including Siebel’s 
‘Flower Song’, Faust’s ‘All Hail Thy 
Dwelling’, Marguerite’s ‘The King of Thule’ 
and ‘Jewel Song', and Faust’s ‘LetMe Gaze’; 
the ‘Soldiers’ Chorus’, Act IV, and the prison 
scene. Act V; and all the ballet music. 

Music by Gounod. Libretto based upon Goethe’s poem 
‘Faust’. First production Paris, 1859. French. Five Acts. 

The Huguenots. Scene is France, 1572, To pacify Cath- 
olic and,-Protestant parties, a marriage is planned between 
Valentina (soprano), a Catholic, and Raoul de Nangis (tenor), 
a Protestant. Mistakenly suspecting Valentina’s honor, 
Raoul publicly denounces her, which leads to open fray 
ending in Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Too late, Raoul 


learns his mistake about Valentina and a love scene ensues 
between them just before he leaps to his death in the 
massacre. 

Raoul’s Romanza, ‘Fairer than the Lily’ and Piff! Paff!, 
song of Raoul’s servant, Marcel, Act I, are well known. 

Music by Meyerbeer. Text by Scribe and Deschamps. 
A showy opera both dramatically and musically. Produced 
Paris, 1836. French. Five Acts. 

Jewels of the Madonna. The scene is Naples. Maliella 
(soprano) is in love wnth Rafaele (barytone) who boasts his 
love is so great he would even steal the jewels that deck 
the Virgin’s statue for her. She taunts her other admirer, 
Gennaro (tenor) with the boast and he steals the gems. Finally, 
in terror, Maliella drowns herself ; Gennaro returns the gems 
and stabs himself. 

Music by Wohf-Feirari. Produced Berlin, 1911. Italian. 
Three Acts. 

Le Jongleur de Notre Dame (le zhon-glur' de 
nol'T dam). Jean, a street juggler enters a monastery. His 
friend, Boniface (bass), the cook, convinces him that any 
work well done is good in the sight of God. Jean shuts him- 
self in the chapel and performs his tricks before the Virgin’s 
statue. When the outraged monks rush in they notice 
the statue come to life, blessing Jean who dies at the altar. 
“The Legend of the Sagebrush' (Boniface) , Act II, is well known. 

Massenet wrote the score for all male voices, but the 
role of Jean was frequently sung by Mary Garden. Libretto 
by M. Lena, from a medieval miracle play. Produced 
Monte Carlo, 1902. French. Three Acts. 

La Juive (Id zhii-ev') (The Jewess). The story is concerned 
with the hatred existing between Jews and Gentiles in the 
early 15th century. Disguised as a Jew the Prince of the 
Empire, Leopold (tenor), has been making love to Rachel 
(soprano), daughter of the old Jewdsh goldsmith Eleazar 
(tenor); 'The penalty for such love is death to both. When 
Leopold’s betrothal is announced to the Princess Eudoxia 
(soprano), the jealous Rachel publicly exposes him as her 
lover. Later she repents and declares him innocent. He is 
released, but Elfeazar and Rachel are condemned by the 
Cardinal (bass) to die in boiling oil or accept Chnstiamty. 


THE FINAL ACT OF ‘LA TOSCA’ 



The scene is a balcony of the prison Castle Sant’ Angelo, Rome, at dawn, S-,:- 
background the Vatican and dome of St. Peter’s are visible. Here Tosca and ivi 
sing their ironic last song of happiness. 

Both refuse. Just as Rachel is plunged to her death Eltozar 
reveals her as the lost daughter of the Cardinal. _ 

Music by Hal5vy. Text by Scribe. Produced Pans, loo ■ 
French. Five Acts. , 

Lohengrin (Id'en-grln). The young Duke Godfrey ha 
disappeared and his sister Elsa (soprano) has been acousea o 
his murder. When her champion is called for, a handsome 
knight (tenor) in a swan-driven boat appears. He makes on 



391 


OPERA 


important demand of Elsa. She must never ask his name or 
rank. On her wedding day, driven wild with curiosity by 
Ortrud (contralto), Elsa asks the fateful question. Before 
everyone the knight tells he is Lohengrin but departs 
immediately in his swan-driven boat. In glee, Ortrud shrieks 
that the swan is Godfrey whom she herself 
has bewitched. Lohengrin then frees the 
swan and the young duke appears. Lohen- 
grin is lost to view and Elsa sinks lifeless 
to the ground. 

Moat popular selections are: ‘Elsa’s 
Dream’ and Lohengrin’s ‘My Faithful 
Swan’ in Act I; the ‘Wedding March’ and 
Lohengrin’s ‘Narrative’, Act III. 

Music and text by Wagner. Produced 
Weimar, 1850. German. Three Acts. Last 
work Wagner called by title of "opera.” 

Louise. Tom between duty to her 
parents and the longing for a full life, 

Louise (soprano), a little sewing girl, 
leaves home to live with Julien (tenor), an 
artist. They are happy in their little abode 
in Montmartre, Paris, when Louise’s 
mother comes, telling of her father’s ill-, 
ness. Louise returns home for a brief 
time, but, scolded by her parents, goes 
back to Julien. Depuis le jour (Louise), 

Act III, is well knowm. Words and music 
by Charpentier. Produced Paris, 1900. 

French. Four Acts. 

Lucia di Lammermoor. (Iq-che'a de 
Id-mdr-mdbr'). For financial reasons Sir 
Henry Ashton (barytone) tries to marry 
his sister Lucia (soprano) to Sir Arthur 
Bucklaw (tenor). But Lucia and Sir Edgar 
of Ravenswood (tenor) are in love. Sir 
Heiuy forges a letter and proves Sir Edgar 
false. Lucia marries Sir Arthur, but at the wedding feast 
Edgar dramatically reappears. Then follows the well-known 
sextet Chi mi frena. Lucia goes mad, kills the bride- 
groom, and a little later dies herself. Edgar, learmng of her 
death, sings the mournful Tu che a Dio spiegasti Vali and 
kills himself. 

A popular but musically thin opera, allowing of great 
vocal display; has been a favorite of most coloraturas. 

Music by Donizetti. Libretto based upon .Scott s novel 
‘The Bride of Lammermoor'. First production in Naples, 
1835. Italian. Three Acts. 

Madama Butterfly. 

To make his sojourn in 
Japan more amusing, 

Pinkerton (tenor), an 
American naval officer, 

“purchases” in Nippon- 
ese fashion, a Japanese 
Mfe, Madame Butterfly 
(Cho-Cho-San) (sopra- 
no). He sails away and 
w gone three years, not 
knowing how seriously 
Butterfly has taken his 
love and that she has 
home him a son whom she 
calls "Trouble.” When 
he returns with an Amer- 
ican wife. Butterfly real- 
izes the truth and stabs 
herself, giving up her 
baby to Pinkerton’s 
Wife. 

Japanese folk-songs 
iijid American themes are 
richly interwoven in the 
*uusic. No set arias, 
rtthough the love duet of 


Butterfly and Pinkerton Viene la sera, Act I, and in Act II 
Butterfly’s Un hel di and E queslof, also the orchestral inter- 
lude, ‘Waiting Music’, are popular. 

Music by Puccini. Te.xt based upon book of John Luther 
Long and drama of David Belasco. Produced Milan, 1904. 

Italian. Three Acts (originally two). 

Manon. On her way to a convent, the 
lovely young Manon (soprano) meets Des 
Grieux (tenor) at an inn. They are infatu- 
ated and elope to Paris. But tempted by 
the wealth of an old nobleman she leaves 
Des Grieux. Then learning Des Grieux 
has entered a monastery, she follows him 
and wins him back. In the end Manon is 
condemned as an abandoned woman. Des 
Grieux follows her as she is about to be 
deported and she dies in his arms. 

Well known are Des Grieux’ Le Rote, 
Act II, and Fiiyez, douce image, Act III. 

Music by Massenet. Libretto based 
upon Abb6 Provost’s novel ‘Manon Les- 
caut’. Produced Paris, 1884. French. 
Four Acts. 

Manon Lescaur (md-non les-ko'). The 
story is practically the same as ‘Manon’ 
(see above), both operas being based upon 
Abbe Prfivost’s novel ‘ Manon Loscaut’. 

Music by Puccini. Presented Turin, 
1893. Italian. Four Acts. 

The Marriage of Figaro (Je'gdr-o). A 
lively farce based upon the second of the 
‘Figaro’ comedies by Beaumarchais. The 
marriage of Figaro (bass), barber of the 
Count Almaviva, and Susanna (soprano), 
maid of the Countess Almaviva, is delayed 
by a series of amusing events caused by the 
Count’s jealousy of Cheruhino (soprano), 
his wife’s page and admirer, also by the Count’s own atten- 
tions to Susanna. 

Music by Mozart, includes some of his most delightful 
melodies. Well kno^vn are the ‘Overture’, JVon so pin (Cheru- 
bino) , Act I ; Foi che sapete (Cherubino) , Act II ; and the letter 
duet of Act III. Produced Vienna, 1786. Usually sung in 
Italian. Four Acts. 

Martha. For amusement. Lady Harriet (soprano) and her 
maid (contralto) hire themselves out as servants to two 
young farmers, Lionel (tenor) afid Plunkett (bass). Lady 

Harriet becomes Martha; 
her maid, Julia. At the 
farmhouse it soon ap- 
pears they can neither 
w’ork nor spin. They 
escape that night but 
not before Martha has 
fallen in love with Lionel, 
Julia with Plunkett. 
Before the last curtain 
they are all happily 
betrothed: a ring proves 
that Lionel is the son 
of the banished Earl of 
Derby. 

Of enormous popular- 
ity, the score is a succes- 
sion of melodies familiar 
to almost everyone: ‘The 
Last Rose of Summer’ 
(an old Irish air) (Mar- 
tha), the ‘Spinning Quar- 
tet’ and ‘Good Night 
Quartet’ (Martha, Julia, 
Plunkett, Lionel), Act II; 
Canzone del porter (Plun- 
kett) and M’appan 
(Lionel), Act III. 


MARY GARDEN 



The alluring Fiora In ‘The Love of 
Three Kings’, one of Miss Garden’s 
most successful rfiles. 


ROMEO AND JULIET UNITED 




'liW 



liMilaStoV "■ ' .| tlypfg flrf» ynBl^ ?ed» HCTC SfC AlICC IJOCk ftS 

JuUetEdYurrdC%Ue"^^^^ 



392 


OPERA 


Music by Von Flotow. Produced Vienna, 1847. Usually 
sung in Italian. Four Acts. 

Die Meistersinger von Niimberg (de mis'ter-zing-er fon 
num-berK). (The Master Singers). Sir Walter von Stolzing 
(tenor) becomes enamored of Eva (soprano). He determines 
to win the Master Singers’ song contest the following day in 
order to obtain her as a bride, although he knows nothing of 
the rules. Beckmesser, town clerk (bass), a pedantic stickler 
for rules and himself in love with Eva, opposes him. But 
Hans Sachs, a cobbler (bass) and a genuine musician, sees 
real inspiration in Walter’s singing and favors him. At the 
contest Walter wins with his glorious Preislied (‘Prize Song’). 

Text and music by Wagner (produced Munich, 1868) show 
him in his full genius as poet, humorist, and musician. The 
lovers and the cobbler are said to be symbols of art and life. 


The ‘Prologue’ (Tonio), the Ballatella (Nedda), and Canio’s 
lament, Vesti la giubba, Act I, also Canio’s No, Pagliaccio non 
son. Act II, are well known. 

Music and libretto by Leoncavallo. Produced Milan, 1892. 
Italian. Two Acts. 

Pelleas et Melisande. Music by Claude Debussy is 
entirely modern in manner, without set melody. Text is 
from Maurice Maeterlinck’s play of the same name. Both 
text and music are weighted with mystic meaning. 

Golaud (barytone) finds the mysterious Melisande (sopra- 
no) in the wood and brings her back to the king’s castle as 
his wdfe. There she and PellSas (tenor), half-brother of 
Golaud, fall in love. Wildly jealous, Golaud slays PelEas. 
Melisande, maintaining the innocence of their love, dies in 
the palace. Produced Paris, 1902. French. Five Acts. 


THREE GREAT ARTISTS IN ROLES THAT MADE MUSICAL HISTORY 

II ^ 



At the left is Mme. Nellie Melba as Marguerite in ‘Faust*, one of opera*s celebrated portrayals. In the center is Jean de Reszke, 
usually ranked as the greatest of ail Tristans, while at the right is Adelina Patti, famous for her portrayal of Juliet. 


Beckmesser of rule-blinded critics. Music throughout is a 
masterpiece of melodic and harmonic richness. The ‘Prelude’ 
and ‘Prize Song’ are well known. German. Three Acts. 

Mignon (men-yoA'). A little dancing girl, Mignon (mezzo 
soprano), is saved from her gipsy master by Wilhelm Meister 
(tenor), a traveling student. He allows her to follow him as 
his page. She is in love with him but he is enamored of 
Filina (soprano), an actress. Mignon is injured in a burning 
castle and is brought to Italy by Lothario (bass), an old 
minstrel, who in reality is an Italian nobleman who has lost 
his memory. In the last act, however, his memory is restored. 
He recognizes in Mignon his long-lost daughter, stolen as a 
child by gipsies. Wilhelm recognizes his true love for 
Mignon and all ends happily. 

Well-known selections are the’Overture’ ; Connais tu le pays? 
(Mignon) ; Les Hirondelles (Mignon and Lothario), Act I ; the 
Polonaise (Filina), Act II; the Berceuse (Lothario), Act III. 

Music by C. L. Ambroise Thomas; text based on Goethe’s 
‘Wilhelm Meister’. Produced Paris, 1866. French. Three 
Acts. 

Otello. Libretto is based upon Shakespeare’s tragedy, of 
same name (see ‘Othello’). Music by Verdi, shows departure 
from the earlier Verdi manner. Well-known selections are 
logo’s Credo, Act II, Desdemona’s ‘Willow Song’ and Ave 
Maria and the ‘Death of Otello’, Act IV. Produced Milan 
1887. Italian. Four Acts. ’ 

I Pagliacci (pal-ydt'clte) (The Players). Opens with a 
prologue sung by clowm Tonio (barytone). Canio (tenor), 
leader of a troupe of strolling players, is furiously jealous of 
his beautiful wife, Nedda (soprano), who is planning to run 
off with Silvio (barytone), a villager. In their little' play a 
similar tragedy of a jealous husband and erring wife is 
enacted. In the play Canio stabs his wife, forcing her to call 
upon her lover Sil\do, who mshes upon the stage and is 
killed by Canio, who then surrenders, singing, “Applaud 
friends, the comedy is ended.’’- 


Rigoletto (re-gd-let'to). The dissolute Duke of Mantua 
(tenor) has won the love of Gilda (soprano), daughter of the 
hunchback, Rigoletto (barytone). Rigoletto conspires to 
have the Duke killed, but Gilda sacrifices herself to save 
him, and Rigoletto is given the assassin’s sack containing 
his own dying daughter. 

An extremely popular opera despite its gruesome story. 
Best-known selections are Quest’ o quella (Duke), Act I, 
Rigoletto’s soliloquy. Pari siamo, and Gilda’s Caro name. 
Act II; La donna b mobile (Duke) and the famous quartet 
Bella figlia dell’ amore (Gilda, Rigoletto, Duke, and Madda- 
lena). Act IV (originally Act III). 

Music by Verdi. Text founded upon Victor Hugo’s drama 
‘Le roi s’amuse’. Produced Venice, 1851. Italian. Four Acts 
(originally three). 

Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelungs), a 
vast musical work by Richard Wagner based on 
legends of the Nibelungs (sec Nibelungs, Song of the). In® 
whole work consists of ‘Das Rheingold’, an introduction to 
the dramas, ‘Die Walkure’, ‘Siegfried’, and ‘Gotterdam- 
merung’. , 

Das Rheingold (dds rin'goll). The hideous dwar , 
Alberich (barytone or bass) learns from the Rhine maidens 
that he who would renounce love forever might steal their 
treasure, the Rhine gold, and that a ring made V 
would render the possessor master of the world. Albenc 
seizes the gold, has the ring made, also a magic helinc , 
Tamhelm. Wotan (barytone), father of the gods, takes 
gold ring and helmet from Alberich and gives it to two 8ian 
to repay them for building the new castle of the go ■ 
Valhalla. Alberich puts a curse on the ring. The gian 
quarrel and one is slain. The gods proceed to Valhalla. 

Produced Munich, 1869. German. Four Scenes. 

Die Walkure (de vdl-ku're) (The Valkyries). The Y j 
are nine daughters of Wotan whose mission it is to ride 
each day on flying horses and bring to Valhalla the brave 


393 


OPERA 


of the Elain. Brunnhilde, their leader (soprano), is Wotan’a 
favorite. However, in a fight between Wotan’s earthly son 
Siegmund (tenor) and Hunding (bass), Brunnhilde protects 
Siegmund against orders. Wotan intervenes, causes Sieg- 
mund to be slain and 



In this final scene of MontemezzPs tragic opera, ‘The Love of Three Kings*, 
Flora, the heroine, lies in death, choked by the blind king at left. 


then slays Hunding 
himself. Brunnhilde 
carries to safety Sieg- 
mund’s sister-wife, 

Sieglinde (soprano), to 
whom she gives the 
fragments of Sieg- 
mund’s sword. Brunn- 
hilde is made a mortal 
woman for her disobe- 
dience, and is put to 
sleep surrounded by a 
wall of magic fire and 
destined to become the 
wife of the first man 
brave enough to break 
through the fire and so 
awaken her. 

The final act ranks 
as one of the most sub- 
lime in alt music with 
its well-known ‘ Ride 
of the Valkyries’, ‘Wo- 
tan’s Farewell ’, and the 
‘Magic Fire Spell’. 

First produced in Munich, 1870. German. Three Acts. 
Siegfried {seg'frH). His mother, Sieglinde, dj-ing at his 
birth, Siegfried (tenor) is raised by the dwarf Mimi. He 
becomes a magnificent hero. From the fragments of his 
father’s sword he forges a mighty weapon. With it he kills 
Fafner the giant who has made himself into a fierce dragon 
to protect the magic ring and Rhine gold. He also kills 
Muni. Licking a drop of the dragon’s blood he is suddenly 
able to understand the birds, and one 
leads him to Brunnhilde (mezzo soprano) 
whom he wakens and loves. In the mean- 
time, he has met Wotan and fearlessly 
broken Wotan’s spear. The rule of the 
gods is about over. 

Produced Bayreuth, 1876. German. 

Three Acts. 

Gotterdammerung (gu-ter-dem'mer-ung) 

(The Dusk of the Gods). Siegfried gives 
his magic ring to Brunnhilde, lovingly 
bids her farewell, and goes into the world. 

There Hagen, son of the dwarf Alberich, 
pves him a magic drink, which causes 
him to forget Brunnhilde and fall in love 
with Gutrune, sister of King Gunther. 

He a^ees to bring Brunnhilde to the king 
for wife. Another drink causes him to 
remember, just before he is killed by 
Hagen. Brunnhilde learns of the drinks 
and forgives Siegfried. She has a huge 
PiTe built for his body and, vrith the 
nng on her finger, rides into the flames, 
the Rhine overflow’s and the Rhine 
niaidens seize the ring triumphantb’. 

alhalla is shown in flames. The w’orld 
of the gods has passed and through the 
sacrifice of Brunnhilde, the finer era of 
love begins. 

Contains some of Wagner’s mightiest 
reusic, notably Siegfried’s ‘Journey to the ^ 

Hnine’, his ‘Funeral March’ and Brunnhilde’s ‘Immolation . 
^resented Bayreuth, 1876. German. Three Acts. 

Romeo and JuUet. The Ubretto is based upon Hhak^ 
Poare s drama of the same name {see Romeo and Juliet). 
Juliet’s gay 'Waltz Song’. Act I, is best-knoum aria. Music 
i Gounod. Produced Paris, 1S67. Five Acts. 




Der Rosenkavalier (der roz' eti-ka' td ler). The story, depict- 
ing the loose morals typical of 18th-century Vieima, concerns 
the successful efforts of the young Count Oetavian (mezzo 
soprano) to win Sophie (soprano), daughter of the newly rich 

‘THE LOVE OF THREE KINGS' f™' She'^SS'S 

Baron Ochs of Lerche- 
nan (bass) to whom 
Faninal was trj-ing to 
marry Sophie. 

Libretto by Hugo 
von Hofmannsthal. 
Music by Richard 
Strauss is rich in or- 
chestration and waltz 
melodies. Produced 
Dresden, 1911. Ger- 
man. Three Acts. 

Samson and Delilah. 
Samson (tenor), He- 
brew leader of gigantic 
strength, is ensnared 
by Delilah (mezzo so- 
prano). She delivers 
him into the hands of 
the Philistines. In Act 
III he appears shorn, 
blinded, and chained, 
treading a mill, praying 
God for mercy in I'oia 
ma misire, helas. He is led in shame before the feasting 
Philistines, but praying for strength, seizes the marble 
pillars and overthrows the whole temple. 

Best-knowm selections are Delilah’s Printemps qui com- 
viencc. Act I ; Mon coeur s’ outre a la toix (Delilah) , Act II ; and 
the ‘Bacchanale’, Act III. 

Music by Saint-Saens. First produced in Weimar, Ger- 
many, 1877. French. Three Acts. 

Tales of Hoffmann. Opens with a 
prologue, the poet Hoffmann agreeing to 
tell a group of tavern companions of his 
three great loves. Story of loves forms the 
next three acta. All are frustrated by an 
e\'il genius that follow's him. The first 
girl is an automaton, the second a mock- 
ing coquette, the third a dj’ing consump- 
tive. In the epilogue he is left alone, only 
the poetic Muse remaining faithful. 

The ‘Barcarolle’, Act III, is extremely 
popular. Music by Offenbach. Produced 
Paris, 1881. French. Three Acts. 

Tannhauser {Idn'hoi-zcr). The minstrel 
knight, Tannhauser (tenor), has been 
enticed into the Vcnusbcrg, but he 
wearies of the lewd pleasures of Venus and 
returns home. There he is reunited with 
his old sweetheart Elizabeth (soprano) 
and old friend and rival Wolfram (barj-- 
tone). But after singing the praises 
of sensuous love, he is banished, and 
remorsefully goes on a pilgrimage to 
Rome. In the end his soul is saved by 
prayers of Elizabeth and he falls dying 
on her bier. 

Best-known selections are: the ‘Over- 
ture’, the ‘I’enusberg Music’ and ‘Baccha- 
nale’.Act I; Elizabeth’s Dick, teure liallr, 
and thc’March', Act II : ‘Pilgrims’ Chorus’, 
Elizalxith’s ‘Prayer’ and Wolfram’s song to 
the Evening Star, O, du mein holder. Act III. 

Music and text by Wagner. Produced Dresden, 18-1.5. 
German. Three .-Vets. One of Wagner’s early works, written 
before he abandoned the old opera form. 

Thais (fa-ex'). The lovely actre.'s and courtesan, Thais 
fsonrano). is converted by the monk, .-Vthanael (bari-tono). 


RESPLENDENT CZAR 



The great Russian dramatic basso 
Feodor Chaliapin as Boris Godunov 
in Moussorgsky’s opera of that name. 




But in converting her the monk himself has fallen from grace. 
In the final scene as the repentant Thais lies dying in the 
convent, Athanael comes, imploring her to fly with him to 
Alexandria. He sinks in despair at her deathbed. 

The beautiful ‘Intermezzo’, or ‘Meditation’, symbolizing 
the conversion of Thais, is the most popular selection. 

Music by Massenet; text based upon Anatole France’s 
novel. Produced Paris, 1894. French. Three Acts. 

La Tosca. Floria Tosca, a singer (soprano), and Mario 
Cavaradossi, a painter (tenor), are lovers. Mario, by con- 
cealing a revolutionist friend, has come into the power of the 
malicious Scarpia (barytone), chief of police. Scarpia prom- 
ises to make the execution of Mario only a sham affair if 
Tosca will give him her love. She agrees, but stabs him as he 
advances to her. The execution of Mario is real. Desperate, 
Tosca jumps over the parapet to her death just as the police 
arrive to arrest her for murdering Scarpia. The most popular 
selections are; Recondita armonia (Mario), Act I: Ffssi d'arte 
(Tosca), Act II; E lucevan le stelle (Mario), Act III. 

Music by Puccini; text based upon drama by Sardou. 
Produced Rome, 1900. Italian. Three Acts. 

La Traviata (la ira-ve-a't'd) . At a gay party at her salon in 
Paris, Violetta Valery (soprano), a beautiful woman of loose 
reputation, meets Alfredo Germont (tenor). They fall deeply 
in love and are living happily together when Alfredo’s 


EMMA C^LVE 



This noted singer’s play 
ing of Carmen was one of 
opera’s great successes. 


father Giorgio (barytone) inter- 
venes, imploring Violetta to give 
up Alfredo for the sake of his fam- 
ily’s reputation. She makes the 
sacrifice, Alfredo believing her to 
be false. He does not learn the 
truth until it is too late. She dies of 
consumption in the presence of 
father and son. 

A favorite opera of coloratura 
sopranos. Well known are Libiam 
nei Meti calici (Violetta, Alfredo, 
and chorus). Ah foTs’ i lui and 
Sempre libera (Violetta), Act I; Di 
Provenza il mar (Giorgio), Act II; 
Addio del passato (Violetta), Pari- 
gi, 0 cara (Violetta and Alfredo), 
Act III. 

Music by Verdi. Text by Piave, 
founded on Dumas’ ‘La Dame aux 
Cam^lias’. First production Ven- 
ice, 1853. Italian. Three Acts. 

Tristan und Isolde. Tristan 
(tenor) is conducting the Irish 
princess Isolde (soprano) to Corn- 
wall to be the wife of his uncle. 
King Mark. Isolde, imagining 
Tristan is indifferent to her. pre- 
pares a cup of poison and invites 
him to drink. They both drink, 
but Isolde’s maid, Brangane (mez- 
zo soprano) substitutes a love 


potion for the poison and the two 
fall under an irresistible spell. When King Mark comes upon 
the two making love (Isolde is now the King’s wife), Tristan 
is wounded by one of the King’s knights. He is carried to his 
castle in Brittany and there he pines for Isolde. She comes 


at last just as he dies. She sings the glorious ‘Love Death’ 
and dies too. 

Generally conceded the greatest love music in existence. 
The ‘Prelude’ and ‘Love Death’ are in the repertoire of most 
great symphony orchestras. 


GREATEST OF THE GREAT 



The famous Enrico Caruso, tenor, as Canio in ‘I Pagliacci’, a r6Ie 
with which his name wiil always be associated. 


Words and music by Wagner. Produced Munich, 1865, 
German. Three Acts. 

II Trovatore (ef tro-vd-to'ra) (The Troubadour). The com- 
plicated plot concerns Manrico, the troubadour (tenor) who 
has been brought up by Azucena, a gipsy (contralto), ta her 
son. In reality he is the brother of the Count di Luna (bary- 
tone) . Azucena stole him as a child to avenge her mother s 
death. Both the Count and Manrico are in love with Leonora 
(soprano). Finally the Count has Manrico imprisoned with 
his supposed mother. Leonora offers to marry the Count if 
he will free Manrico. The Count agrees, but Leonora takes 
poison and dies in Manrico’s arms. The enraged Count has 
Manrico put to death while Azucena, avenged at last, cries, 
“You have killed your brother.’’ 

Extremely popular. The final act, perhaps the best known 
of any in opera, includes: D'amor' svlV ali razee (Leonora), 
‘Miserere’ (choir) and Manrico’s Ah, chh la marie; Ai nosln 
monti (Manrico and Azucena). Also popular are Tacca la 
nolle pladda (Leonora) , Act I ; the ‘Anvil Chorus , an 
Stride la vampa (Azucena), Act II; Di quella pira (Manrico), 
Act III. , , 

Music by Verdi. Produced Rome, 1853. Italian. Four Ac s. 


The Origin and History of Light Opera 

T IGHT OPERA is the general term for an opera or distinction between these various forms is not always 
dramatic work which contains the four elements of clearly marked, 
merriment, poetry, music, and drama. As taste in As a rule, the music of light opera is more “popu- 
music and humor has developed or changed, light lar” in style than that of serious opera, and it ap- 
opera has included intermezzo, opera Ivffa (Italian), peals to a wider audience because it is usually e.asier 
vaudeville, comidie d arieltes, op6ra boiiffe (French), to perform and to comprehend. In its most highly de- 
Singspiel, waltz opera, ballad opera, lyric opera, Eng- veloped form, how'ever, its performance calls for 
lish burlesque, comic opera, and musical comedy The skilled musicians. 



OPERA 


The beginnings of light opera may be found in the 
early Greek chorus. Because people have alva 3 "s liked 
gaiety, the comic chorus developed. The chorus num- 
bers of the Greek music-comedies were sung either to 
traditional airs or to tunes which had recently 
achieved popularity. This method was the same as 
that adopted over two thousand years later in the 
early French comedie d ariettes, the English ballad 
opera, and the German SingspieL 
There, is no evidence that the Homans made any 
contribution to the development of light opera, excepts 
ing that pantomime and dancing were very' popular 
and that theaters were greatly improved in the days 
preceding the Dark Ages. The later development of 
light opera stems from two sources; the sacred, associ- 
ated with the gradual development of religious music, 
and the profane, associated with those country' revels 
which had lived through all the centuries of darkness. 

Light Opera in Italy 

In Italy, with the Henaissance, carnival processions 
were held in the streets of tov'ns and villages. The 


place in public favor. Donizetti too produced opera 
buffa of a high standard, such as ‘The Daughter of 
the Regiment’ (1840). After Rossini and Donizetti, 
opera buffa began to decline in favor. But it led 
indirectly to a work of true genius, ‘Falstaff’ (1893), 
composed by Verdi at the age of 80. It may be styleci 
a classical comic opera. 

The 2Gth century does not find the story of Italian 
light opera ended. There have been excursions into 
the realms of comedy by several modern composers, 
notably Puccini, in his one-act operetta, 'Gianni 
Schicchi’ (1918). Wolf-Ferrari, in his operettas, recap- 
tures something of the delicacy' which characterized 
opera buffa at the beginning of the 18th century'. Best 
known is his ‘II Segreto di Susanna’ (1909). 

Because of their musical excellence, many examples 
of opera buffa are included in present-day grand opera 
repertoire. They are remarkable for the liveliness 
and humor of their action, and for the pointed comic 
characterization in their music. Attempts to imitate 
them have profoundly affected the music of France, 








carnival spirit led to the ^ ballad opera of 
introduction of dramat- — ^ — ~ 

ic episodes accompanied .(v, ? ' 
by singing, and helped ' 
to develop the Italian ft' • 

love of music and fun. f ’ 

In the 17th century, ' 

when serious opera came • ' ^ I'-"' „ 

into favor, managers , i .vift /'' / 

found that the public 
wanted humor, and in- 
eluded, between the acts, 
little comic scenes 

known as intermezzi. ^ 

The earliest indepen- y'~^S 

dent intermezzo of which ,/v ! 

performance is recorded 
is ‘Che soffre speri’ 

(1639), by Mazzochi and / /'I 

Marazzoli. This may 

be considered the begin- ‘-/i' / / . 

ning of the joyous opera - { ' 

buffa, where sonf'^^ rln- — •- — - 

Pfs I 1 1. an .jjjjg geene is from a modern pr 

CIS, and choruses were ballad opera, ‘Beggar’s Opera 
joined together by a and cbaractenzanon a 

thread of light and incidental narrative (recitative). 

In the 18th century, opera buffa in the Keapolitan 
dialect became the vogue. A charming example of 
this styde, Pergolesi’s ‘La Serva Padrona’ (1733), is 
still produced occasionally. An opera buffa of the 
late istij century still performed is Cimarosa s II 
Matrimonio Segreto’ (1792). 

By the 19th century, the easy' graces of the Neapol- 
itan School had begun to grow antiquated, and Gioac- 
chino Rossini promded the stimulant needed after 
the long reign of Neapolitan opera buffa and inter- 
®6zzo. He wrote several operettas, the opera buffa 
LTtaliene in Algeri’ (1813), and the classical opera 
buffa ‘The Barber of Seville’ (1816). The latter was 
^ failure at first, but by its brilliance soon won a 






■ fc - 


w:m 


f' i r 


a modern presentation of the earliest English 
opera- (1728), Its piquant music, lyncs. 


ballad opera, ‘Beggar’s Opera' (I™). Its piqu 
and characterization are still en)oyed. 


BALLAD OPERA OF THE I7TH CENTURY England, and America. 

; f"- ' : ■,, ] History and Devel- 

opment in Prance 

' I j: The origin of light 

, ( ' opera in France may' be 
i; ■ ' , .V found in the 12th- and 
^ ' ■ - ' 13th-century mystery 

i and morality plays, 

-which were forerunners 
\ -r ff ')i of jetix or merry' plaj'S. 

7/ Adam de la Halle, 

. jJ, the most notable among 

s >!.,-■> the trovvtres and trouba- 
&/ ■ dours, is sometimes 

T j M father of 

French operetta. The 
best known of his com- 
' ~ ' positions ivas ‘Lc .Jevi 

’ j\ v Xn de Robin et de Marion’, 

J"', \ \ 'V ’ produced in Naples in 

' j 'y . ’< ' , *' 1285. Unfortunately, the 

. 1 , ; t i IS ^ taste of the Middle Ages 

L-—! — ri I mg f J preferred coarse comedy 

sentation of the earliest English f , • , . , 

iraV Its piquant music, lyrics, to dainty sentiment, and 

e still enjoyed, thJs prevented De la 

Halie from establishing a pastoral school. Howe^-er, 
through the efforts of the trouvercs and trouba- 
dours, poetry', merriment, and music took a firm 
hold on the imagination of the people, as these 
minstrels performed in noble houses at weddings 
and feasts. 

The French religious fairs held in Paris, beginning 
in the 12th century, drew large crowds of people who 
came to honor the relics of the saints in the various 
churches. By the 16th century, entertainment had 
come to be a part of these fairs. There was great, 
rivaln' between them and the regular Paris theaters. 
The theater proprietors succeeded for a time in ha-^-ing 
the fair managers forbidden by law to present musical 
entertainment of a comic nature. 



396 


OPERA 

During the early 18th century, however, certain fair 
performers obtained permission to sing and dance 
as they wished. In this connection the words “op6ra” 
and “comique” were first used in conjunction. The 
phrase was intended to mean opera rendu comique 
(“opera made comical”), for it was the original in- 
tention to take serious works and turn them to ridi- 
cule. The public had 
become bored with ul- 
tra-serious opera. 

In 1752 an Italian 
company conquered 
Paris with a repertoire 
of the intermezzo type, 
including Pergolesi’s 
‘La Serva Padrona’. 

To avert ruin, a fair 
group presented what 
was claimed to be a 
new Italian work, ‘Les 
Trocqueurs’, which was 
actually the work of 
a Frenchman. It be- 
came very popular, 
proving that France 
as well as Italy could 
produce comedy mu- 
sic. Other such works 
followed enriched with original songs called ariettes, 
meaning “little arias.” With these variations, op4ra 
comique rapidly grew into general favor. Toward the 
close of the century a theatrical organization called 
“L’Op^ra Comique” was formed in Paris, which builtits 
own theater of the same name, and had its own actors. 

During the 19th century, how- 
ever, this organization came 
to take itself too seriously 
for general popularity. The 
pieces it now performed were 
not comic at all and differed 
from grand opera only in 
having some spoken dialogue. 

Again there was a revolt, and 
French op6ra bouffe or oper- 
etta came into vogue. It may 
be defined as light op5ra 
comique, but it was considered 
too light in its comedy for 
performance by the artists of 
L’Op6ra Comique. Jacques Of- 
fenbach, the best known among 
the composers of op6ra bouffe, 
was therefore compelled to 
open his own theater to obtain 
hearings for his works. The 
public loved Offenbach’s mu- 
sic, which combined sentiment 
with joyousness and was filled 
with melody - and sparkle, 
rhythm, and humor. His oper- 
ettas became popular, not only 


in France, but in Austria, England, and America. 
Some of the most popular of Offenbach's works are ‘La 
Belle Hdlene’ (1864), ‘La Vie Parisieime’ (1866), 
‘Barbe Bleu’ (1866), and ‘The Tales of Hoffmann’ 
(posthumously 1881), the last of which is the most 
famous and has taken an honored place in grand opera 
repertoire. It is really light grand opera. Excerpts 

from Offenbach’s oper- 
ettas are available on 
records and are often 
heard on radio pro- 
grams. Other compos- 
ers of operetta included 
Hervd who preceded 
Offenbach, Lacombe, 
Lecocq, Audran, Plan- 
quette, and Chassaigne. 

The late 19th and 
early 20th centuries 
found opdra bouffe di- 
viding into two fields: 
the humorous, whicli 
led to revue and vaude- 
ville, and the senti- 
mental, which devel- 
oped into the delicate 
refinement of Andre 
Messager. The revues 
of this period are very light and without lasting qual- 
ities. Messager represents the fusion of operetta 
with opdra comique. In all, he wrote about 20 oper- 
ettas and operas. His greatest success was ‘Les 
P’tites Michu’ (1894). He was followed by Bruneau, 
Dukas, Rabaud, Hahn, Ravel, and several others 
whose work was of a more seri- 
ous musical character. 

Light Opera in German Hands 
In Germany, the Minnesing- 
ers and the Meistersingers cul- 
tivated a national taste for mu- 
sic, preparing the way for the 
coming of the Singspiel or song- 
play which was the commence- 
ment of German light opera. 

In the 18th century, Johann 
Adam Hiller created the Sing- 
spiel. This was a kind of 
vaudeville consisting of spoken 
dialogue interspersed with 
songs. His principal works, 
‘Der Dorfbarbier’ (1771) and 
‘Die Jagd’ (1771) may still be 
heard occasionally. 

The Singspiel retained a 
hold on the affections of the 
public until, in the late 18th 
century, Mozart created the 
classical Singspiel. AVhile the 
ISth-centurj’' Italian lig’i^ 
operas had concentrated on the 
music withoutmuch concernfor 


COMIC OPERA OF THE 19TH CENTURY 



Characters from the ‘Pirates of Penzance* (1880), The operatic works 
of Gilbert and Sullivan are a direct link between ballad opera and 
modern operetta. 


20TH-CENTURY OPERETTA 





Widow IS the type of waltz opera in 
the ronmntic love theme has become dominant. 
Comedy is used for relief. 




OPERA 


« 397 


THE MODERN AMERICAN LIGHT OPERAS 



materials from American life, 
Both of these light /^hlrm of a play written around definite 

at the top, has the color and charm map 3 , the bottom, is 

is cosmopolitan. •Porgy and Bess (1 reflects the Negro idiom. 


, ‘Oklahoma’ (1943) pictured 
folkways, although its music 
an opera of southern Negro 


the libretto or story, the 
German light operas had 
concentrated on the dia- 
logue to which the music 
was incidental. Mozart | 
restored the balance 
between the two, and 
thereby revolutionized 
the history of light 
opera. ‘The Marriage of 
Figaro’ (1786) is said to 
be the perfect comic 
opera, ‘Cosi fan Tutte’ 

(1790) the perfect mu- 
sical comedy, ‘II Serag- 
lio’ (1782) the perfect 
comedy opera, and ‘The 
Magic Flute’ (1791) the 
perfect fairy-allegory. 

During the 19th cen- 
luTij, the romantic school 
of opera arose, and, 
while usually concerned 
ivith somewhat somber 
themes, the group pro- 
duced some light works, 
notably ‘Fidelio’ (1805) 
by Beethoven, and ‘Der 
Freischtitz’ (1821) by 
Carl von IVeber. 

Following this, com- 
edy opera known as 
Spiel-Oper was very pop- 
ular. Best knowm of 
these are ‘Nachtlager 
von Granada’ (1834) by 
Kreutzer, ‘Lustigen Wei- 
ber von Windsor’ (1847) 
by Nicolai, and ‘Martha’ 

(1847) by Flotow. Wag- 
ner’s music dramas are, 
for themost part, serious, 
but ‘Die Meistersinger 
von Niirnberg’ (1868) is 
n great comic work. 

Famous Austrian 
Light Operas 

In Vienna during the 
I9th century, the waltz 
ovcra had its origin. Johann Strauss the first created 
the Waltz and Johann the second created waltz opera, 
n combination of dancing with the French opera 
bouffe. The best-known w’orks of the younger Strauss, 
asides his many wmltzes, are ‘Die Fledermaus' (182/), 
Cagliostro’ (1875), and ‘Der Ziegeuner-baron’ (1885). 
Cue of the most popular comic operas of the 1^1“ 

was Smetana’s ‘The Bartered Bride’ (1866), 
''^^nh is still retived from time to time. _ 

The popularity of the waltz opera continued into 
die 20th century’, and great successes were achieved 
by Franz Lehar’s ‘The Merry Widow’ (1905) and 


‘Ziegeuner-Liebe’, Oskar Straus’s ‘The Waltz Dream’ 
(1906) and ‘The Chocolate Soldier’ (1908). Richard 
Strau.«s, in ‘Der Rosenkavalier’ (1911) developed 
classical waltz opera. This composition wiiich has an 
abundance of charming waltz themes, is included in 
grand opera repertoire today. 

English Types of Light Opera 
In England the bards and minstrels fostered the 
love of music. The minstrel laj’, the madrigal, and 
the masque may be considered the three steps in mu- 
sical development tyhich contributed the ingredients 
of ballad opera. 


OPERA 


398 


During the 18th century, Italian opera was extremely 
popular in England, and the ballad opera was the Eng- 
lish reaction to it. This art form became firmly es- 
tabhshed v\dth the ‘Beggar’s Opera’ (1728), which 
contained a vein of political satire and in addition v'as 
intended to burlesque Italian opera. The tunes were 
chosen from the great store of English, Irish, and 
Scottish melodies already existing. It was followed 
by a number of other ballad operas, and soon these 
began to use newty composed music. Among the best 
known of the composers were Dr. Thomas Ame (‘Love 
in a Village’, 1762), Charles Dibdin (‘The Waterman’, 
1774), William Shield (‘Rosina’, 1783), and Stephen 
Storace (‘The Haunted Tower’, 1789). 

In the 19lh century, Sir Henry Bishop early raised 
the standards of ballad opera with his charming works. 
It gradually became more sentimental and developed 
into popular lyric or romantic opera with ‘The Bohe- 
mian Girl’ (1843) bj’' Balfe and ‘Lily of Killamey’ 
(1862) by Julius Benedict. 

From 1831 to 1885, burlesques led in popularity. 
Most of them were travesties of serious musical 
works. At first they were trivial one-act perform- 
ances. But some were the work of genuine humorists 
Mth excellent literary quality. 

After 1885 these performances became longer and 
more elaborate. Music was written especially for 
them, they were lavishly costumed, and dancing be- 
came a prominent feature. Here, then, were the 
beginnings of modern musical comedy. 

Before this transition, however, Gilbert and Sulli- 
van created out of burlesque a new trend, that of 
English comic opera, which commenced with ‘Trial by 
Jury’ in 1875. The next 12 years were marked by 
an unbroken sequence of sparkling, tuneful Gilbert 
and Sullivan productions, including ‘The SorcereE 
(1877), ‘H. M. S. Pinafore’ (1878), ‘Pirates of Pen- 
zance’ (1879), ‘Patience’ (1881), ‘lolanthe’ (1882), 
‘Princess Ida’ (1884), ‘The Mikado’ (1885), ‘Ruddi- 
gore’ (1887), ‘The Yeomen of the Guard’ (1888), and 
‘The Gondoliers’ (1889). Because of the high quality 
of both lyrics and music, these hold a unique place in 
light opera. To this daj" their popularity continues. 
(See also Gilbert and Sullivan.) 

The 20th century saw the beginnings of the romantic 
tjqje of musical drama which has since dominated light 
opera in England. It consists of a combination of the 
most effective points in ballad and comic opera. The 
new movement actuallj'' commenced with Sullivan’s 
‘Ivanhoe’ (1891). Other writere in this field have been 
Sir Charles Stanford, Ivan Caryll, P. M. Faraday, 
Liza Lehmann, and Ralph Vaughan Williams. 

Light Opera in America 

According to the records, the first performance of 
this type given in New York was the ‘Beggar’s Opera’, 
in 1750. This was sufficiently popular to encourage 
the importation of other baUad operas during the next 
75 years with performances given in New York City, 
Philadelphia, and Boston. In the 19th century the 
English importations began to be supplemented with 
French operettas and Viennese waltz operas. 


Reginald de Koven (1859-1920) ma}" lay claim to 
having been the first American operatic composer of 
importance. He wrote two romantic music dramas, 
‘The Canterbury Pilgrims’ and ‘Rip van Winkle’, in 
addition to 19 light operas. His outstanding successes 
were ‘Robin Hood’, ‘Rob Roy’, ‘Don Quixote’, ‘Tzi- 
gane’, ‘The Highwayman’, and ‘The Student King’. 

Victor Herbert composed at least 35 light operas. 
Most of them were tuneful, but lacked enduring 
flavor. Among the best of his works were ‘The Wizard 
of the Nile’, ‘The Idol’s Eye’, ‘Prince Ananias’, 
‘Naughty Marietta’, ‘The Red hlill’, ‘The Fortune 
Teller’, and ‘The Singing Girl’ (see Herbert). 

Sigmund Romberg (1887-1951) was born in Hun- 
gary. His first work given in New York was ‘The 
Midnight Girl’ (1913). ‘The Student Prince’ was 
produced in 1924 in collaboration vdth Karl Hajox, 
followed by ‘The Desert Song’, ‘Maytime’, and others. 

Rudolf Friml (born 1881) was born in Prague. At 
19 he came to America. ‘The Firefly’ vns his first 
work, produced in 1912. It was followed by ‘The 
Ballet Girl’, ‘Katinka’, ‘The Peasant Girl’, ‘ICitty 
Darlin’ ’, and the sensational success ‘Rose Marie’. 

Jerome Kern (1885-1945), born in New York City, 
produced many operetta scores marked 63 ' pleasing 
melody and tasteful style, among which the most 
outstanding were ‘Sally’, ‘Sunny’, ‘Show Boat’, 
‘Music in the Air’, and ‘Roberta’. 

George Gershwin was one of the most talented 
pioneers in the creation of music Mth jazz idiom as a 
basis. ‘Of Thee I Sing’ (1931) was his greatest musical 
corned}' success (see Gershwin). 

‘Oklahoma!’ which was opened in 1943, and ‘South 
Pacific’, staged in 1949, were memorable successes 
\vith l 3 'rics b}' Oscar Hammerstein II and music by 
Richard Rodgers. 

The preparation of elaborate motion-picture ver- 
sions of the more popular light operas has brought them 
to millions who would never see them on the stage. 
Opium. Chief of the narcotic drugs which have 
both helped and harmed mankind is opium, the dried 
juice from the seed pod of the opium popp}' (Papaver 
somniferum). Used as medicine, opium deadens pain. 
When it is used for its pleasurable effects, it saps 
energ}' and mental strength and forms a habit which 
can be broken onl}' with the greatest difficult}'. 

Opium poppies, with their fragile flowers of red or 
white or purple, thrive in a hot climate but cannot 
endure heavy rain. Since each plant yields but little 
juice and since the fields must be weeded often, the 
poppies can be grown profitably only where land 
and labor are cheap, as in Asia and in the Balkans. 
After the poppies bloom, laborers — chiefly women 
and children — tediously collect the milky juice 
from the seed pods. Opium poppies grow chiefly m 
China, India, Iran, Turkey, and So^^et Russia. 
Much of it is sent to Europe and the United States, 
where it is manufactured into opiates for medicinal 
use — morphine, laudanum, and codeine. Japan, 
once a large manufacturer, was forbidden after 
the second World War to produce opiates. 



399 » 


OPOSSUM 


harvesting opium in china 



The children are slitting the pods of the poppy blossoms that 
have shed their petals, and the woman is collecting the juice that 
flows from the pods with a suction tube. In the older method of 
harvesting, the juice is allowed to dry on the pod after it nov/s 
out of the cuts, and is scraped off the next day. 

Opium smoking and eating have long been grave 
problems in the Orient. In India the government per- 
mits the moderate use of opium, but proliibits exports 
except for medical use. Japan has long banned use of 
the drug, but produced it in the puppet state of Man- 
chukuo as a government monopoly. China has often 
tried to abolish opium smoking by banning the grow- 
ing of the opium poppy. It fought the “Opium War 
with Great Britain (1839^2) to stop British imports of 
the drug from India, but was defeated and forced to 
permit smuggling. In 1935 the Chinese government took 
over the control of opium and established cure centers. 

Ancient peoples used opium medicinally as early as 
the days of the Assyrians. In the Middle Ages Arabs 
introduced it into India and China, and its use spread 
into Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, almost 
nil “pain killer” medicines contained opiates. When 
|he people of the United States came to realize the 
habit-formmg property of these medicines, state and 
kderal laws w'ere enacted to drive them off 
Ihe market. Physicians now prescribe opi- 
ntes only to relieve pain and to bring needed 
ri^p (see Drugs; Narcotics). 

The first international opium conference 
®^nt Shanghai in 1909. Later conferences 
nlThe Hague in 1912 and at Geneva in 1925 
^nd 1931 resulted in treaties designed to 
Insulate the opium trade. The United Na- 
mns Commission on N arcotic Drugs and two 
other-' •• - . i_„. 


Opos'sum. The peculiar way in which the opossum 
rears its young sets it apart from all other American 
animals. As many as a dozen may be born at a time, 
each about half an inch long. At once they crawl into 
a pouch on the mother’s abdomen. There they' fasten 
themselves to the milk glands and remain Iielp]e.ss for 
about six weeks. When they' first come out of tlie i)ouch 
they are the size of mice. For some time after that 
they ride around on their mother’s back, clinging to 
her fur and crawling back into her pouch to sleep. 

This way of rearing the young is peculiar to the 
group of mammals called marsupials (from the Latin 
w'ord marsupium for “pouch”), including kangaroos, 
w'ombats, “Tasmanian devils,” and bandicoots. The 
opossums of North America and their relativ'cs in 
South and Central America are the only marsupials 
now found outside the Australian region. 

■Rdien full grown, the common opossum is about the 
size of a house cat (33 inches to the tip of the tail). 
The head is small, but has long narrow jaws set with 
50 teeth. The feet are five-toed. Each toe on the 
forefoot has a long sharp nail that helps in climbing 
trees. Four toes on the hindfoot also have nails. The 
nailless first toe is used like a thumb to grasp branches. 
The tail, long and ratlike, also helps in climbing. There 
are two coats of fur; the inner coat is soft and short, 
and the outer is coarse, long, and a grizzled gray- 

in color. . , 

During the day the opossum sleeps m a burrow, 
brush pile, hollow log, or tree. At night it hunts m 
trees or on the ground. It grows fat from eating birds, 
frogs, fish, eggs, insects, and fruit. It climbs to the 
tips of branches to get cherries, mulbemes, and per- 
simmons. But its slovmess makes it an easy prey of 
owls, wolves, coyotes, wildcats, foxes, and brars. 

Hunting the opossum with dogs is a favonte sport 
in the South on autumn nights. Wheii surprised by a 
hunter, the opossum pretends to be dead, ^om this 
trick has come the expression “playing ’possum 
The flesh is enjoyed by some, and the fur is prized for 
making women^s co8-ts. .... \ -n • i 

toS York- Texa" Coas,! 

S?ervariaty!rangas from Florida to western Louisiana. 

CTTU HIM BY DAYLIGHTT 


. ' International groups watch over law- 

n opium traffic and suggest measures for 
'controlling aU illegal trade. Despite thpe 
I orts, huge quantities are smuggled in- 
0 niany countries and sold to addicts. 



A-- — -- does its hunting ai i 

"f^ng^ramh^tlil Uh w'hich it can take hold of th.ng. 


5 opossum 

Notice the long ratUke 



ORANGE 


400 


Orange. Juicy, round, golden oranges are perhaps 
the best-liked fruit in the world. In America a 
large share of the people enjoy them daily. Infants, 
when only a few months old, are given this whole- 
some juice. Boys and girls carry oranges in school 
lunch boxes. Housewives find oranges in the market 
all year long. Thousands of people work at growing 
and distributing the nation’s mammoth crop. 

A century ago the orange was much less plentiful 
and familiar, though it had been cultivated for thou- 
sands of years. The tree grows only 
in the warm (tropical and subtrop- 
ical) parts of the earth. Few peo- 
ple in the cooler regions were able 
to get oranges until the develop- 
ment of speedy transportation, re- 
frigerator cars and ships, and cold 
storage (see Refrigeration). 

Demand for oranges increased 
greatly after people learned that 
the fruit was healthful as well as 
delicious. In the 1890’s physicians 
found that people with scurvy could 
be cured by drinking the juice of 
oranges and related citrus fruits — 
lemons, limes, and grapefruit. Lat- 
er, scientists discovered that the 
juice is beneficial because it is rich 
in vitamin C (see Food; Vitamins). 

It also contains some vitamin A, 
vitamin Bn and certain of the 
minerals that the body needs. 

Though an orange is about 87 per cent water, its 
high sugar content gives it a calorie count of 70. 

In the 20th century American consumption in- 
creased amazingly. During the 1909-10 season, some 
17 million boxes of oranges (including tangerines) 
were grown and sold for about 18 million dollars. In 
1950-51 growers sold 121 million boxes for about 
234 million dollars. 

Before the second World War, nearly all the crop 
was marketed as fresh fruit. In 1944 scientists worked 
out a method of concentrating the juice in a vacuum 
and freezing it without destroying its flavor and 
vitamin content. Soon the frozen juice became pop- 
ular, and by the early 1950’s about half the oranges 
sold went to processing plants. They pack canned 
juice, unfrozen concentrate, and marmalade, as well 
as frozen concentrate. By-products include dehy- 
drated stock feed, pectin, citric acid, essential oils, 
molasses, and candied peel. 

Where Oranges Grow 

The United States produces more oranges than 
any other country. California and Florida yield 95 
per cent of the output, and smaller crops come from 
Arizona, Texas, ■ and Louisiana. California growers 
shipped the most fruit until frozen juice became pop- 
ular. Then Florida moved ahead, since its processing 
plants pack most of the concentrate. 

Brazil and Spain rank second and third among or- 
ange grondng countries. Other countries with large 


ORANGE BLOSSOMS 



Brides have traditionally chosen the fra- 
grant, waxy-white flowers of the orange 
tree to wear at the marriage ceremony. 


yields include Italy, Japan, Argentina, Me.xico, Pal- 
estine, Egypt, and Algeria. 

The Fruit and Its History 
Oranges grow on a handsome, symmetrical tree that 
reaches about 15 to 30 feet in height. Its leaves are 
evergreen and glossy and its waxy white blossoms have 
a heavy fragrance. The fruit is classed as a berry 
by botanists. Its orange-colored rind is tough on 
the outside and white and spongy inside. (For illus- 
tration in color, see Fruits.) Within are eight or more 
segments (locules) filled with a 
juicy pulp. Most oranges contain 
seeds. The seedless navel has small 
locules, like a tiny orange, at the 
spiral end. 

The orange tree is believed to be 
a native of southern China or Bur- 
ma, where it was cultivated as early 
as 1000 or 1500 b.c. The Arabs 
carried the fruit to Africa and 
Spain during 8th-century Moslem 
conquests. Crusaders brought 
seeds to Italy and southern France. 
Thus far Europe knew only the 
sour, or Seville, orange (Citrus 
auranlium) . Later, Portuguese 
explorers brought from India the 
sweet orange (Citrus sinensis). It 
is the parent of most cultivated 
varieties. Spanish explorers brought 
the seed of both Wnds to warm 
parts of the New World. 

Florida’s Spanish plantings had run wild by the 
time English-speaking settlers arrived. Orange-grow- 
ing on a large scale began after railroads were built 
to the state. Modern groves are mainly in the warm 
central part. The heavy rainfall makes irrigation un- 
necessary. Florida’s chief varieties are the Hamlin, 
Parson Brown, Homosassa, Pineapple, Ruby, Valencia 
Late, and Lue Gim Gong. Early and midseason varie- 
ties are picked from October through April, while 
Valencias go to market from February 1 to July 31. 

Northern Florida and Louisiana also grow the hard- 
ier, loose-skinned mandarin oranges (Citris nohilis). 
The best-knovTi mandarins are tangerines, Satsumas, 
Dancys, and Kings. 

The first California orchards were planted at the 
old missions. The great expansion of commercial 
groves followed the first carload shipment to the East 
in 1877. The warm valleys of the Los Angeles area are 
the center of orange growing. Irrigation is needed. 

The famous seedless Washington navel orange was 
developed in California after two trees bearing seed- 
less fruit were brought from Bahia, Brazil, in 1873. 
The state’s groves have a long bearing season. Navels 
are picked from November through May, and Valen- 
cias from March 1 to December 31. 

Growing and Handling Oranges 
Nurserymen prepare young trees for the grove by 
budding or grafting a stem bud of a desired variety 
on a rooted seedling of hardy stock. The trees are 













ORANGE 


402 


planted in regular rows 25 or 30 feet apart. They need 
a soil rich in minerals and humus, so the ground is fer- 
tilized and a cover crop is harrowed into the soil. 

Insect pests and fungus dis- 
eases attack the orchard. The 
grower must spray the trees 
with chemicals and fumigate 
with gases. Among the pests 
are various scale insects, the 
white fly, and the rust mite. 

The ladybird beetle was im- 
ported from Australia to eat 
scale insects. When frost threat- 
ens, growers fight it by lighting 
smudge fires in the groves or 
using a wind machine to blow 
away the blanket of freezing air. 

Growers belong to co-opera- 
tive packing and marketing as- 
sociations. Their experts decide 
when a grove’s crop is mature 
and send in a crew of pickers. 

Pickers are often migratory 
workers who move about as 
oranges and other fruits ripen. 

At packing centers, the fruit is 
washed, graded, sized, wrapped 
and boxed for shipping or sent 
in bulk to processing plants. If 
oranges look green after they 
mature, they may be gassed 
with ethylene to destroy the 
chlorophyll in the rind and 
bring out the orange color. 

Oranges may be waxed to re- 
tard shrinking during storage. 

Orange free state. Since 1910 the Orange Free 
State has been one of the four provinces of the 
Union of South Africa. The land between the Orange 
and Vaal rivers was settled about 1836 by Boer emi- 
grants (“Voortrekkers”) from the Cape of Good Hope. 
Although annexed by the British governor of the 
Cape in 1848, it achieved independence in 1854. De- 
feat in the Boer War (1899-1902) brought it again 
under British rule. {See also Boer War; South Africa.) 

Most of the land is a gently rolling prairie — the 
high veld. Agriculture and mining are the chief in- 
dustries. Area, 49,647 square miles; total population 
(1951 census, preliminary), 1,018,207. Bloemfontein 
(109,130) is the capital of the province. 

ORANG UTAN. The name of this member of the 
ape family, found in the swampy forests of Borneo 
and Sumatila, comes from the Malay language and 
signifies "man of the woods.” It is well named, for 
like the chimmnzee and the gorilla, it approaches 
closely to man m appearance and structure. A full- 
grown male occasionally reaches a height of four and 
a half feet, but the outstretched arms cover more 
than seven feet. The body is bulky and covered 
with long, reddish-brown hair. The legs are short, but 


the arms are so long as to reach the anldes when the 
animal is erect, and in wallang the loiuckles are 
placed on the ground. Orang utans, however, are 
awkward on the ground and 
prefer the trees, where they 
can travel at' the rate of five 
or six miles an hour, without 
special effort, by swinging 
along on the branches, which 
they grasp mainly with their 
hands. They feed on fruits 
and succulent shoots, being 
strictly vegetarian in their 
diet. They get most of their 
food on the trees, but go to- 
the ground for water. They 
live in pairs. As a rule they 
are peaceable, but when dis- 
turbed they are fierce fighters. 
They retire to rest at sundown 
in nests of broken boughs 20 
or 30 feet above ground. In 
captivity they are teachable 
and the changing expression 
of the face makes them most 
interesting, though they are 
not so active and intelligent as 
the chimpanzee. Scientific 
name, Simia satyrus. 
Orchestra. When we 
watch a brass band, we see 
men playing horns and drums. 
When we look at a military 
band we see the same horn and 
drum groups, and with them a 
group of players using flutes 
and clarinets and other wood-wind instruments. 
When we listen to an orchestra we find, besides all 
these, still another and larger group playing , 
stringed instruments. [ 

This, then, is the difference between an orchestra ; 
and a band — that when we listen to an orchestra we 1 
really hear four “bands” in one! There is the siring t 
“band” made up of various members of the violin | 
family, the wood-wind “band” made of all the wind | 
instruments that are made of wood ; the brass “band,” | 

with its various kinds of “horns”; and the noisy , 
group of big and little drums, and all the other queer 
■percussion instruments that are struck or beaten. 

All large orchestras also have one or more harps. 

The “strings” form the foundation of the modern 
orchestra. They are capable of the greatest variety 
of expression in giving voice to the depths and 
heights of human emotion. The violins sing the 
soprano; the second violins the alto, the violas the 
tenor, the violoncellos (or “ cellos”) the baritone, and 
the double-basses (or bass viols) the bass {see Violin). 

Next in importance is the wood-wind group, wiiich 
is divided into three families. The first family con- i,^ 
sists of the flute, which with its clear sweet liquid ijj 


A YOUNG “MAN OF THE WOODS” 



In general appearance the Orang utan is not as 
manlike as the gorilla, but the form of his head, 
particularly in the young ones, is more like that of 
man than either the Gorilla^s or the Chimpanzee’s. 


HOW INSTRUMENTS ARE GROUPFn 

1;U I't ' 


/#t;Vi*1Ui s!‘ '; 


IN A SYMPHONY 











is a tvniroi ir^ — : " •' ' orchestra. No one standard arrangement prevails. The con- 

^«ttoraayP y arr^gement of ms^ to give the most effective presentation of the particnlar com- 




403 



TWO POPULAR MUSICAL GROUPS 












*f' 








si*#* 


Ml 




A precision-marching Army band swings up Fifth Avenue in New York City, It provides a stirring march tempo for the whole 
parade. The drum major in front establishes the beat with his baton and holds a whistle in his mouth for blowing -marching stg* 
nals* Marching bands use only woodwinds, brasses, and percussion instruments. All instruments, of course, must be portaoiei 




1' r 






I 








% 








■ • ^ •'N ■ 










405 


ORCHESTRA 


A PAGE 
BJtgTt.-Jstl. 


notes is the most agile and flexible of the woods; and 
the piccolo, a shriller flute which has been called "the 
imp of the orchestra.” The second includes the oboe, 
with its plaintive pastoral tone, and the deeper Eng- 
lish hom and bassoon, 
which may be regarded 
as alto and bass oboes. 

The third comprises 
the clarinets, which 
are known by their 
full rich mellow tones. 

There are usually 
three of these of differ- 
ent pitch. Oboes and 
clarinets, as disting- 
uished from the flute 
family, are reed in- 
struments. 

The “brasses” con- 
sist of the French 
hom, which is the old 
hunting hom adapted 
to orchestral purposes ; 
the trumpet, with its 
full round brilHant 
tone (often replaced 
by the comet); the 
majestic trombone, an 
instrument of great 
range and power, and 
the deep-toned tuba, 
the bass of the brass 
band (see Horn, 

Musical). 

Of the percussion 
instruments, often 
called “the battery,” 
some produce" noises” 
rather than definite 
musical notes. Such 
are the bass and snare 
drums, triangle, 
cymbals, etc., whose 
purpose is to accen- 
tuate the rhythm or 


OF AN ORCHESTRAL SCORE 



Great orchestral conductors of^n retain ^ozensM.^^ S concert but may 



or 


, - help to pro- 
duce various descrip- 
tive effects (see Drum). The kettle-dmms, _ 
!/wipani, however, which are among the most im 
j resting instruments in the orchestra, can be tuned 
to sound certain notes. The bells, “ glockenspiel,” ot 
carillon," and the steel plates of the celesta likewuse 
definite pitch. 

^at a marvelous thing an orchestra is ! As some- 
has said: “It holds within itself nearly every 
of tone from the deepest rumble of the bass 
uba and growl of the double-bass to the cool, flowing 
one of the clarinet and bassoon and to the pene- 
^tmg call of the flute, the cry of the violin, and 


the scream of the piccolo. It holds within itself 
every kind of vibration from bowed, or plucked, 
strings, and air blowm upon quivering reeds, or 
through pipes, or tubes, or horns; it has every kind 

of thump on tightly 
stretched skin; it has 
every kind of rattle, 
clang, and clash; and 
every kind of sharp 
blow, from the heavy 
stroke on the steel 
rods to the silvery 
notes of beUs, or the 
brilliant fiery sparks 
from the triangle.” 

Every instmment 
in the orchestra has 
been hundreds of 
years in developing 
to its present perfec- 
tion (see Musical In- 
straments). So has 
the music it plays for 
us. Even the name 
"orchestra” comes to 
us from the Greek 
language of long ago. 
It meant the "dancing 
place” and the name 
came to be given to 
the instrument players 
because in the old 
Greek theater those 
players used to be 
placed in the circular 
space in front of the 
spectators, where the 
chorus danced and 
sang. 

The early orchestras 
were very different 
from the great orches- 
tras of today. About 
the time that the first 
white people came to 
live in America, the 
orchestras in Italy, 
which was then the 
chief home of music, had less than a score of instru- 
ments. One of the best remembered of these organ- 
izations had only 


seven — one harpsichord (the 
forerunner of the piano), one gmtar, one jiol on® 
ute and three flutes. The great orchestra of the 
IVench conductor Berlioz, 200 years later used 100 
stringed instruments, 18 woodwunds, 49 brasses, 18 
three pairs of cjmibals, and a gong! A modem 

A tvpical one is made up as follows: 16 
fii^olint 14 ^second vrioUns, 10 violas, 10 violon- 
cellos, 8 double-basses, 3 flutes, 2 oboes, 1 Enghsh 




406 


ORCHESTRA 


horn, '3 clarinets, 3 bassoons, 4 trumpets, 4 horns, 3 
trombones, 2 tenor tubas, 2 bass tubas, 1 contra- 
bass tuba, 2 pairs of kettledrums, bass drum, cymbals, 
harp, and celesta. 

With so many instruments playing together it is 
very important to have a leader, or conductor, to 
indicate the time and to preserve the proper balance 
between the groups. You realize how complicated 
his task is when you look at the many lines of notes 
on each page of a conductor’s score. Besides indi- 
cating the time and the expression the conductor 
also usually signals each solo player or group of 
players when they are to enter, if they have been 
silent for a few bars. 

Almost every large city of Europe has at least one 
symphony orchestra, and there are scores of such 
organizations in the United States. 

Orchid (dr'Jcid). Fabulous prices have been paid 
for a single rare specimen of the remarkable orchid 
family of plants. These flowers are so exquisite in 
their delicate colorings of rose and lilac, yellow, 
white, and green, so pleasing in their violet or orris- 
root fragrance, and so graceful in man 3 ’’ of their 
forms, that they have become the favorites of florists 
and all flower-loving folk. So great is the demand 
that thousands of dollars’ worth of them are imported 
annually from South America, the East Indies, the 
Philippines, and even from Australia. Manj’- an 
eager collector has climbed precipices, waded through 
malarial swamps, endured all dangers of tropical 
forests, and braved even the head-hunters of Borneo 
to get these treasured flowers. To prevent their 
total extinction some South American governments 
have put a stop to all orchid collecting. 

Some orchids grow upon the ground as do so manj" 
of the other flowers, and some grow in wet marshy 
places and live on dead organic matter. The most 


valuable group are the air plants, which grow on tree 
trunks and branches in tropical and subtropical re- 
gions. They obtain their nourishment not from the 
support that some of their roots cling to but from 
their long spongy aerial roots which absorb the dust 
blowing around them as well as other food given by 
the moisture-laden atmosphere (see Air Plants). 

Their flowers in color and form are often so close 
an imitation of queer bright-colored bees, butterflies, 
frogs, and lizards that the flower-destroying insects 
pass them by. All members of the family have 
various schemes for getting pollen-carrying insects 
to visit them. Inside the walls of the flower are 
tempting juices, but to reach them their insect 
visitor must first pass through the wonderfully con- 
structed “lip,” a conspicuously colored modified 
petal. These callers pay for their feast by carrying 
pollen masses away with them. Some orchids give 
their insect visitors a bath of nectar so as to make 
them crawl with wet \vings up a certain path where 
they touch the pollen masses and stigma; some hurl 
their pollen masses at them, and others have various 
and no less remarkable devices to make sure that 
fertilization is properly carried out. 

One species of orchid furnishes the vanilla of com- 
mercial use, and another the medicinal salep (see 
Vanilla). The orchids include not only the rare hot- 
house plants but certain more familiar species, such 
as those delicate and fragile wild flowers of our woods, 
the ladies tresses and the lady’s-slippers. Among 
the latter, the showy lady’s-slipper most closely re- 
sembles the orchid in appearance (see Lady’s-Slipper). 

There are more than 400 genera of the orchid fam- 
ily (Orchidaceae) and the number of species is esti- 
mated at more than 15,000. Fully 3,000 species are 
under cultivation. About 75 species are in the United 
States, including Alaska. Orchids thrive in all parts 

of the world where it is not 
too hot or too cold. They 
are divided into two general 
groups — the East Indian 
and the South American. 
Orchids are the most high- 
Ij' organized flowers among 
the monocotyledons. These 
perennial herbs have simple 
stems, often arising from 
bulbs; simple leaves; showy 
irregular flowers, with three 
beautifully colored sepals 
and three petals, one of 
which, the labellum, or 
“lip,” is long, fringed, or 
saclike. The one or two 
stamens are united with 
the pistil, and the one- 
celled ovary contains about 
a million tiny ovules. The 
pollen is held together in 
masses by cobweblike 
threads. 


FROM ORCHID SEED TO FLOWER TAKES MANY YEARS 




■ ty... A- - 




' I'-' '• 



The orchid seeds in the gardener’s flask develop as shown in the flowerpots. The numbers 
indicate the age in years of each plant. Orchids usually bloom in the fourth to eighth year. 







A Skiway Bus climbs 2,200 feet in the three-mile woJws® bnEe^'’al?id^r^- 

?.5."fcn7'e;C» Ke?. Kl S.trSS “ »1 MouM H.cd. 


grandeur and OPPORTUNITY in OREGON 


QREGON. For nearly half a century, the word 
“Oregon” was a call to adventure for Americans, 
first it referred to the river (now called the 
Columbia) and the vast wilderness the river drained, 
lany fortunes were made. Sea captains obtained 
®rgoes of fur pelts and traded them for silk and 
CO in China. Oregon was named the “Beaver State 
Of its rich yield of pelts for beaver hats. 

In 1834 missionaries arrived and kindled interest 
ock east in settlement of the area. By 1843 free 
ond had drawn settlers over the Oregon Trail. For 
pe years it seemed that Great Britain and the 
hited States might war over the region. In 1846, 
the two nations divided the land. Congress 
s ablished the territory of Oregon, and in 1859 ad- 
"“tted part of it to the Union as the present state. 

ha few years the settlers in the west had devel- 
Pc thriving farm commruiities. The spirit of adven- 
fc and some lawlessness, however, continued ^ m 
'hing camps and on eastern cattle ranges. Indian 
“p added excitement until the last struggle in 1880. 

emerged the Oregon of today, a state 
dp ^ favored by nature and a land of man-made v on- 
playground in anj'' season, it offers recreation 


as varied as its climate and land features. Along 
the long coast are many fine ocean beaches. The spiny 
back of the Cascade Mountains di\ddes the state into 
two contrasting regions — plateaus, mountains, and 
lakes to the east, and valleys. Coast Range, and 
coastal plain to the west. At one end of the Cascades 
is perpetually snow-capped Mount Hood, and at the 
other end the deep blue waters of Crater Lake fill a 
volcano crater. In southwest Oregon nature carved 
the Oregon Caves in a mountain of marble, and in 
the northeast, lofty peaks rim M^allowa Lake. 

The Snake River has cut the deepest gorge on the 
continent and the Columbia is famous for salmon. 
From the Columbia River Highway can be seen spec- 
tacular gorges. Bonneville Dam across the Columbia 
generates power for aluminum and chemical plants in 
the Portland area. This metropolis is a great port. 

From the forests, mines, and farms come raw mate- 
rials for important manufactures. Oregon cuts more 
lumber than any other state. It is one of the few 
states mining mercury' and chromite. The western 
third grows a wide variety of crops and is famed for 
fmit groMng. The eastern two thirds has wheat fields, 
cattle and sheep ranges, and irrigated lands. 










OREGON — 408 — . 

A LAND OF MOUNTAINS, RICH VALLEYS, AND DRY PLATEAUS As the Snake flows 

along Oregon’s east- 
ern boundary, it 
runs through awe- 
some gorges of ba- 
salt until it enters 
the Columbia to the 
north in Washing- 
ton State. Grand 
Canyon of the Snake 
River between the 
Wallowa Range in 
Oregon and the Sev- 
en Devils Moun- 
tains in Idaho is 
more than a mile 
deep. This long can- 
yon is North Amer- 
ica’s deepest gorge. 

The valley of the 
Columbia River 
along the northern 
border is much less 
rugged. It narrows 
where the river cuts 
through the Cas- 
cades west of Hood 
River. Here mag- 
nificent scenery can 
be viewed from the 
railroad at the riv- 
er’s edge or from the 

Oregon has truly “grown up with the country.” In Columbia River Highway. Among the scenic high 

1859 it entered the Union with about 50,000 people, lights is Multnomah Falls. Near Portland, the Col- 

By 1940 the population was 1,089,684; and by 1950 umbia receives the AVillamette (see Columbia River), 

it had increased another 40 per cent to 1,521,341. The Pacific side of the Coast Range is drained 

The Varied Land by several rivers. Among them are (north to south) 

The eastern two thirds of Oregon is a rough, the Wilson, Umpqua, Coos, Coquille, and Rogue, 

uneven plateau lying betw'een 4,000 and 5,000 feet A splendid coastal highway spans the entire state, 

above sea level. The surface is broken by several How Climate Varies with Elevation 

mountain ranges, particularly the Blue and Wallowa The arrangement of land explains the varied cli- 
ranges in the extreme northeast. mate and agricultural resources. Warm, moisture- 

West of the plateau the Cascades rise to between laden winds blow eastw^ard from the Pacific. As 

6,000 and 7,000 feet above sea level, with many they rise over the Coast Range and the Cascades, 

peaks reaching higher. Several extinct volcanoes rise they drop much of their moisture. As a result, the 

to 10,000 feet or more. Among the peaks are Mount rainfall in northwest Oregon ranges from 50 to about 

Hood, Mount Jefferson, the Three Sisters, Mount 120 inches, and the temperature is fairly even the year 

Thielsen, Mount Scott, and Mount McLoughlin. In around. In the northeast the rainfall is from 10 to 

the southern part of the range is Crater Lake, one 40 inches. The southeast has only about 8 inches 

of tha scenic wonders of the world. It occupies the annually, and much of the region is desert. Summers 

widened crater of an extinct volcano (see Cascade are extremely hot and wdnters extremely cold. 

Moupftains; National Parks). Plant life changes wdth dramatic suddenness at the 

'low'ard the north, the Cascade Mountains fall off Cascades. To the west, trees grow as high as a 12- 
sharply to the valley of the Willamette River, less story building. Where land has been cleared, it sup- 

than 1,000 feet above sea level. West of the valley, ports rich farms. The forests and fertile land extend 

the Coast Range rises to heights of betw^een 3,000 up to the higher elevations of the Cascade Range, 
and 4,000 feet. Between this range and the Pacific The Willamette Valley between the Coast Range 
Ocean is a narrow coastal strip. and the Cascades is a trough about 180 miles long and 

Deep River Gorges and Broader Valleys 60 miles wide. It is drained by the Willamette River, 

Along parts of the state’s borders, the Snake and which flows northward to join the Columbia. Here 

Columbia rivers have cut deep gashes in the land, live the major portion of the state’s people. Portland, 




fa fK 

A' DaDMifAx - • 


HuntindtonSt f / ^ 







~ T'-rr • %. X Af AoooseZ.'i. . _ ll-iVi - 

U V»o.] n e! , y p !■. a . 

In the northwest is the “heart of Oregon” — the lower part of the Columbia Valley and the valley of 
the Willamette. The Coast Range and the Cascades have ample rain,twh)ch makes it a highly produc- 
tive region. South of the Willamette Valley is more rugged, forested land. East of the Cascades lies a 
vast plateau, broken by lakes and mountain ranges and receiving little rain. 





OREGON ^410- 

A SURERB STRETCH OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER 



This majestic panorama of the Columbia River was photo- the heart of the Cascade Mountains. Crown Point is on the 
graphed from Crown Point on the Columbia River Highway in Oregon side, more than 700 feet above the surface of the river, 


Salem, and Eugene, the three largest cities in the Dam is under construction up the river, and still 
state, are in this valley (see Portland; Salem). It farther west is McNary Dam. On the North Santiam 
receives less rain than the seaward slopes of the Coast is Detroit Dam. Owyhee Dam on the Owyhee River is 
Range but enough to support a highly diversified eastern Oregon’s greatest irrigation project, 
agriculture. It is one of the nation’s greatest fruit- Few Oregon minerals are extensively mined. Stone, 
and berry-growing regions. It is one of the few areas sand and gravel, and .cement are the most valuable, 
in the country where filberts can be grown, and its Gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, carbon dioxide, 
orchards of English walnuts are second only to Cali- pumice, and pumicite are also produced. Oregon is one 
fornia’s. Fiber flax and hops are also important. of the few states that mine mercury and chromite. 

When a traveler passes the crest of the Cascades A New-State Old in History 

and looks eastward, he sees a land of rolling brush, It is believed that the Spaniard Ferrelo was the 
with trees only along watercourses. Great herds of first white man to gaze on the coast of Oregon (1543). 

sheep and cattle roam the plains. In the north are Sir Francis Drake in 1579 sailed his ship, the Golden 

broad fields of wheat, oats, barley, and hay. Through- Hind, along the southern coast before turning west- 

out the eastern region more than a million acres of ward on his famous voyage around the world. A few 

land depend upon dams and irrigation for crops. years later Juan de Fuca claimed to have entered 

Products and Industries of Oregon Puget Sound where a strait still bears his name. 

Oregon’s mountains contain a rich supply of tim- Later explorers probed the coast near the Columbia 
ber — Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, hemlock, spruce. River, at first called the Oregon River, They hoped 
and cedar. Oregon is first among all the states in to find a northwest passage across the continent. A 

lumbering. More than a thousand busy lumber sandbar sealed the mouth of the river, however. In 

mills account for more than half the state’s manufac- 1778 the British explorer Capt. James Cook missed 

turing income. A large related industry is paper and the entrance to the river. Captain John Meares, 

pulp production. The processing of food products is daunted by the breakers at the entrance, named the 

also important. Fruit, vegetable, and fish canneries inlet “Deception Bay’’ and the northern headland 

are found throughout the state. Many flour and “Cape Disappointment,” its present name. In 1792, 

grain mills operate along the Columbia. The state’s however, Capt. Robert Gray in the Columbia (or 

largest manufacturing center is Portland. Columbia Rediviva), a trading vessel, crossed the bar 

Salmon and tuna are the main catch of the valuable and sailed up the river. He renamed it the “Columbia” 

Pacific and Columbia River fisheries. Crabs, sharks, for his ship. This voyage was the first basis for the 

flounders, rockfishes, and grayfish are also of value. United States claim to the Oregon country. Its claim 

Bonneville Dam, on the Columbia River 42 miles was later strengthened by the explorations of Lewis 

upstream from the Willamette’s mouth, supplies power and Clark in 1805-6, and thereafter by the establish- 

for aluminum, chemical, and other industries. Dalles ment of fur-trading posts and early settlements. 

Continued on page 




Oregon Facf Summary 


OREGON (Ore.): Named for Oregon 
River; the name first applied to the 
Columbia. “Oregon” may be from 
the French, Indian, or Spanish. 
Nickname: “Beaver State,” from the 
association of the fur-bearing beavers 
with the early history of Oregon. 
Seal: Star-supported shield showing 
Pacific Ocean with British ship departing, American 
steamer arriving; mountains behind, plow in foreground. 
Motto: The Union. 

Flag: For description and illustration, see Flags. 

Flower: Oregon grape. Bird: Western meadowlark. 
Tree: Douglas fir. Song: ‘Oregon, My Oregon'— words, 
J. A. Buchanan; music, Henry B. Murtagh. 




THE GOVERNMENT 

Capital: Salem (since 1852, when it 
became territorial capital). 

Representation in Congress: Senate, 2; 

House of Representatives, 4. Elec- 
toral votes, 6. 

legislative Assembly: Senators, 30; term, 

4 years. Representatives, 60; term, 2 
years. Convenes 2d Monday in 
January in odd-numbered years. There is no limit to 
the session, but legislators paid for only' 50 days. 

Constitution: Adopted 1859. Proposed amendment must 
be (a) passed by majority vote of legislature and (b) 
ratified by majority voting on amendment at a popular 
election; also amended by (a) initiative petition signed 
by 8 per cent of legal voters who cast ballots in last 
election for a supreme court justice and (b) ratified 
by majority voting on amendment at a popular election. 

Governor: Term, 4 years. Two consecutive terms allowed. 

Other Executive Officers: Secretary of state, attorney' 
general, treasurer, all elected; terms, 4 years. Each 
may succeed himsefi. Secretary of state and treasurer 
may' hold office for only 8 in any period of 12 years. 

Judiciary: Supreme court — 7 justices, elected at large; 
term, 6 years. District courts — 8; 11 judges elected; 
term, 6 years. Circuit courts — 17; 36 judges elected; 
term, 6 years. 

County: 35 counties are governed by county courts of 1 
judge (term, 6 yrs.) and 2 co mm issioners (terms, 4 
y’rs.); Multnomah Co. is governed by 3 commissioners. 

Municipal: Mayor-council common; some cities have 
council-manager; Portland has mayor-commission. 

Voting Qualifications: Age, 21; residence in state, 6 
months; literacy test required. 



Transportation and communication 

Tfonsportation: Railroads, 3,200 miles. First railroad, 
around Cascades of Columbia River (now Union 
acific), 1859. Rural roads, 52,500 miles. Airports, 123. 

'“Ouimunication: Periodicals, 60. Newspapers, 135. First 
newspaper, Oregon Spectator, Oregon City, 1846. Radio 
stations (AM and FM), 52; first station, KGG, Port- 
land, licensed March 15, 1922. Television stations, 
I KPTV, Portland, began operation Sept. 19, 1952. 
elephones, 510,400. Post offices, 591. 


THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 

Population (1950 census): 1,521,341 (rank among 48 
states— 32d); urban, 53.9%; rural, 46.1%. Density: 
15.8 persons per square mile (rank— 38th state). 

Extent: Area, 96,981 square miles, including 666 square 
miles of inland water (9th state in size). 

Elevation: highe.st, Mount Hood, 11,245 foci, ne.-u- 
Government Camp; lowest, sea level. 

Temperature (°F.): Average— annual, 49°; winter, 34°; 
spring, 48°; summer, 64°; fall, 50°. Lowest recorded, 
— 54° (Seneca, Feb. 10, 1933, and other locations and 
date-s); highest recorded, 119° (Pendleton, Aug. 10, 
1898, and other locations and earlier dates). 

Precipitation: Average (inches)— annual, 28; winter, 12; 
.spring, 7; summer, 2; fall, 7. Varies from about 120 
in n.w. to about 8 in central and s.e. portions. 

Natural Features: Cascade Mts. divide state in two; to 
the west lie Willamette Valley', Coast Ranges, and 
the coastal region; to the east, a high plateau covers 
two thirds of Oregon, broken in the northeast by Blue 
and Wallowa mountains and dotted with lakes in 
the south. Chief rivers: Columbia (part of northern 
boundary), Deschutes, Owyhee, Snake, Willamette. 

Land Use: Cropland, 7%; nonforested pasture, 41%; 
forest, 48%; other (roads, parks, game refuges, waste- 
land, cities, etc.), 4%. 

CROPS PASTURE FOREST OTHER 

I I - 

Natural Resources: Agricultural — mild climate; fertile 
soil and grazing land; water for irrigation. Industri- 
al — forests for lumber and paper production; fisheries; 
farm products for food-processing industries; streams 
for water power. Commercial — shipping on Columbia 
River and Pacific Ocean; tourist trade. 


OCCUPATIONS AND PRODUCTS 
Whot the People Do to Earn a Living 



Major Industries and Occupations, 1 950 


Fields of Employment 

Number 

Emploj'od 

Percentage 
of Total 
Employed 


1.30,()0n 

22.7 


ns,3ss 

20.5 

Agriculture, forestry, and fisherj-. . . . 
Professional serUces (medical, legal. 

73,205 

52,546 

12.7 

9.1 

Transportation, communication, and 

49,605 

8.6 


42,927 

7.4 

Personal sersdces (hotel, domestic. 

32,174 

o.G 


23,695 

4.1 

Finance, insurance, and real estate, . 

19,573 

18,009 

3.4 

3.1 

Amusement, recreation, and related 

0,263 

1.1 


1,050 

0.3 

Workers not accounted for 

7,806 

1.4 

Total employed 

570,510 

100.0 


411 



Oregon Fact Summary 



What the People Produce 

A. Manufactured Goods (Rank among states — 25th) 


Value added by manufacture* (1952), SI, 049, 151,000 


Leading Industries in 1947 
(with Principal Products) 

Value Added 
by 

Manufacture 

Rank 

among 

States 

Lumber and Products 

Sawmills and planing mills; ply- 
wood plants 

$363,561,000 

1 

Food and Kindred Products 

Canning, preserving, and freezing; 
bakery products; flour and meal; 
meat products; dairy products 

107,767,000 

23 

Paper and Allied Products 

34,653,000 

25 

Printing and Publishing 

24,311,000 

26 

Fabricated Metal Products 

Boiler shop products; structural 

20,685,000 

25 

and ornamental products 



Machinery (except Electrical) . 
Industrial trucks and tractors 

19,463,000 

29 


'^For explanation of value added by manufacture, see Census. 



B. Farm Products (Rank among states — 30th) 
Total cash income (1952), $411,087,000 


Products 

Amount Produced 
(1 0-Year-Average) 

Rank 

within 

State* 

Rank 

among 

Stalest 

Milk 

647,000,000 qts. 

1 

24 

Cattle 

270,549,000 lbs. 

2 

23 

Wheat 

22,666,000 bu. 

3 

15 

Hay 

1,927,000 tons 

4 

21 

Eggs 

39,000,000 doz. 

5 

31 

Potatoes 

10,736,000 bu. 

6 

12 

Truck crops . . . , 

265,000 tons 

7 

17 

Hogs 

79,569,000 lbs. 

8 

32 

Pears 

4,789,000 bu. 

9 

3 

Turkeys 

37,017,000 lbs. 

10 

4 


•Rank in dollar value tRank in units produced 



C. Fish (Rank among states— 12th) 

(Marine waters and coastal rivers, 1950), catch, 
58,256,000 lbs.; value, .87,151,000 

D. hlinerals (Fuels, Metals, and Stone) 

Annual value (1951), $28,401,000 

Rank among states — 37th 


Minerals (1951) 

Amount Produced 

Value 


8,722,000 tons 
10,504,000 tons 1 

$10,831,000 

1 9,117,000 

Sand and gravel.. 
Cement* 


♦Cement ranks 3d in value; exaet figures not available, 
E. Lumber (Rank among states — 1st) 


6,231,000,000 board feet (5-year average) 
F. Trade 


■Trade (1948) 

Sales 

Rank among States 

Wholesale 

51,908,141,000 

25 

Retail 

1,597,300,000 

28 

Service 

145,677,000 

24 


EDUCATION 

Public Schools: Elementary, 1,065; sec- 
ondary, 224. Compulsory school age, 

7 through 18 or graduation from high 
school. State Board of Education 
composed of 7 members appointed by 
governor with approval of Senate for 
7-year terms, 1 to expire each year. 

State supt. of public instruction 
elected for 4-year term. County supts. elected in 23 
counties for 4-year terms; appointed in 13 counties by 
county board for 1- to 5-year terms. City boards elected 
for 5-year terms, appoint supts. for 1 to 5 years. 

Private and Parochial Schools: 133. 

Colleges and Universities (accredited): Colleges, 15; junior 
colleges, 1. State-supported colleges and universities 
are directed by the State Board of Higher Education 
consisting of 9 members appointed by the governor. 
Colleges include the University of Oregon, Eugene; 
Oregon State College, Corvallis; and three teachers 
colleges: Oregon College of Education, Monmouth; 
Southern Oregon College of Education, Ashland; and 
Eastern Oregon College of Education, La Grande. 

Special State Schools: Oregon Service Center for the 
Blind, Portland; Oregon Fairview Home (for feeble- 
minded), State School for Deaf, State School for Blind, 
all in Salem; Oregon Technical Institute, Oretech. 

Libraries: City and town public libraries, 84; independent 
county library systems, 3; 16 counties contract for 
service with city libraries. State library aids in 
developing libraries through state librarian and school 
library specialist. Noted special libraries: Ore. Histori- 
cal Society Lib., Portland; Supreme Court Lib., Salem. 

Outstanding Museums: Museum of Art and State Mu- 
seum of Anthropology, both at University of Oregon, 
Eugene; Oregon Museum of Science and Industry 
and Portland Art Museum, both at Portland. 

CORRECTIONAL AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

Hillcrest School of Oregon (Girls), Salem; MacLaren 
School for Boys, Woodburn; Oregon State Peniten- 
tiary, Salem. 

STATE PARKS*t 

Armitage — on McKenzie R. near Eugene; s.w. of (20). 

Azalea — five varieties of wild azaleas; picnicking (42) 

Battle Mountain — near Ukiah; woodland; s.w. of (8) 

Battle Rock — settlers fought Indians, 1851 ; s. of (36) 

Boiler Bay — scenic view of bay; fishing (23). 

Bradley— scenic Clatsop Crest; near Astoria; n.e. of (2). 

Cape Lookout — Sitka spruce; sea-bird rookery; s. of (2). 

Cascadia — on S. Santiam R.; near Lebanon; w. of (24). 

Casey — on Rogue R. near Medford; west of s 3 'mbol (41). 

Champoeg — government for first American common- 
wealth on Pacific coast begun here, 1843; museum (10). 

Collier Memorial — fishing; west of symbol (39). 

Cove Palisades- — great canyon; three rivers; fishing (24). 

Crown Point — Columbia R. Gorge; Vista House (4). 

Devil’s Elbow — sandy ocean beach; marine views (29). 

Devil’s Punch Bowl — bowl-shaped rock formation (23). 

Ecola — ocean beach; sea lions, birds, elk; trails (2). 

Emigrant Springs — resting place on Oregon Trail (8) 

Harris Beach — rocky cliffs; ocean beaches; trails (42) 

Hendricks Bridge — on McKenzie R.; near sj'mbol (30). 

Honeyman Memorial — forest on two lakes (29). 

Humbug Mountain — 1,750-ft. mountain; trail; s. of (36). 

•Numbers in parentheses are keyed to map. 

fThere are 180 state parks and wayside areas; 37 are listed here. 



412 


Oregon Fact Summary 


Lava River Caves — 
formed by lava flow; 
south of symbol (31). 

Maud Williamson — for- 
ested picnic area (10). 

Neptune— Cook’s 
Chasm; north of (29). 

Painted Hills— colored 
ridges; n.w. of (26). 

Patterson Memorial — 
on seashore; s. of (23). 

Ponsler Memorial — 
ocean wayside (29). 

Rocky Creek— surf fish- 
ing; rugged coast (23). 

Saddle Mt.— mountain; 
deer, elk; n.e. of (2). 

Short Sand Beach — 
Neahkahnie Mt. (2). 

Silver Falls— 10 falls; 
highest, 179 ft. (20). 

Sunset Bay — rocky 
coast; beach (36). 
Talbot-250-ft. La- 
tourell Falls (4). 

Tou Velle — on Rogue R. ; 
west of sjTnbol (41). 

Viento — picnicking; e. 
of symbol (5). 

Wallowa Lake — pic- 
nicking (13). 

Yaquina Bay — beach; 
lighthouse (23). 



state forests 

State forest land of 710,027 acres is scattered in 16 
counties: Tillamook, 300,000 acres; Clatsop, 139,500 
acres; Coos, 48,000 acres; Washington, 49,192 acres; 
^ouglas, 38,413 acres; balance in Benton, Clackamas, 
Columbia, Josephine, Klamath, Linn, Lincoln, Lane, 
Marion, Polk, Curry, 

National forests* 

Deschutes— 1,927,401 acres; hdqrs.. Bend (31). 
remont— 1,772,637 acres; hdqrs., Lakeview (39). 
tiamath — 24,452 acres in state; total, 1,497,257 acres 
, ^nlif. and Ore.; hdqrs., Yreka, Calif. (45). 

* alheur — 1,275,910 acres; hdqrs., John Day (28). 

^‘ount Hood— 1,183,896 acres; hdqrs., Portland (16). 
choco 980,887 acres; hdqrs., Prineville (25, 32). 

«ogue River— 1,147,424 acres in state; total 1,203,630 
acres in Calif, and Ore.; hdqrs., Medford (41, 44). 

■s 'lyou- 1,350,440 acres in state; total 1,389,169 acres 
>D Calif, and Ore.; hdqrs.. Grants Pass (40). 

,.'U5 aw- 878,665 acres; hdqrs., Corvallis (15, 27). 

■Jiatilla 1,192,178 acres in state; total 1,514,011 acres 
■n Wash, and Ore.; hdqrs., Pendleton (7, 17). 

1)180,907 acres; hdqrs., Roseburg (37). 
1)073,974 acres; hdqrs.. Enterprise (9). 
1)568,431 acres; hdqrs.. Baker (18, 22). 
Ornette — 1,819,966 acres; hdqrs., Eugene (30). 

National park* 

Dfater Lake— 160,290 acres in southwestern Oregon; 
**^cludes brilliant blue lake in crater of extinct volcano, 
surrounded by 500-2,000 foot walls which are multi- 
ured ; roadway around rim of crater (38). 

'^tubers in parentheses are keyed to map. 


places of interest* 

Astoria— first permanent settlement in Oregon country, 
1811; named for John Jacob Astor; pictorial frieze of 
earlv history on Astor Column (1). 

Bonneville Dam— on Columbia River; salmon pass over 
dam in mile- long fish ladder and fish lock (5). 

Celilo Falls — Indian salmon-fishing places guaranteed 
exclusively to them by treaty; east of The Dalles (6). 

Dalles The— Lewis and Clark’s Rock Fort overlooks 
the Columbia River; Old Fort Dalles Museum (6). 

Detroit Dam— on North Santiam River; east of (20). 

Grand Canyon of the Snake River— deepest gash in 
North America; deepest part. Hell's Canjmn (14). 

McLoughlin House Natl. Historic Site— Oregon City; 
home of “father of Oregon,” John McLoughlin, 1846- 


McNary Dam— on Columbia River; northwest of (8). 

Mount Hood— perpetually snow-capped peak, 11,245 
feet high; skiway; 3-mile aerial tramway (12). 

Multnomah Falls— spectacular falls (total drop 850 feet) 
beside Columbia River Highway (5). 

Oregon Caves National Monument— series of limestone 
and marble caverns in Siskiyou Range (43). 

Jregon Trail- pioneere’ route from Mississippi \’alley 
during 1800’s; crossed Snake River into Oregon at 
Weiser Idaho (33), then northwest to Columbia River 
and w^tward to Willamette Valley at Portland (3) 
and to Astoria (1) (see Oregon Trail). 

Owyhee Dam — 417-ft. structure across the narrow gorge 
of Owvhee River; forms irrigation reservoir (34). 

Portland— "city of roses” (see Portland) (3). 

Salem-State Capitol; Willamette Univ. (s« Salem) (19). 

?easide— ocean resort; relic of Lewis and Clark Expcdi- 

' tion and monument; Tillamook Lighthouse (1). 


413 




Oregon Fact Summary 


LARGEST CITIES (1950 census) 

Porlland (373,628): ocean port through Columbia, Wil- 
lamette rivers; shipbuilding; textiles; wood products. 

Salem (43,140); state capital; center of flax and fruit- 
growing area; paper milling; canning; linen textiles. 

Eugene (35,879): agricultural and lumbering center; 
lumber and timber products; University of Oregon. 

Medford (17,305) : fruit growing and packing; lumbering. 

Corvallis (16,207) : farm, lumber, educational center. 

Klamath Falls (15,875); sawmills; farm machinery. 

Astoria (12,331): on Columbia River; fish packing. 

THE PEOPLE BUILD THEIR STATE 

1543 — Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo and 
Bartolomd Ferrelo, Spanish nav- 
igators, may have been first 
white men to sight Oregon coast. 

1579 — Sir Francis Drake, English com- 
mander, reaches Oregon coast 
at about 44th parallel in ship 
Golden Hind; names area New 
Albion as basis for English claim to region. 

1 602 — Sebastian Viscaino probably sights Cape Blanco. 

1741 — Vitus Bering, commissioned by Peter the Great, 
reaches Alaska, opening way for Russian settle- 
ment of Alaska and claim to Oregon region. 

1778 — First Americans visit Oregon coast in expedition 
led by British captain, James Cook, in search of 
Northwest Passage; they reach Vancouver Island 
and anchor in bay named Nootka Sound, by Cook. 

1788 — Capt. John Meares sights mouth of Columbia; re- 
ports it is only a bay. Capt. Robert Gray and 
Capt. John Kendrick command first American 
ships to sail along Oregon coast. 

1789 — Estevan Jos4 Martinez takes possession of Van- 
couver I. for Spain, driving out British traders. 

1792 — Capt. Robert Gray discovers and names Columbia 
River. Lieut. William Broughton of British navy, 
later in year, sails up river to Cascades; discovers 
and names Mt. Hood; claims area for Britain. 

1793 — Sir Alexander Mackenzie makes overland trip 
from Canada to Pacific; opens area for trappers. 

1 800 — Americans gain monopoly of Oregon fur trade. 

1803 — Louisiana Purchase brings U. S. borders to the 
Northwest; draws attention to Oregon country. 

1 805— Meriwether Lewis and William Clark reach head- 
waters of Columbia River and Cape Disappoint- 
ment; return to St. Louis, 1806. 

1811 — John Jacob Aster’s Pacific Fur Company builds 
Astoria trading post near mouth of Columbia R. 

1813— British fur-trading North West Company takes 
over Astoria and renames it Fort George. 

1818 — U. S. and Britain agree to occupy Oregon country 
jointly for 10 years; extend agreement indefinitely, 
1827. Fort George restored to U. S. 

1819 — Spain renounces claims north of 42° N. 

1821 — North West and Hudson’s Bay companies merge. 

1 824— Russia gives up claims south of 54° 40'. Canadian 
trader John McLoughlin comes to Fort George; 
builds Fort Vancouver on Columbia River, 1825. 

1 832 — First school in region opens at Fort Vancouver. 

1834 — Nathaniel Wyeth builds Fort William on Sauvie 
I. ; Jason Lee leads first missionaries in region. 

1835 — Jason and Daniel Lee establish mission school in 

Willamette Valley; Oregon Institute (now Willam- 
ette University) takes over school, 1844. ■ 

1836 — Marcus Whitman and Henry Spaulding, mission- 
aries, arrive in region. 


1839 — “Peoria party,” group of early settlers, arrive in 
Willamette Valley from Illinois. 

1843 — “Great migration” of about 900 persons arrives 
over Oregon Trail; first U. S. government west 
of Rockies organized at Champoeg (Marion Co.). 

1844 — Agitation for U. S. control of Oregon country 
makes “54-40 or Fight” a presidential campaign 
slogan. William Overton and Amos L. Lovejoy es- 
tablish settlement, which is named Portland, 1845. 

1 845 — First free public schools in area established. 

1 846 — Treaty with Britain gives U. S. title to the Oregon 
country; sets northern boundary at 49th parallel. 
Oregon Speclalor, published at Oregon City, is first 
newspaper vrest of Rocky Mts. 

1 847 — Regular mail service starts; Indians begin series of 
wars which last until 1880; first extensive fruit 
orchards in Oregon set out near Milwaukie. 

1848 — Oregon Territory created; extends from 42d to 
49th parallel and from Continental Divide to 
Pacific; capital, Oregon City; first governor, Gen. 
Joseph Lane. First Chinese enter territory. Dis- 
covery of gold in California draws many settlers. 

1 850 — ^Donation Land Act provides free land for settlers; 
steamboat Columbia opens service, Oregon City 
to Astoria; first steam sawmill built at Portland. 

1852 — Gold discovered on Jackson Creek; capital moved 
from Oregon City to Salem. 

1 853 — Washington Territory created out of Oregon. 

1 855— Territorial Capitol burns; capital moved tempo- 
rarily to Corvallis, but returned to Salem, 1856. 

1857 — State constitution drafted; prohibits slavery. ^ 

1859 — Oregon becomes 33d state, February 14, capital, 
Salem; first governor, John Whiteaker. 

1861 — Gold discovered in eastern Oregon; gold seekers 
stay to settle and farm region. 

1 865 — ^First national bank west of Rocky Mountains or- 
ganized in Portland. 

1866 — First fish cannery established on Columbia River. 

1868 — Work begins on railway to California.^ State 

Agricultural College founded at Corvallis. The 
Sally Brown sails from Portland to Liverpool with 
first full cargo of Oregon wheat to be exported. 

1 872 — Modoc War begins; ends next year. University of 
Oregon chartered; opens at Eugene, Oct. 18, 1876. 

1 878 — Paiute and Bannock Indians terrorize settlers in 
eastern and central Oregon; trouble ends, 1880. 

1 883 — Northern Pacific Railroad links Portland and East 
by way of Seattle. First direct railway between 
Oregon and East completed (Union Pacific), 1884. 

1 890 — Great expansion of lumber industry begins. 

1 902 — Crater Lake National Park created. First of Ore- 
gon System , governmental reforms enacted; in- 
clude initiative and referendum; primary adopted, 
1904; recall adopted, 1908. 

1905 — Lewis and Clark Centennial held at Portland. 

191 3 — ^Legislature enacts Workmen’s Compensation Law. 

1932 — Owyhee Dam on Owyhee River completed. 

1937 — Bonneville Dam on Columbia R. completed. 

1948 — Flood destroys town of Vanport, near Portland. 

1949 — Oregon adopts Fair Employment Practices Law. 
Record earthquake shakes Oregon coastal region. 

1 950 — U. S. Court of Appeals awards Siletz Reservation 
Indians I 65 . million dollars for 1855 land claiin. 

1952 — Oregon governor, Douglas McKay, appointed 
United States secretary of the interior. 

1953 — McNary Dam on the Columbia River and Detroit 
Dam on the North Santiam complotod. Dalles 
Dam on the Columbia under construction. 



414 



OREGON 


COUNTIES 


Baker 
Benton 
Clackamas 
Clatsop 
Columbia 
Coos 
Crook 
Curry 
Deschutes 
Douglas 
Gilliam 
Grant 
Harney 


16,175 

31,570 

86,716 

30,776 

22,967 

42,265 

8,991 

6,048 

21,812 

54,549 

2,817 

8,329 

6,113 


Hood River 12;740 


Jackson 

Jefferson 

Josephine 

Klamath 

Lake 

Lane 

Lincoln 

Linn 

Malheur 

Marion 

Morrow 


58,510 

5,536 

26,542 

42,150 

6,649 

125,776 

21,308 

54,317 

23,223 

101,401 

4,783 


Multnomah471,537 
Polk . 26,317 

Sherman 2,271 

’Wlamook 18,606 

Umatilla 41 703 

Union 17:962 

Wallowa 7,264 

15,552 ... ^ 

^hmgton 61,269 D 2 

TOeeler 3,313 q 3 

yamhlll -33,484 D 2 


k;3 
D 3 
E 2 
D 1 
D 2 
C 4 
G 3 
O 5 
P 4 
E 4 
G 2 
.J3 
H4 
P 2 
E 5 
P 3 
D 5 
P5 
G 5 
E 4 
D 3 
E 3 
K4 
E 3 
H 2 
E 2 
D 3 
G 2 
D 2 
J 2 
J2 

e:2 

P 2 


Bates 
Bay City 
Bayvie-w 
Beatty 
Beaver 
Beavercreek 
Beaverton 
Beech Creek 


500 
761 
15 
50 
567 
60 
2,512 
2 


Belknap Springs 12 
Bellfountain 50 


CITIES AND TOWNS 


Ada 
Adams 
Adel 
Adrian 
Agate Beach 
Agness 
Airlie 
Albany 
Albee 
Alfalfa 
■Algoma 
Alicel 
■^egany 
Aloha 
Alpine 
Alsea 
Altamont 
Alvadore 

Amity 
■Midrews 
Anlauf 
^klope 
Antone 
•fPPlegate 
■Arago 
Arcadia 
^iington 
Arock 
Ash 

^hland 
■^llWooff 
Astoria 
Athena 
-Aunmt-iiie 
Aurora 
Austin 
Asdea 
Baker 
Ballston 

n^croft 

Pandon 
Banks 
5^, View 
Barlow 

Bartlett 
Barton 

‘.Vo 


100 
154 
83 
170 
379 
48 
30 
10,115 

7 
25 
50 
30 

220 

50 

325 

130 

9,419 

130 

672 

8 
50 
60 

75 

117 

686 

100 

120 

7,739 

19 

12,331 

750 

281 

242 

39 

SO 

9,471 

100 

75 

1,251 

376 

200 

75 


D 4 
J 2 
H 5 
K4 
03 
D 5 
D 3 
D 3 
J2 
P 3 
P5 
J2 
B4 
A2 
D 3 
D.3 
P 5 
D 3 
D 2 
J 5 
D 4 
G 3 
H3 
D 5 
C 4 
K4 
G2 
K5 
D 4 
E 5 
G 3 
D 1 
J 2 
E 3 
A 2 
J 3 
D 5 
k:3 
D 2 
D 5 
C 4 
A 1 
C 2 
B 2 
K2 
B 2 


Bend 
Berlin 
Bethany 
Beulah 
Big Eddy 
Biggs 
Birkenfeld 
Blachly 
Black Rock 
Blackbutte 
Blaine 
Blalock 
BHtzen 
Blodgett 
Blue River 
Bly 

Boardman 

Bonanza 

Bonita 

Bonne-vlUe 

Booth 

Boring 

Bourne 

Boyd 

Breitenbush 

Bridal Veil 

Bridge 

Bridgeport 

Brighton 

Brightwood 

Broadacres 

Broadbent 

Brockway 

Brogan 

Brookings 

Brooks 

Brothers 

Brownlee 

Brownsboro 

Browns-vlUe 

Buena Vista 

BuUards 

Burlington 

Bums 

Burnt Ranch 
Butte Falls 
Butte-vUle 
Buxton 
Cairo 

Camas VaUey 


11,409 

20 

10 

36 

15 

100 

24 

17 

SO 

75 

21 

7 

200 

200 

800 

120 

259 

50 

250 

675 

38 

6 

120 

200 

63 

107 

150 

30 

50 

61 

75 

1,000 

350 

15 

100 

1,175 

160 

25 

200 

3,093 

372 

50 

150 

50 

60 


J 3 
D 2 
C 3 
F5 
D 2 
B 2 
A 2 
H 3 
P 3 
D 3 
P 3 
E 3 
A 2 
J4 
P 2 
G2 
D 1 
D 3 
D 3 
E4 
D 2 
G 2 
H 5 
D 3 
E 3 
F 5 
H 2 
P 5 
A 2 
P 2 
C 4 
E 2 
J 3 
P 2 
P3 
E 2 
D 4 
K3 
C 2 
E 2 
A3 
C 4 
D 4 
K3 
C 5 
A 3 
G 4 
L3 
E 5 
E 3 
D 3 
C 4 
A 1 
H 4 
G 3 
E 5 
A 2 
D 2 
K4 
D 4 
E 2 
P 3 
D 4 
B 2 
B 2 
D 2 


Chemult 
Cherry Grove 
CherryviUe 
Cheshire 
ChUoquin 
Clackamas 
Clamo 
Clatskanie 
Claxtar 
Clem 
Clifton 
Cloverdale 
Coaledo 
Coburg 
Cochran 
Colestin 
Colton 


115 

375 

160 

73 

668 

550 

901 

100 

12 

68 

280 

125 

693 

50 

7 

167 


Columbia City 405 
Condon 968 

Coos Bay 6,223 
Copperfield 13 

CoquiUe 3,523 

Cornelius 998 

Cornucopia 
Corv allis 16,207 

Cottage 

Grove 3,536 

Courtrock 60 

Cove 282 

Cove Orchard 140 
Cow Creek 
Crabtree 350 

Crane 99 

Crater Lake 47 


P4 
D 2 
E 2 
D 3 
P5 
B 2 
G 3 
D 1 
A 3 
G 2 
D 1 
D 2 
C 4 
D 3 
D 2 
E 5 
B 3 
E 2 
G 2 
C 4 
k;3 
C 4 
A2 
K 3 
D3 


Cra-wfordsvIUe 250 


Camp Namanu 2 
Camp Sherman 50 
Canary 50 

Canby 1,671 

Canemah 
Cannon Beach 
Canyon City 508 J 3 
Canyonville 861 D 5 
Cape Meares 70 0 2 
Carlton 1,081 D 2 
Carnation 100 A 2 
CarpenterviUe 30 C 5 
Carson 100 K 3 

Carver 200 B 2 

Cascade Locks 733 P 2 
Cascade SummltSO F 4 
Cascadia 200 E 3 
Cave Junction 283 D 5 
Cayuse 48 J 2 

CecH 20 H 2 

Cedar MiU 300 A 2 
CeUlo 300 G 2 

Central Pointl,667 D 5 
Chapman 100 D 2 
Charleston 576 C 4 
Chelsea 300 F 5 

Chemawa 850 A 3 


Crescent 
Crescent Lake 
Creston 
CresweU 
Crow 
Crowley 
Crystal 
Culp Creek 
Culver 
Curry 
Curtin 
Cushman 
Dairy 
Dale 
Dallas 
Danner 
Dawson 
Days Creek 
Dayton 
DayviUe 
Dee 

Deer Island 
Delake 
Denmark 
Denzer 
Depoe Bay 
Deschutes 
Deter 
Detroit 
Dexter 
Diamond 
Diamond Lake 


300 
50 

4 

662 

100 

5 
15 

260 

301 
4 

70 

150 

50 

10 

4,793 

20 

40 

40 

719 

286 

250 

79 

644 

13 

750 

20 

15 

400 

8 


D 4 
H 3 
K 2 
D 2 
D 5 
E 3 
J4 
E5 
E 3 
P4 
P4 
K4 
D 4 
D 4 
K4 
E 5 
E 4 
F 3 
J3 
D 4 
D 4 
P 5 
J 3 
D 3 
K5 
D 3 
D 5 
A 3 
H 3 
F 2 
E 2 
C 3 


Eagle Creek 

Eagle Point 

Eastside 

Echo 

EddyviUe 

EightmUe 

Elgarose 

Elgin 

Elk City 

Elk Lake 

EUcton 

Elmira. 

Elmonlca 

Elsie 

Empire 

Enright 

Enterprise 

Erskine 

Estacada 

Eugene 3 

Eula 

Evans 

Fair Grotmds 
Fairview 
FaH Creek 
Falls City 
Faloma 
Fargo 

Farmington 

Faubion 

Femdale 

Fields 

Fife 

Fisher 

Flora 

Florence 1 
Foleysprings 
Foil yf arm 
Forest Grove 4 
Fort Klamath 
Fort Rock 
Fort Stevens 


75 

E 2 1 Gresham 

607 

E 5 j Grizzly 

890 

C 4 Gunter ■ 

457 

H 2 Gurdane 


D 3 Gwendolen 


H 2 Gypsum 

12 

D 4 Haines 

1,223 

IC 2 Halfway 

50 

D 3 Halsey 


P 4 HamUton 

201 

D 4 Hamlet 


500 

50 

2,261 

5 


D 3 
A 2| 
D 2I 
C 4 
D 2i 


Hammond 

Hampton 

Harbor 

Hardman 

Harlan 


3,049 

25 

25 

18 

6 

321 

312 

388 

58 

20 

522 

22 

600 

58 

240 


B 2 
G3 
D 4 
J 2 
G 2 
K3 
J3 
K3 
D3 
H 3 
D 2 
C 1 
G 4 
C 5 
H 2 


1,718 

K2 

Harney 

6 

J4 

7 

G2 

Harper 

200 

k:4 

950 

E 2 

Harriman 

42 

E 5 

5,879 

D 3 

Harrisburg 

862 

D 3 

20 

E 4 

Hauser 

158 

C 4 

47 

K2 

Hay Creek 

15 

G 3 


A3 

Hayes-viUo 

2,697 

A3 

438 

B 2 

Hebo 

250 

D 2 

144 

E 4 

Helix 

182 

J 2 

853 

D 3 

Hemlock 

20 

D 2 

600 

B 2 

Heppner 

1,648 

H2 

18 

A3 

1 Hereford 

66 

K3 

20 

A 2 

Hermlston 

3,804 

H 2 

30 

F 2 

Hershal 

4 

K3 

225 

J 2 

Hildebrand 


P 5 

12 

J5 

Hilgard 

40 

J2 


G 4 

Hillsboro 

5,142 

A2 


D 3 

HiUsdalo 

1,200 

B 2 

190 

K2 

Hines 

918 

H4 

,026 

C 4 

Holbrook 

100 

A 1 

4 

E 3 

Holdman 

30 

J 2 

5 

J4 

Holland 

100 

D 5 


Foss 
Fossil 
Foster 
Fox 

Freewater 
Frenchglen 
Friend 
Fruita 
Galena 
Gales Creek 
GaHce 

Garden Home 
Gardiner 
Garibaldi 
Gaston 
Gates 


350 

18 

60 

50 

645 

350 

65 

1,489 

46 

15 


1 

200 

40 

750 

600 

1,249 

368 

445 


A 2 
E 5 
G4 
C 1 
D 2 
G 2 
E 3 
H3 
J2 
H5 
F 2 
L 2 
J 3 
D 2 
D 5 
A 21 
04 
D 2 
D 2 
E 3 


HoUey 
Home 
Homestead 
Hood River 
HopeweU 
Hopmero 
Horton 
Hot Lake 
Hubbard 
Huber 
Hugo 
Hunt 

Himtington 

Idanha 

Ida-viUe 

Idleyld Park 

Hlahe 

Imbler 

Xmnaha 

Independence 


225 

10 

25 

3,701 


E 3 
K3 
L2 
F 2 


125 

D 2 

75 

A3 

168 

D 3 

25 

K2 

493 

A 3 

250 

A 2 

100 

D 5 


B 3 

733 

K3 

442 

E 3 

150 

D 2 

100 

D 4 


C 5 

149 

J 2 

30 

L2 


DiUard 

DiHey 

Disston 

Divide 

Dixonville 

Dolph 

Donald 

Dora 

Dorena 

Drain 

DraperviUe 

Drew 

Drewsey 

Dryden 

Drylake 

Dufur 

Duncan 

Dundee 

Durham 

Durkee 


300 

200 

300 

30 

50 

187 

80 

300 

1,150 


C 5 

Gateway 

75 

F 3 


1,987 

D3 

D 3 

Gaylord 

135 

C 5 

lone 

262 

H2 

C 3 

Gearhart 

568 

C 1 

Ironside 

150 

K3 

F 3 

Gervais 

457 

A3 

Irrigon 

75 

H2 

E 5 

Gibbon 

52 

J 2 

Irving 

300 

D3 

E 3 

Gladstone 

2,434 

B 2 

Island City 

138 

K2 

E 4 

Glenada 

110 

C 4 

Izee 

4 

H3 

J4 

Glencoe 

10 

A 1 

Jacksonville 

1,193 

D 5 

E 4 

Glendale 

871 

D 5 

[ Jamieson 

300 

K3 

D 4 

Gleneden Beach 


Jasper 

200 

E 3 

A 2 


185 

C 3 

Jefferson 

636 

D 3 

E 4 

Glenwood 

20 

D 2 

Jennings Lodge 


D 4 

GUde 

100 

D 4 


3,500 

B 2 

D 4 

Goble 

73 

E 1 

Jewell 


D 2 

D2 

Gold Beach 

677 

C 5 

John Day 

1,597 

J3 


A3 
D 4 
E4 
D 4 
201 *D 3 
265 E 5 


64 

25 

18 

422 

18 

308 

250 

50 


J 4 
D 5 
G 4 
F2 
J2 
A2 
A2 
K3 


Gold HiU 
Goocli 
Goshen 
Government 


619 

25 

250 


D 
E 3 
D4| 


Jordan VaUcy 
Joseph 
Junction City 


236 

606 


K5 

K2 


1,475 D3 


Camp 

100 

F 2 

Juntura 

107 

K4 

Grand Rondo 

800 

D 2 

Ifamcla 

25 

J 2 

Granite 

40 

J 3 

Kcascy 

8 

D 2 

Grant 

25 

G 2 

Keating 

10 

K 3 

Grants Pass 

8,116 

D 5 

Kcno 

300 

F 5 

Grass VaUoy 

195 

G 2 

Kent 

60 

G 2 

Green 

CO 

D 4 

Kcrby 

150 

D 5 

Grecnburg 

20 

A 2 

KcmviUe 

105 

D 3 

Greenhorn 


J 3 

Kcrrj- 

30 

D 1 

Grccnleaf 

in 

D 3 

Kimbcrly 

CO 

H 3 


for name. 


14151 


126 * 


124 " 


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OREGON 

SCALE OF MILES 
















OREGON — Continued 

Kings Valley 210 D 3 MiUer 75 G 2 Pengra E 4 Scotts Mills 217 B 3 Umpqua 20 D 4 

Kinzua 900 H 3 MiUican 5 F 4 Peoria 76 D 3 Scottsburg 100 D 4 Union 1,307 K 2 

Kirk 25 P 5 Millington 300 C 4 Perry 125 J 2 Seal Rock 330 C 3 Union Creek 100 E 5 

Klamatb Agency Milo 300 E 5 Perrydale 75 D 2 Seaside 3,886 D 2 Unity 212 J 3 

150 F5 Milton 2,362 J2 Phillips 3 A 2 Selma 125 D5 Vale 1,518 K4 

Klamath Falls Milwaukie 5,253 B 2 Philomath 1,289 D 3 Seneca 760 J 3 Valley Falls 14 G 5 

15,875 F 5 Minam K 2 Phoenix 746 E 5 Service Creek 13 G 3 Valsetz 60 D 3 

Klondike 6 G 2 Minerva 25 C 3 Pilot Rock 847 J 2 Shaniko 61 G 3 Van 5 J 4 

Knappa 100 D1 Mission 200 J2 Pine 73 K 3 Shaw 150 A3 Vaughn 200. D3 

La Grande 8,635 J 2 Mist 269 D 1 Pinehurst 6 E 5 SheavUle 64 K 4 Venator 28 J 4 

La Pine 250 F 4 MitcheU 415 G 3 Pistol River 100 C 5 Shedd 165 D 3 Veneta 750 D 3 

Lacomb 100 E 3 Modoc Point 100 F 5 Placer 48 D 5 Shelbum 20 E 3 Verboort 125 A 2 

Lafayette 662 A 2 Mohawk 20 E 3 Plainview 20 D 3 Sheridan 1,922 D 2 Vemonia 1,521 D 2 

Lake Grove 4,000 B 2 Mohler 100 D 2 Pleasant Valley 30 K 3 Sherwood 575 A 2 Vida ■ 250 E 3 

Lakecreek 30 E 5 Molalla 1,497 B 3 Plush 110 H 5 Shevlin 600 F 4 Viento 50 F 2 

Lakeside C 4 Monitor 50 B 3 Pondosa 150 K 2 Siletz 570 D 3 Viola 50 B 2 

Lakeview 2,831 G 5 Monmouth 1,956 D 3 Port Orford 674 C 5 Siltcoos 28 C 4 Waconda 50 A3 

Langlois 65 O 5 Monroe 362 D 3 Portland 373.628 B 2 Silver Lake F 4 Wagontire 3 H 4 

Latourell Falls 72 E 2 Monument 228 H 3 Post G 3 Silverton 3,146 A 3 "Waldport 689 C 3 

Laurel 30 A 2 Morgan 10 H 2 PoweU Butte 661 G 3 Silvies H 3 'Walker 100 D 4 

Lawen 15 J4 Moro 359 G2 Powell Valley 725 B2 Simnasho 40 P 3 WaUowa 1,055 E2 

Leaburg 106 E 3 Mosier 259 F 2 Powers 895 D 5 Siskiyou 50 E 5 Walterville 100 E 3 

Lebanon 5,873 E 3 Mt. Angel 1,315 B 3 Prairie City 822 J 3 Sisters 723 F 3 Walton 70 D 3 

Leland 71 D 5 Mt. Hood 59 F 2 Pratum 44 A 3 Sitkum 50 D 4 'Wamlc 125 F 2 

Leona 50 D 4 Mt. Vernon 451 H 3 Prescott 119 D 1 Sbtes 250 C 5 'Wapinitla 20 F 2 

Lewis 2 K 2 Mountaindale 50 A 1 Princeton 6 J 4 Sodaville 157 E 3 Warm Springs 350 F 3 

Lexington 237 H 2 Mo^vich 20 F 4 Prineville 3,233 G 3 South Junction Warren 81 E 2 

Liberal 40 B 3 Mulino 275 B 2 Pringle 250 A3 10 G 3 Warrendale 50 F 2 

Liberty A3 Multnomah 5,000 B2 Promise K2 Southbeach 300 C3 Warrenton 1,896 Cl 

Lime 100 K 3 Murphy 50 D 5 Prospect 500 E 5 Sparta 25 K 3 "Wasco 305 G 2 

Lincoln Beach 100 G 3 Myrtle Creek Prosper 55 C 4 Sprague River 350 F 5 "Waterloo 180 E 3 

Linneman 550 B 2 1,781 D 4 Provolt 200 D 5 Spray 375 H 3 Waterman. H 3 

Linnton A 2 Myrtle Point 2,033 C4 Quartz Mountain Springbrook 500 A 2 "Wauna 325 D1 

Linslaw 75 D 4 Narrows 7 H 4 12 G 5 Springfield 10,807 E 3 Weatherby 25 K 3 

Logan 50 B 2 Nashville 25 D 3 Quinaby 100 A 3 Springwater 300 E 2 "Wecoma Beach 350 C 3 

Logdell 4 H 3 Needy 50 B 3 Quincy 400 D 1 Stanfield 845 H 2 Wedderbum 250 C 5 

Logsdeu 340 D 3 Nehalem 270 D 2 Rainbow 65 E 3 Star B 4 Welches 119 E 2 

London D 4 Nelscott 400 D 3 Rainier 1,285 E 1 Starkey 30 J 2 Wemme 109 E 2 

Louerook 38 H 2 Neotsu 300 C 2 Rainrock C 3 Stauffer 2 G 4 "Wendling 124 E 3 

Long Creek 288 H 3 Neskowin 120 D 2 Redland 50 B 2 Stayton 1,507 E 3 "West Linn 2,945 B 2 

Lookingglass 100 D 4 Netarts 500 C2 Redmond 2,956 F3 Sublimity 367 E3 West Portland 

Lostine 178 K 2 New Bridge 51 K 3 Reed D 3 Summer Lake 3 G 5 3,000 B 2 

Lowell 700 E 4 New Era 100 B 2 Reedsport 2,288 C 4 Summerville 73 K 2 West Salem A 3 

Lyons 600 E 3 New Pine Cr. 200 G 5 ReedvUle 250 A 2 Summit 250 D 3 West Side 16 G 5 

Mabel 85 E 3 Newberg 3,946 A 2 Remote 60 D 5 S umn er 141 C 4 W. Woodburn 150 A 3 

Macksburg 50 B 3 Newport 3,241 C 3 Rex 5 A 2 Sumpter 146 J 3 Westfall 3 K 3 

Maoleay 25 A3 North Bend 6,099 C 4 Richland 220 K 3 Sunny Valley 79 D 5 Westflr 1,200 E 4 

Madras 1,258 F 3 N. Junction 2 G 3 Richmond H 3 SusanvUle 9 J 3 Westlake 180 C 4 

Malheur 25 K 3 N. Plains 600 A 2 RickreaU 150 D 3 Sutherlin 2,230 D 4 Weston 679 J 2 

Malin 592 F 5 N. Portland 340 B 1 Riddle 634 D 5 Svensen 100 D 1 Westport 600 D 1 

Manhattan N. Powder 403 K 2 Rieth 325 J 2 Sweet Home 3,603 E 3 Wheeler 291 D.2 

Beach D 2 Norway 250 C 4 RUey 5 H 4 S^visshome 500 D 3 Wheeler Heights 

Manning 100 D 2 Nyssa 2,525 K 4 Ritter 107 H 3 Sycamore B 2 125 O 2 

Manzanita 339 C 2 Oak Grove 2,000 B 2 Riverside 38 J 4 Sylvan 1,500 B 2 Whlteson 200 D 2 

Mapleton 1,016 C 3 Oakland 829 D 4 Riverton 125 C 4 Table Rock 200 E 5 "Whitney 3 J 3 

Marcola 800 E 3 Oakridge 1,562 E 4 Roberts G 3 Taft 450 C 3 Wilark 10 D 2 

Marial 45 D 5 O'Brien 265 D 5 Robinette 20 L 3 Taldlma 50 D 5 Wilbur 150 D 4 

Marion 200 D 3 Oceanlake 700 C 3 Rockaway 1,027 C 2 Talent 739 E 5 WBderville 300 D 5 

Marquam 70 B 3 Oceanside 150 C 2 Rockcreek 19 G 2 TaUman 25 E 3 Wilhoit 5 B 3 

Marshland 120 D 1 Odell 350 F 2 Rockton 150 A 2 Tangent 200 D 3 Wilkesboro 45 A 2 

Maupin 312 F 2 OdeU Lake 50 F 4 Rockville 31 K 4 Telocaset 80 K 2 Willamette B 2 

Marble K2 Olene 35 P5 Rocky Point A1 Temnile 40 D 4 Willamina 1,082 D2 

Mayger 95 D 1 Olex 168 G 2 Rogue River 590 D 5 Terrebonne 198 F 3 Williams 100 D 5 

Mayvllle 102 G 2 Olney D 1 Rome 50 K 5 The Dalles 7,676 F 2 Willowcreek 300 K 3 

McCoy 75 D 2 Ontario 4,465 K 3 Roosevelt Beach C 3 Thompson 3 K 3 Willowdale 35 G 3 

McCredie Springs Opal City F 3 Rose Lodge 150 D 3 Thurston 66 E 3 Willows 100 G 2 

87 E 4 Ophir C 5 Roseburg 8.390 D 4 Tidewater 100 D 3 WilsonviUe 162 A 2 

McEwen 25 J 3 Ordnance H 2 Rowena 75 F 2 Tiemau 200 C 3 Wimer 100 D 5 

McKee 75 A3 Oregon Caves 2 D 5 Rowland 15 D 3 Thgard 800 A 2 Winchester 300 D 4 

McKenzie Oregon City 7,682 B 2 Roy 48 A 2 Tillamook 3,685 D 2 Winchester Bay 

Bridge 195 E 3 Orenco 313 A 2 Ruch 50 E 5 Tiller 150 E 5 500 C 4 

McKinley 155 D 4 Oretown 60 D 2 Rufus 50 G 2 Timber 300 D 2 Wing K 3 

McMinnville 6,635 D 2 Oswego 3,316 B 2 Rye Valley 25 K 3 Toledo 2,323 D 3 Wlnlock 12 H 3 

McNary H 2 Otis 200 D 2 Saginaw E 4 Tolovana Park O 2 WoK Creek 250 D 5 

Meacham J 2 Otter Rock 100 C 3 St. Benedict 230 B 3 Top 27 H 3 Wonder 300 D 5 

Medford 17,305 E 5 Owyhee Corner K 4 St. Helens 4,711 E 2 Trail 45 E 5 Woodburn 2,395 A 3 

Medical Sprs. 15 K 2 Pacific City 200 C 2 Saint Louis SO A3 Trent 300 E 4 Woods 110 O 2 

Mehama 200 E 3 Paisley 214 G 5 Saint Paul 226 A 3 Troutdale 514 E 2 Worden F ® 

Melrose 150 D 4 Palmer Junction 3 K 2 Salado 12 D 3 Troy 150 K 2 Wyeth 15 F 2 

Merlin 225 D 5 Paradise 42 K 2 SALEM 43,140 A 3 Tualatin 248 A 2 Yachats 300 C 3 

Merrill 835 F 5 Park Place 500 B 2 Sams Valley E 5 Tumalo 50 F 3 Yamhill 539 D 2 

Mctolius 157 F 3 Parkdale 300 F 2 Sandlake 300 C 2 Turner 610 E 3 Yamsay Station F 4 

Metzger 2,000 A 2 Parkers Mill H 2 Sandy 1,003 E 2 Twin Rocks 300 C 2 Yaqulna 70 C 3 

Middleton 150 A 2 Parkrose 3,800 B 2 Scappoose 659 E 2 Tygh Valley 449 F 2 Yoder 150 B 3 

' ^ ® Paulina G 3 Scholls 70 A 2 Uklah 300 J 2 Yoncalla . 620 D 4 

.51° ® ^ Pedeo 125 D 3 Sclo 448 E 3 Umaplne 50 J 2 Zigzag 160 F 2 

Mill City 1,792 E 3 Pendleton 11,774 J 2 Scofield 75 D 2 Umatilla 883 H 2 Zumwalt 2 L 2 

No room on map for name. 


14181 



D 






K ( 1 

Q » B 






J I 















--- w»«vc '-apixoi 

destroyed by fire 


low, eymme^rlMt modern in design, with the 

Above ^ajade surmounted by a cylindrical dome. 

Of the Btat^ ‘The Pioneer.* The library 

ate university at Eugene (right) was built in 1936. 


fltlo ^^W’ever, many sharp struggles over the 

hntK D • country. It was contested by 

Rnf • '^hich then held Alaska, and Great 


Brif ' r ’ wieu neiQ iuasKa, ana ureat 

fur-trading companies had early estab- 
Jacnh region. In the War of 1812 John 

liioutli f +u ^ station at Fort Astoria, near the 

In acquired by the British. 

1 , , ffussia agreed to limit its claims to the terri- 

fy lying north of latitude 54° 40'; and in 1827 an 
ininf^*^ ^Sreement was renewed with Great Britain for 
Rik • of the whole coast south of the 

r 1846, after a loud popular 

and ''^^^f'y'four forty or fight,” did American 

to Rof+i it arrive at the sensible conclusion 

coiinf ^ “Oregon question” by dividing Oregon 
seoqrT’i^^*'^® parallel, which already 

(hg, ^ ™e possessions of the two countries east of 
Terri f ^ 1848 the American Oregon 

stato- T ,^^®^iiding what is now embraced in the 
Wvom°^ Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of 
becatti ^ Montana) was formed. In 1859 Oregon 
® a state with its present boundaries. 

Ijj Tbe “Father of Oregon” 

Rav P ^ period of Oregon history the Hudson’s 
Eo^ played a prominent part, and there is 

Uiiivcr scene than that of old Fort Van- 

McLoi, Vancouver, Wash.), where Dr. John 

loiHiMTi Scotch Canadian, held sway for that 
^ from 1824 to 1844. Irascible, dominating, 











iSs 

W 













420 


OREGON 

the “father of Oregon” reigned like a prince in his 
fortress, with palisade, watch towers, and constant 
sentinels. This same post was the great market for the 
western fur trade. Most important of all, Dr. 
McLoughhn extended hearty welcome to all settlers. 

In 1832, four Flathead Indians from Oregon reached 
St. Louis, asking for the white man’s “Book of Heaven” 
— the Bible. Soon Jason Lee, Dr. Marcus Whitman, 
and other missionaries were dispatched to Oregon. It 
was Dr. McLoughlin who helped them settle in the 
Willamette Valley. Then Whitman made a trip to the 
East and returned with an immigrant train of 200 
covered wagons (see Oregon Trail). The 900 settlers 
were trapped by cold and hunger in the Cascades. 
Dr. McLoughlin rescued the exhausted travelers. 
When the Hudson’s Bay Company demanded of the 
doctor on what authority he was extending aid to 
American immigrants, he replied curtly that the laws 
of humanity sufficed in such an emergency. The 
upshot was that he resigned his post, was naturalized 
an American, and went to Oregon CitJ^ 

The gold fever of 1849 swept Oregon and opened 
up mines in the hills of the area around the Rogue 
and the Umpqua rivers, around Baker City, and also 
in the hills of the Willamette Valley and on 
the Santiam River. Here, in the brittle quartz, 
are still found pockets of arborescent gold in fila- 
ments and sticks. 

Forty Years of Indian Strife 

For more than 40 years the miners and other 
settlers engaged in wars with the Indians who 
were led by such men as Chief Kamiakin and 
Chief Joe. These wars lasted until the Paiutes 
and Bannocks were put down in 1880. During 
the Civil War, Oregonians who joined the Union 
forces included Joseph Hooker and Philip Sheri- 
dan, who won fame as “fighting generals.” 

Oregon’s history since has been one of peace. It 
is ever grateful, however, to the pioneers, who 
“must blaze a nation’s way with hatchet and with 
brand.” (See also chronology in Oregon Fact 
Summary; United States, sections “Western Ba- 
sins and Plateaus” and “North Pacific Region.”) 
Oregon trail. “The grass is up!” Each 
spring in the 1840’s and 1850’s the excited shout 
arose from emigrants camped at “the big bend” of 
the Missouri River. When the prairie began to 
show green, they rushed to head their wagon 
trains northwest to “the Oregon country.” From 
four to six months, these men, women, and chil- 
dren would plod some 2,000 miles of wilderness 
route called the Oregon Trail. 

The Trail was a mingling of paths discovered 
by explorers, traders, and missionaries. Lewis 
and Clark blazed the way in 1804 (see Lewis and 
Clark Expedition). In 1811 frontiersmen of the 
Pacific Fur Company followed the Missouri River 
from St. Louis to the Ankara Indian villages in 
South Dakota. They struck across the plains 
through Idaho and Oregon. This route later be- 
came a part of the Oregon Trail. 


Another section was added in 1812 by the east- 
ward trek of a Pacific fur party which took a more 
southerly route, descending the Sweetwater and Platte 
rivers to the Missouri. In 1824 Thomas Fitzpatrick, a 
trapper, discovered South Pass, the lowest crossing 
over the Continental Divide. This became the Trail’s 
chief gateway through the Rocky Mountains. 

First Missionaries on the Oregon Trail 
In 1834 the first missionary group, led by Jason Lee, 
pushed west from St. Louis, with a party headed by 
Nathaniel Wyeth. They largely followed the Platte 
River. At the Snake River Wyeth built a post. Fort 
Hall. This was later bought by the Hudson’s Bay 
Company and became an important supply outpost 
for emigrants on the Trail. In 1836 Dr. Marcus Whit- 
man and the Rev. Henry Spalding and their wives 
reached Oregon (see Whitman, Marcus). Their wives 
were the first white women to make the journey. 

Both Jason Lee and Dr. Whitman returned to the 
East to persuade people to settle in Oregon. Enthusi- 
asts in Lynn, Mass., organized an Oregon Emigration 
Society in 1838. Similar societies grew in other states. 
But few yet dared the journey, for the Oregon Trail 
was still only a loose network of wilderness paths. 


EMIGRANT DAYS ON THE OREGON TRAIL 



Fur traders built Fort Laramie on the Oregon Trail in eastern WyO' 
ming on the junction of the Worth Platte and Laramie rivers in 1834. 



Also on the Oregon Trail in the southwestern part of Wy 9 ni/ng was 
Fort Bridger. The daring fur trader Jim Bridger erected it m loa^- 



■ .. - '■ 

Here emigrants on the Oregon Trail, in 1849i repel an Indian attack. 
Even the women joined in the fight for their lives and possession • 



421 


OREGON TRAIL 

ROUTE OF THE WESTWARD TREK TO OREGON 


rf 



The Oregon Trail ran close to rivers where water was available for emigrants and their stock. Rockies w^st of South Pass, 

bublette’s Cutoff saved some 50 miles, but it lacked water. The destination of most of the settlers 


was the Willamette Valley. 


But the United States kept looking westward. In 
1842 John C. Fr4mont, of the United States Topo- 
graphical Corps, led a government exploring party to 
Wind River valley. His report and his maps then 
helped greatly to shape the network of paths into the 
Oregon Trail (see Fr4mont). 

This became the chief route to the Northwest because 


>t furnished water, easy fordings, pasturage, and low 
passes through the mountains. The wagon teams had 
to be watered twice a day and the loose stock at least 
once. Yet wagon trains could not cross several streams 
^ day, as deep water meant long hours of imloading 
and reloading wagons, and even crossing many shal- 
ow fords took precious time in a daily march. 

The ideal wagon train route went along a river. The 
tkegon Trail did. The map on this page shows how it 
jn Missouri at Independence and Westport on 
the big bend” of the Missouri River. From there it 
a nick west to the Blue River to its junction with the 
atte. The trail then followed the south bank of the 
tatte, the river once described as “a thousand miles 
aag and six inches deep.” A branch of the Platte, the 
j '^etwater, carried the Trail to South Pass in Wyoni- 
g' The Bear and Boise rivers and the “cursed mad 
”“ake River then led to the mighty Columbia 
Veeako Far West). 

^’grants gathered in April and May at Indepen- 
JJ“^estport, and St. Joseph. The sprawling camps 
b t sunbonneted women and booted rnen made 

preparations for the long trek. Men repaired their 
gear, greased axles, bolted new iron tires 
^ strengthened wagon beds. 


They had to travel light, yet carry enough to meet 
all their needs. To save weight, they were advised to 
take little furniture and “no useless trumpery.” 
Typical emigrant tools included an ax, shovel, saw, 
augurs, and “a good supply of rope.” Farmers were 
advised to also take “a few plow moulds.” Many a 
wagon carried a sheet-iron stove fastened to a rear 
platform. 

The plains offered ample game and wild fowl, but 
emigrants also had to take staple food. An experienced 
leader declared: “For each adult, there should be 200 
pounds of flour, 30 pounds of pilot bread, 75 pounds of 
bacon, 10 pounds of rice, 5 pounds of coffee, 2 pounds 
of tea, 25 pounds of sugar, half bushel of dried beans, 
one bushel dried fruit, 2 pounds of saleratus (baking 
soda), 10 pounds of salt, half a bushel of cornmeal. 
And it is well to have a half bushel of corn, parched 
and ground. A small keg of vinegar should also be 

In addition a family carried a water keg usually of 8 
or 10 gallons, a Dutch oven, and a churn or two. Boxes 
built into the wagon bed held boots, clothing, blan- 
kets, and often a feather bed. Many also held “a good 
supply of school books for the children.” 

Many loaded covered wagons weighed from 3,000 
to 7,000 pounds. Several strong animals were needed 
to pull the lurching, creaking prairie schooners. Teams 
were made up of 10 or 12 horses or mules or six yoke of 
oxen, and every emigrant needed several more in re- 
serve to replace lame or worn-out animals. Smaller 
wagons of about 2,500 pounds, drawn by one yoke of 
oxen, would often have three reserve yokes. Though 



422 


OREGON TRAIL 

slower than horses or mules, oxen proved better for the 
trail. They could graze on rougher stuff than horses 
and they seldom strayed. Wise emigrants used oxen 
from “four to six years old, tight and heavy made.” 

Wagon trains organized themselves into a company, 
with a captain. In the 1840’s there was comparatively 
little danger of attacks by Indians. But the unwieldy 
emigrant trains needed skilled guidance and discipline 
to make the long journey efficiently. The captain as- 
signed each wagon its position in line, drawn by lot, 
and named outriders and pickets. 

At a bugle call at six o’clock in the morning, the train 
prepared for the day’s march, which was usually from 
15 to 20 miles. Wagons 
wheeled into line. The 
older boys tramped afoot, 
herding the loose stock. 

Often the women and 
smaller children, tired of 
jolting and swaying, 
would spell the herders. 

A skilled captain paced 
the march to bring the 
wagons to good pasture 
and water at “nooning” 
and before sundown. 

The trek was hard, yet 
emigrants in well-organ- 
ized trains were generally 
in excellent health, and 
they had their good times . 

Many evenings, around 
the fires in the wagon cir- 
cle, groups held smgs. 

Families visited and en- 
joyed “socials.” Emi- 
grants got into serious 
trouble usually only when 
they stubbornly left the 
wagon train, seeking 
short cuts. Not until 
1848-49 did a deadly ep- 
idemic strike the Trail. 

In those years cholera 
brought death. 

For years the Trail was 
the great artery to Ore- 
gon. The first emigrant train left Independence in 
1842. In that year nearly 1,000 emigrants followed the 
Trail. In 1843 they were followed by more, of whom 
875 went all the way to Oregon. Those who reached 
Oregon in 1844 numbered about 1,400; in 1845, more 
than 3,000. Although the transcontinental rail lines 
met in Utah in 1869, emigrants used the Trail as late 
as 1880. 

Today automobile roads follow the main course of 
the historic Trail and its many alternate sweeps, made 
by different wagon trains. Often trains would drive 
off the main course to avoid deep ruts or polluted 
camp grounds or blinding dust. Sometimes the Trail 
spread 20 miles wide in faint paths over the prairie. 


The Mormon Trail largely follows the same route, ex- 
cept it usually winds along the north bank of the 
Platte. The Overland Trail branches from the Oregon 
Trail at the juncture of the North Platte and South 
Platte rivers, striking a short cut to Fort Bridger. 
Organ. Only a small part of a pipe organ can ordi- 
narily be seen. The pipes of even a small organ take 
up so much room that they are usually enclosed in a 
separate room and are heard through a screen or grille. 
The pipes above the console of an organ are often 
dummies used for ornamental purposes. ^ 

There are hundreds and sometimes thousands of 
pipes in an organ. Pipes as large as the trunks of full- 


grown trees produce the deepest tones. Others smaller 
than a lead pencil give out the highest notes. The 
pipes are arranged in chromatic series, or stops. AH 
the pipes of a stop produce tones of the same timbre. 
The stops are given names and in some cases imitate 
instruments of the orchestra, such as the oboe and 
clarinet. Some stops are composed of wood pipes, 
others of metal. The “reed” stops are made up of 
pipes constructed like a clarinet or saxophone. 

Each stop is controlled by a stop knob or tilting 
tablet placed within reach of the organist. When he 
wishes to use a stop, he pulls the knob and thu.s 
connects it with the kejffioard. The air that causes the 
pipes to sound is supplied b)^ an electric blower. 


ONE OF THE LARGEST ORGANS IN THE WORLD 


- 





0 •-j.'-assjjw 

1 11 1 1 iirrifflMfflaEtui.. “ 


HS. 


This organ has no fewer than 18,000 pipes and 232 stops. The entire organ, pipes and all, weighs 
375,000 pounds; the heaviest single pipe weighs 1,735 pounds and is 32 feet long. The longest pipe 
is 37 feet 9 inches long and 17 inches in diameter. The smallest pipe is three fourths of an inch long 
and weighs about half an ounce. This musical giant, which stands in a Philadelphia department 
store, is really made up of eight “organs”: great, choir, swell, solo, echo, chorus, ethereal, and pedal. 
In addition it has a piano, two sets of chimes, one set of gongs, and a harp, all of which are con- 
trolled by this one set of keyboards and stops. 



HOW THE PIPE ORGAN OPERATES 









1. Console 

2. Generator 

3. Motor 

4. Blower 

5. Air Pipes 

6. Reservoir 

7. Wind Trunks 

8. Wind Chests 


9. Wires from Console 

10. Chest Intermediate 

11. Valves 

12. Pipe Chamber 

13. Pipes 

14. Expression Action 

15. Expression Shutters 

16. Grille 


sits down at the console (1) 

"Tii l"‘ ‘“e *“‘o action the motor (3) and. if "ir- 

avwlable, a generator (2). These a=hvate « 

*tvoir rfit * compressed air through a*, he 

Presses^ ’ 1 ,®“'^ wind trunks (7) to fill wind chests (8)- he 
thp® electricity flows along a wire (9) B.ni £etal 
‘oe chest intermediate (10), causing it to lift a metal 


"j- 1 11 ,„C releasing some of the air pressure which holds 

d n 11 Sst the base of the pipe (13). The valve drops 
® It/Vrom thl wind chest rushes up through the pipe, 
“’‘L^lM's^eak” into the pipe chamber (12). Volume is gov- 
““’“J^f.t nPdfls coveting with the expression action (14). 
erned by peMs coM_^^ shutters (IS). 

An omamentil grUle (16) masks pipes and organ mechanism. 






ORGAN 


424 


An organ of any size has at least two keyboards, 
or manuals, as well as a pedal keyboard. Each of 
these governs a particular group of stops; the groups 
are usually placed in separate rooms, each fitted 
with movable slatted shutters for controlling the 
volume. The most important manual governs the 
great organ, as this group of stops is termed. Above 
the great manual is the swell manual and below is 
the choir manual. If an organ is provided with other 
manuals, they are placed above the swell and are 
usually called solo and echo. The echo organ is in 
the rear of the auditorium. The pedal organ has its 
own stops; some of these sound one or more octaves 
lower than the corresponding notes of the manuals. 
Couplers on most organs interconnect the manuals. 
Thus the stops of the swell organ, for example, may 
be played from the great manual. 

The oldest organlike instrument was the syrinx, or 
Pan pipes, of ancient Greece. Sets of pipes some- 
thing like these were attached to an air pump and 
hydraulic air reservoir about 200 n.c. This was the 
hijdraulus, or water organ, used in Roman circuses. 
Centuries later, bellows replaced the cjdinder-and- 
piston pump as a source of air. A 10th-century organ 
in Winchester Cathedral, England, had a bellows so 
huge that 70 men were needed to pump it. Today 


The CHEMISTRY of 

^RGANIC CHEMISTRY. Carbon unites with many 
elements to form a great variety of compounds 
that are found in a host of substances. Among the 
common substances are coal, petroleum, plant and 
animal tissues, foods, fabrics, plastics, and rubber. 
More than 600,000 carbon compounds have been iso- 
lated or synthesized; all the other elements together 
form less than 50,000 compounds. These substances 
containing carbon are called organic compounds; and 
the study of them is known as organic chemistry. 

This name arose because chemists once thought that 
many of these compounds could be formed only by a 
vital force (a life process). This was 'disproved in 
1828 when the German chemist Friedrich Wohler con- 
verted the compound ammonium cyanate, NH4CNO, 
into urea (NH2)2CO. Before this, urea had been known 
only as a product of life processes. Today chemists 
and chemical manufacturers can create many of the 
products which formerly had been produced only by 
living plants and animals. 

Why the Host of Carbon Compounds Exists 
Carbon (organic) compounds exist in such number 
and variety because of the chemical properties of 
carbon. Carbon has four valence electrons which form 
covalent bonds. And since carbon is in Group IVB 
of the Periodic Table, it appears to be "mid-way" 
between the metals and nonmetals and has the ability 
to react with both types of elements (see Carbon; 
Periodic Table). Carbon reacts as follows; 

1. Carbon atoms have the unusual property of 
combining with each other to form rings or long 
chains. No other element does so as e.xtensively. 


turbine blowers furnish a constant suppl}^ of wind. 
Electric or electropneumatic devices open and close 
pipe valves and stop controls at a finger’s touch. 

In 1935 Laurens Hammond introduced a revolution- 
ary type of pipeless electric organ. A synchronous motor 
turns a number of tone wheels, one for each funda- 
mental note of the organ. Each wheel bears high spots 
that pass an electromagnet and generate electrical 
impulses having the frequency of the note (see Sound). 
Separate controls add impulses for overtones as de- 
sired. These various currents are then amplified 
through a loud-speaker. The overtone controls can 
be set to approximate the quality of the different 
stops of a pipe organ or to produce tones unlike 
those of any other instrument. A smaller chord or- 
gan is similarly constructed. The melody is played 
on a short keyboard with the right hand while buttons 
controlled by the left hand suppty a chord accompa- 
niment, as in the accordion. 

Reed organs, or harmoniums, are often used in 
small churches. A reed organ has a great number of 
freely vibrating brass reeds like those of the har- 
monica. In small one-manual reed organs, air is pro- 
vided by bellows worked by the feet. Larger types 
may have two manuals and a pedal keyboard. In 
these the wind is supplied by an electric blower. 


CARBON Compounds 

2. Carbon will combine with many different atoms 
or groups of atoms. This property, together with 
ability to form long chains, makes carbon the most 
versatile of all elements in forming compounds. 

3. Carbon forms many compounds that exist as 
isomers. Isomers are molecules with the same number 
and kinds of atoms, but in different arrangements — 
for example, CH3CHCI2 and CH2CICH2CI. The isomers 
have markedly different chemical properties. 

The Huge Family of Hydrocarbons 

The effects produced by these factors can be illus- 
trated with the most simple organic compounds, called 
hydrocarbons — meaning compounds containing hydro- 
gen and carbon only. This type of compound can be 
shown by molecular formulas (which state the kind 
and number of atoms in the compound) or by struc- 
tural formulas. Structural formulas show the covalent 
bonds which hold the atoms together, with a short bar 
for each bond. In such a formula, each bar represents 
a pair of electrons; usually each atom concerned 
contributes "its end of the bond," as follows: 

^ 

Electrons The bond shown _ „ 

in the bond: Ctrl by a bar: " 

Groups of atoms can also be combined by one or 
more covalent bonds. Such groups (sometimes called 
radicals) offer their ends of one or more covalent 
bonds for making compounds. Radicals from simple 
parent hj^drocarbons are named by changing the 
ending of the name of the hydrocarbon from which 
they are derived, thus; methane, CH4 (the hydro- 
carbon); methyl, CH3 (the radical). The three 



424 a ^ 


ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 


simplest hj'drocarbons (methane, ethane, propane) 
and the corresponding radicals or combining groups 
are shown at the right, using each type of formula. 
These hydrocarbons differ from each other only in 
the number of H-C-H units in the chain. The series 
rans up to CeoHizz- Isomerism appears with the 
hydrocarbon butane {C4Hio)- 

The number of isomers increases with the number 
of carbon atoms in the molecule. Butane has one 
isomer; pentane (C5H12) has two; and so on. The 
isomers for butane and pentane are showm at the 
right, with their structural formulas. The formulas 
show that hydrocarbons of this type are “open chain” 
in structure and not closed chains, which would be 
called ring structures. 

Hydrocarbons form many derivatives; that is, com- 
pounds in which the hydrogen atoms are replaced by 
other atoms or groups. Several methane derivatives at 
the right show such replacements. Isomers also form 
derivatives, thus adding to the host of compounds. 

Hydrocarbons of the Benzene Type 

Hydrocarbons of the open-chain type are found 
typically in petroleum. Coal tar is another important 
source of hy^drocarbons; but most hydrocarbons from 
coal tar have the carbon arranged in rings rather than 
in chains. The rings usuaUy have six carbon atoms. 
The simplest of these hydrocarbons is benzene (CgHel- 
The stmctural formulas of benzene and several deriv- 
atives are showm at the right. The importance of 
henzene and benzene derivatives can be judged by 


STRUCTURES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 


Below are the three simplest hydrocarbons, 
shown by formulas of molecular and structural 
type. The article explains these and other examples. 


Methane 

CH4 


Ethane 

CjHs 


Propane 

C 3 H, 


H 

I 

H— C— H 

I 

H 

H H 

H— C— C— H 

^ A 

H H H 

^ ^ ^ 


Methyl 

-CH, 


Ethyl 

-C2H5 


H 

-i-H 

I 

H 

H H 

ti 


Propyl 

-CjH, 


H H H 

I I I 

H H H 


HYDROCARBON 

ISOMERS 


Butane 

(C4H,o) 


Pentane 

(CsHu) 


H H H H 

h-c-c-c-c-h 

H H H H 

H H H H H 

U ^ 

H H H H 

H H I H 

H— C— H 


H 

HCH 

H I H 

ti ti .1 


H 

HCH 

H I H 

I 1 I 

H— C— C— C— H 


H 1 H 
HCH 
H 


listing a few wdth their uses in modem Hfe: 

Benzene — a powerful solvent; usable for motor fuel 

H 

H— C— H 

METHANE DERIVATIVES 

H 

Cl 

Toluene — used to make explosives such as trinitro- 
toluene (TNT) 

H— <1— Cl 

1 

H— (1— Cl 

(il 

Aniline — an important material for dyes 

1 

H 

H 

Phenol (carbolic acid) — a strong antiseptic 

Salicylic acid — basis of drugs such as aspirin 

Methane 

Methyl chloride 

Chloroform 

Hydroquinone — photographic developer 

I 

Cl 

H 

1 

These compounds with ring structure are caUed aro- 

H— <!:— 1 

1 

1 

1 

Cl-C— Cl 

1 

H — C —OH 

1 

compounds, w^hereas those with chain stmeture 

1 

Cl 

H 

called aliphatic compounds. 

Compounds with Double and Triple Bonds 

1 

Iodoform 

Carbon tetrachloride 

Methyl alcohol 


aromatic compounds differ from many aiipnatic uj 
drocarbons in the type of bonds w'hich hold the 
molecules together. In a chain-structure molecule, 
auch as methane, the carbon atom forms one bon 
consisting of a shared pair of electrons) with each ot 
four other atoms. In such situations, the carbon 
ca Said to be tetravalent. Since four is the larges 
uuinber of atoms with which a carbon atom can jom, 
■•Um compounds are said to be saturated. 

Henzene, how'ever, has only six hydrogen atoms 
oombined with six atoms of carbon. Each carbon 
? °ui therefore only uses one valence bond to hold a 
'‘mrogen atom. The other three bonds join with 
® cr carbon atoms to form the benzene ring, an 
"CO- other bond between the carbon atoms must he 
Rouble. To form this bond, the carbon atoms share 
JO pairs of electrons, thus; C::C. A double bond can 
Jo be shown with bars: C = C. A triple bond can b 
oun with three bars: C=C. 


H C n 

H 

Benzcn© 


benzene derivatives 

CHj 

H C H 


OH 

x/v 


C c 
H c H 

H 

Toluono 

COOH 


H 


C ^ 

/ ^H 

I 

H 

Phenol 

(Carbolic acid) 


H H C OH 

I I 

H 

Solieylie 
acid 


H 


NH2 

HCH 

X/ x^/ 

'c I 

HCH 

I 

H 

Aniline 


OH 

H Jc H 
X/ X^/ 

I I 

HCH 

I 

OH 


Hydro- 

quinone 


ORGANIC CHEMISTRY -4245- 

THE LEADING FAMILIES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 


HYDROCARBON 


H— C-fH 

I ' - 

H 

Methane 

(CH4) 


ALCOHOL 


H — C —OH ; 


Methyl alcohol 
ICHjOH) 


ETHER 

H H H H 
H — C — C — O— ([ — C — H 

A ti A 

Diethyl ether 
(CjHsOCzHs) 


ALDEHYDE 

fo" 

, II 

H— C— H . 

^ ^ . J 


Formaldehyde 

(HCHO) 

KETONE 
H ;b' H 

r A 

Acetone 

(CHjCOCHi) 


jo 

H 4^ — OhI 


Formic acid 
(HCOOH) 


AMINE 

H / H' 

H-i-H-" i 

Methyl amine 
(CH3NH2) 


S ' ’ O H H 

/■ ■ ' I 1 . i 

H— C— O— C— C— HJ 

! 1 '1' ' 

[, ; ^ .X H Hx‘; j 

Ethyl formate 

(CzHsCOOH) 


H— C— C — N 


Acetamide 

(CH3CONH2) 


These are examples of the leading types of organic com- 
pounds. Each type has a characteristic grouping of atoms 
which identifies if, and all can be considered as derived 
from the hydro-carbon methane. For example, substitution 
of the hydroxyl group (—OH) for a hydrogen atom in a 
methane yields an alcohol. (This and other characteristic 
groups are marked by shading.) 

Substitution of a double-ljond oxygen atom for two V_o 
hydrogen atoms of an alcohol gives an aldehyde: y 

Double bonds can occur in chain-type compounds 
as well as in those of the ring type. Compounds hav- 
ing such bonds are said to be unsaturated, because 
elements such as hydrogen, chlorine, and bromine can 
open the bonds and saturate the four carbon valences 
by adding atoms of these elements. Two unsaturated 
chain-type hydrogen carbons, ethylene and acetylene, 
are shown below, together with the end results of 
saturating them with hydrogen atoms: 

Elhytene (C 2 H 4 ) Acetylene (CzHj) 

H H 

I I 

H— C = C— H H— CsC— H 

CzH4-t-H2— ’CzHg CzHz-t-SHz— ^CzHs 

Ethane Ethane 

Classification of Carbon Compounds 

The chemist has organized the study of this great 
number of compounds of carbon in much the same 
way that he has organized the study of the elements; 
that is, by grouping them into families. He finds 
that all organic compounds can be grouped into a 
small number of families. Furthermore, these families 
can be considered to be derivatives of the hydrocarbon 
methane (CH 4 ). 

Just as a family of elements in the Periodic Table 
has similar properties, so does a family of organic 
compounds. This similarity arises from the proper- 
ties of some characteristic group in each family. In 
the examples shown, the characteristic group is 
attached to the group called methyl (CH3) in the 
alcohol, ketone, amine, and amide; with a hydrogen 
atom (H) in the aldehyde and acid. The ethyl groups 
(C2H5) are in the ether and ester. The characteristic 
group can react with the characteristic group of other 
compounds to form new compounds. 

The organic chemist has learned how to use the 
properties of each characteristic group in making 
new compounds. Hence he can make many new deriv- 
atives of a given compound. Thus he is a sort of mo- 


The name “aldehyde” also suggests “alcohol less hydrogen” 
as comparison of the formulas will show. 

Addition of another oxygen atom to an aldehyde yields 
an organic acid, with the characteristic group COOH; and 
an ester can be considered as a salt of an acid. In ethyl 
formate, for example, an ethyl group (C2H5) has been sub- 
stituted for the hydrogen atom of the characteristic group 
of formic acid. Other characteristic groups are explained 
in the article. 

lecular architect. He can design almost any formula 
he wishes and then go into the laboratory and prepare 
the compound that corresponds to that formula. 

Many Kinds of Alcohols 

Most people have heard of wood alcohol {CH3OH), 
called methyl alcohol or methanol; and grain alcohol 
{C2H5OH), called ethyl alcohol or ethanol. Such simple 
alcohols have a carbon chain with the characteristic 
hydroxyl (-OH) group at one end, and H or a hydro- 
carbon radical at the other end. 

Alcohols may have more than one OH group. Two 
examples of such alcohols are the following: 

H H H H H 

II 111 

H— C— C— H H— C— C— C— H 

J. ...|.n r.|...-l I t 

OH OH I :oh :oh oh; 

Elhylsne glycol Glycerin 

Ethylene glycol is called a dihydric alcohol, from 
the two OH groups. Glycerin is trihydric. Alcohols 
can also be of the hranched-chaih type, 
with hydrocarbon radicals at each side h-^c-^ohj 
of the carbon chain instead of at one cW 
side, as in ethylene glycol or glycerin, isopropyl 
An example is isopropyl alcohol, used oicohol 
as rubbing alcohol. It has the same molecular for- 
mula (C3H7OH) as the normal propyl alcohol. (See 
also Alcohol; Glycerin.) 

Aldehydes, Ketones, and Ethers 

Aldehydes are formed when alcohols are partially 
oxidized. The most familiar aldehyde is formaldehyde 
(HCHO), which is obtained from methyl alcohol. Form- 
aldehyde is used as an embalming fluid, as an animal 
specimen preservative for biological work, as a dis- 
infectant, and as an important raw material for the 
preparation of Bakelite and other plastics. 

Ketones are formed when such branched-chain alco- 
hols as isopropyl {CH3CHOHCH3) are partially oxidized. 
Removal of two hydrogen atoms leaves one carbon 



424 c 


atom united by a double bond to one oxygen atom, as 
in an aldehyde. Acetone {CH3COCH3) is one of the 
best-known ketones. Ketones are used as solvents for 
lacquers. 

Elhers may be formed from two molecules of an 
alcohol in this manner; 

C2H5OHI 

f -[-H 2 S 04 -»C 2 HsOC 2 H 5 +H 2 S 04 (Hydrate) 

The sulfuric acid (H2SO4) removes a molecule of water 
(H2O), shown by shading, and allows the C2H5 and 
C2H5O to join together, with -O- in the middle. 
The best known ether is diethyl ether (C2HSOC2H5). 
Its chief use is as an anesthetic. 


Two Types of Organic Acids 
Organic acids are of two types. One has the COOH 
group (called the carboxyl group). An example is 
acetic acid (CH3COOH), the acid in vinegar. It is 


made by oxidizing grain alcohol or by — c. 
the fermentation of the fruit sugar in 
cider. 

The other type has a -phenol group, 
as in phenol (CsHsOH). Each type ap- 
pears m salicylic acid (OHC6H4COOH), shown on an 
earlier page. Water solutions of each type are weakly 
acidic. The solutions can be neutralized with alkali; 
this forms salts of the organic acids. 


\-OH 

I 

II 

Phenol group 


Esters, Amines, and Amides 
Ripe fruits owe their odors to the presence of 
(slers. Some common esters formed with acetic acid 
(CH3COOH) are found in the following list: 


NAME 

FORMULA 

found in 


CHiCOOCoHe 


Bulyl acetate 

. CH3COOC4Hg 

bananas 

Amyl acetate 

,. CH 3 COOC 5 H,i 

bananas 

Octyl acetate 

,. CH3COOC8H17 

oranges 

MelhyJ butyrate . . . 

,, C3H7COOCH3 

pineapple 


■Amines are formed when a hydrogen atom is re- 
placed with an NH2 group. Simple replacements ap- 
pear in' such examples as methylamine (CH3NH2), from 
the aliphatic hydrocarbon methane, and aniline 
from the aromatic hydrocarbon benzene. 
Amides are formed when the -OH of the carboxyl 
E^'oup in an organic acid is replaced — for example, 
acetamide {CH3CONH2). Both amines and amides 
ate important intermediates in forming other com- 
pounds. For example, aniline is a basis for many dyes 
(seeDyes). 


'ri, ^^tttPnnnds with Double-Acting Groups 

these “family” groups enter into a tremendous 
'’ciiety of combinations in plant and animal life and m 
ost of other chemical processes. Many of the 
“abmations are possible because many compounds 
family group. A H 
, ^■'^ample is glycine. Glycine is h— c— cooh 
an amino acid because it has 
an acid group (COOH) and an 
, * group (NH2) which acts as , • 1 

f. Rach group can combine with its chemica 
glycine can join end to end wi 
and with other basic or acidic compounds. 


called 

both 

atnino 


NH2 

Glycine 


ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 


As shown by formulas on an earlier page, salicylic 
acid has a carbox-yl group (COOH) and a hydro.xyl 
group (OH). Either or both groups can join with com- 
pounds in forming drugs or other compounds. 

Chemical Characteristic of Fats 
Many such combinations are found in the three 
great classes of foods — fats, carbohydrates, and pro- 
teins. Fats are esters of glymerin and higher acids 
such as palmitic {C]5H3,COOH), oleic (C,7H33COOH), 
and stearic (C17H35COOH). A typical molecule of fat 
found in tallow shows with shading wdiat has been 
removed from the acid and the glycerin to form the 


ester, or fat: 



CnHjsCOpH 

"tT— 0— H 

1 

CnHisCOOCHi 

C„H3jCO OH + 

X 

1 

-u- 

1 

0 

1 

X 

— ► CitHjjCOOCH - i-SHiO 

c,5H„cooh 

H— 0 — C— H 

CisHjiCOOCHz 


H 

Acid Glycerin Esier 


Treating the ester with a base (such as sodium hy- 
droxide, NaOH) restores the glycerin and adds three 
No ions to the acid radicals, giving three molecules of 
soap (SCnHasCOONa) (see Soap). Such a process 
occurs in the upper intestines in digesting fats. The 
digestion products then move into the blood stream 
and are carried to the body cells to be resynthesized 
to body fats; or to be oxidized, producing carbon diox- 
ide, water, and energy. In the oxidation process, fat 
produces twice the energy of carbohydrates or protein. 

Sugar Base of Carbohydrates 
The photosynthesis in plants affords a natural pro- 
duction of carbohydrates (sugars, starch, cellulose). 
By this process plant sugar {C6H,206) is formed from 
carbon dioxide and water (see Plant Life). The molec- 
ular formula can mean either of two simple sugars: 


OH OH OH H p 

H H H OH 

Fructose 


OH 

I 

-C— H 

I 

H 


OH OH OH H OH O 


I I I I 


H-C— C-C 

I I I t I 
H H H OH H 

Glucose 


C-C— C— H 


The total units H and OH are present in numbers 
ifficient to form six molecules of water (6H2O); 
ence the name carbohydrates, meaning “hydrate of 
irbon ” The molecules differ only in the position of 
JO C =0 unit. They both have several alcohol 
nits but glucose is an aldehyde and fructose is a 
etone If an OH is removed from one such molecule 
nd an H from another, the molecules can join at the 
acated bonds. The sugar sucrose (CuHazO,,), used 
“r sweetening food, is formed in this way. (See also 

30 staple sugar units are joined, they form 
molecule of starch (CeH.oOslx. A mass of 00 to 
000 joined together is a molecule of cellulose 
- HioOsly. (See also Cellulose; Starch.) 

'® T-fae Body-Building Proteins 

The framework of all living cehs and tissues is 
,ade of protein; and the many different kinds of 
irp all made of amino acids linked together 
jtTg chains or large globules (see Proteins). The 



ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 


424^f 


amino acids are linked, as already explained for gly- 
cine, by means of the acidic COOH and the basic 
NH 2 radicals. Fats may also be included in cell tissue. 

During digestion, proteins are broken down by en- 
zymes into amino acids and other parts (see Digestion; 
Enzymes). These fragments are absorbed and recom- 
bined into body proteins as needed or they may be 
oxidized to supply energy. 

Helpful Vitamins and Drugs 

Body cells have the ability to absorb the digested 
fats, proteins (amino acids), and carbohydrates (glu- 
cose) and convert them into parts of the cell to replace 
damaged or worn portions or to build additional 
cells. To do this work properly, the cells require 
help from catalysts called vitamins (see Vitamins), 
which they cannot make. 

The different vitamins act like so many “keys in 
locks” to conduct exchanges properly regardless of 
changes in the supporting liquid caused by variations 
in food supply or bodily state of health or disease 
(see Blood; Respiration). 

Drugs likewise are helpful because they interact 
in definite chemical ways with tissues and the 
course of bodily processes. Because interactions are 
often so delicate, a slight variation in a drug molecule 
can have a profound effect upon its action. A good 
example of this is afforded by the group of sulfa 


drugs which are derived from the original sulfanila- 
mide as follows: 


SULFANILAMIDE 


Sulfaguanidine 


NH 

NH 2 


1 

— C 

c 

\ 


NHz 

c c 

II i 

Sulfalhiazole 

c ^c 

'"c^ ; 

N— CH 

1 

II II 

/ 

— C CH 

SO 2 — N 

S 



Sulfapyridins 
H H 
C — C 

''n.c/ 


— c 


Sulfadiazil)9 

N=CH 


CH 


N-CH 


/ 


Each sulfa at the right and left is made by substi- 
tuting its chain for the H marked with an arrow in 
the parent drug, sulfanilamide. 

Synthetics — Fibers, Plastics, and Rubber 
Organic chemists have learned to produce a host of 
valuable synthetic substances. Generally the chemist 
selects a suitable molecule or molecules with double- 
acting properties and unites ('polymerizes) them into 
larger groups called polymers. Among the products 
are fibers such as nylon and rayon (see Fibers; Nylon; 
Rayon). Other substances called plastics are molded 
or otherwise shaped into a host of objects (see Plas- 
tics). Another triumph of organic chemistry is the 
modern array of synthetic rubbers (see Rubber). 


Orinoco river. Although Columbus saw the 
muddy waters of the Orinoco River staining the Gulf 
of Paria in 1498 and Diego de Ordaz explored the 
lower river in 1531, its source was still in dispute 
400 years later. Over the centuries, explorers pushed 
past rapids and through rain forest toward the head- 
waters. In 1931, Dr. Herbert S. Dickey, an American, 
announced the location of the 
source stream. In 1951 Risquez 
Iribarren, a Venezuelan, disputed 
this finding and located the source 
40 miles farther east. 

From its source, the stream 
makes a broad curve to the north- 
west, where it forms the boundary 
between Venezuela and Colombia. 

Then it strikes eastward to the 
Atlantic and ends in a 700-square- 
mile delta west and south of 
Trinidad. Here some 36 channels 
thread through islands and man- 
grove swamp. 

Important among its 436 sizable 
tributaries are the Guaviare, 

Meta, Apure, Arauea, Caura, and 
Caroni. The Casiquiare connects 
the Orinoco with the Rio Negro, a 
branch of the Amazon. Through 
it about one third of the waters of 
the region drain to the Amazon. 

The length of the river is esti- 
mated at about 1,600 miles. With 


its branches it drains a basin estimated at 570,000 
square miles. Ocean vessels can navigate it to the 
Caribbean Rapids, 700 miles from its mouth. The 
width, depth, and volume of the river vary tre- 
mendously through the year. In the summer rainy 
season, a swirling flood of muddy water may widen 
parts of the channel five miles or more. At such 
times the depth at Ciudad Bolivar, 
the river port, may increase by 
as much as 60 feet. 

The drainage basin is thinly 
populated and only slightly de- 
veloped. In the northern part, 
dry seasons of the 3 'ear produce 
broad, grassy plains, called the 
llanos, used for cattle raising. 
To the south lie the Guiana High- 
lands, with a wealth of minerals 
largely untapped. Gold and dia- 
monds have been mined in the Ca- 
roni Valley. Huge iron-ore depos- 
its were developed by American 
steel interests after World War II. 
(See also Venezuela.) 

Oriole. Among the most inter- 
esting nests built by birds is 
the one built by orioles. Baby 
orioles are hatched in a tight- 
ly woven sack of fibers which 
the female constructs on the 
tip of a high tree branch. The 
nest is quite safe because it 


THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE 



The male (above) is brilliantly colored in fire 
orange and black, with white on the wings. 
The female (clinging to nest below) is paler 
and olive tinged. 




425 


ORPHEUS 


is so strongly woven that, although made for one 
summer only, it will swing securely on its leafless 
bough even through the storms of winter. 

Included with meadowlarks, blackbirds, and others 
of the Ickridae family are about 40 species of ori- 
oles, distributed throughout temperate and tropical 
America. They feed on fruit, berries, and insects. 
The nesting habits are similar, though some nests are 
only semihanging. Orioles are not great singers, but 
all have sweet whistling calls. They breed from 
Nova Scotia and British Columbia to Mexico, and 
uinter in Central America. The males are richly 
colored in orange, yellow, or chestnut, and black. 

A favorite in eastern North America is the gorgeous 
orange and black Baltimore oriole. It is the state 
bird of Maryland. The orchard oriole, dark chestnut 
and black, ranges farther west and south. West of 
the Rocky Mountains, from Canada to Mexico, is the 
beautiful Bullock’s oriole, also orange and black. 
In the Southwest are the hooded, Scott’s, arid Audu- 
bon's orioles. Old World orioles, though similar in 
color and habits, belong to another genus. The best 
known is the golden oriole. (For pictures in color, 
see Birds; Egg.) . r, 

The scientific name of the orchard oriole is Icterus 
spurius; of the Baltimore oriole. Icterus galbula; of 
Bullock’s oriole. Icterus bullocki; of the hooded 
oriole. Icterus cucullalus; of Scott’s oriole, Icterus 
pansorum; of Audubon’s oriole, Icterus melano- 
cephalus; of the golden oriole, Oriolus oriolus. 

ORRON. A mighty hunter of Greek legend, Orion 
was noted for his beauty and gigantic size and 
strength. According to the best-known story about 
him, Orion was loved by the goddess Artemis (Diana), 
whose hunter he became. Her brother Apollo was 
angered at this, and one day seeing Orion swimming 
he pointed out to Artemis a black object in the w^ei 
and challenged her to hit it with her arrow. She sho 
at it, finding when too late that it was the head of er 
lover. After his death he was placed among the star^ 
where he appears with a lion’s skin, girdle, sword, an 
dub, followed by his hound. The constellation o 
Orion is one of the brightest in the northern heavens. 
The three bright stars across its center aie ca e 
‘prion’s belt.” 

Orkney islands, Scotland. Like a fleet 
filing from Scotland up into the Arctic Ocean lie e 
'0 islands of the Orkneys. They are windy and tree- 
kss but noted for their bold and rocky scenery. _ or 
centuries these islands were the scene of many stirring 
events and bloody battles, for they were a natural 
stopping place for the Vikings in their voyages to 
Jie southwest. Their long black ships with monstrous 
Sureheads visited their shores, carrying the 
"fn-iors in their search for plunder and fame, in 
's ands remained in the hands of the Northmen until 
GS, when a needy king of Denmark 
^flcneys and Shetlands to James III oi Scotland a 
security for his daughter’s dowry. In defau o P 
l^cut they became Scottish territory, Denmar ' 

®^*'y consenting to the transfer in 1590. 


About half of the 70 islands are uninhabited. On 
the largest island, called Mainland, is IQrkrvall, a 
towm of 4,348 inhabitants. Other islands worthy 
of mention are Westray, Sanday, Stronsay, and 
Hoy, the last alone being mountainous and noted for 
its beautiful scenery. The inhabitants are largely 
descendants of the Northmen. On their small farms 
they raise oats, turnips, barleys and potatoes and 
tend their cattle, sheep, and poultry. Fishing is also 
a leading industry. 

Scapa Flow, a large well-protected anchorage in the 
south of the group, was the chief naval base of the 
British Atlantic fleet in World War I. Here too the 
German fleet was interned after its surrender in 1918 
and later sunk by its crews. Kirkwall, which lies 
at its northern angle, was the western base from 
which the stupendous task of laying the great North 
Sea mine barrage was accomplished, chiefly by Ameri- 
can vessels. It later served as the base for the im- 
portant and hazardous task of sweeping up the mines. 
Scapa Flow was again the chief base of the British 
Atlantic fleet in World War II. Area of the islands, 
375 square miles; population (1951 census, pre- 
liminary), 21,258. . 

Orleans (dr-?a-an')> France. Many histone mem- 
ones cling to this old French town, situated at the 
northernmost bend of the Loire River, about 200 miles 
from its mouth and 75 miles southwest of Paris. It is 
the site of the ancient town of Genabum, which Julius 
Caesar laid in ruins when the Gauls rose against him 
in 52 B.c. The Roman city which arose here was 
named Aurelianum (probably in honor of the emperor 
Marcus Aurelius), whence the nanie Orleans. It 
vas important under the Franks and their successors 
rnd its university (founded in 1309) became renowned 
» a Sr Ot learning in medieval and Renaissance 

‘“S' the military history o[ France Orldans has 
fieured prominently. It is especially famous for its 
sSe by^the English during the Hundred \ earn V ar 
wSn it was relieved by Joan of Arc, the Maid of 
OrlSns (see Joan of Arc). In the religious wars it was 
center of Huguenot resistance. The Germans cap- 
f h in 1870 In World War II, after a heavy 

tombardment. it again « 

. oyro n-q varied manufactures include tobacco, 
rS hosim™ ins, .vine, vinegar, agricultural im- 
b ankets, " . j^jucry, and motor vehicles. It is 

p ements tooh, mac^ . ^ distributing 

bSfcSebSsl is in its historical memo- 
point, but Kididinas These include a cathedral 

rials and publ. bn, IrirngS; 

„.h,ch architecture, an equestrian statue 

r7r"i,ouse in cvhich she nas .edged. 

QrPHEUS ( J f musician of Greece, 

called, was a eg . Apollo and instructed 

JrSfCrolpheu: S- his di5„e music not only 



ORPHEUS 


426 


enchanted men and beasts, but even caused the trees 
to follow him. On his travels with the Argonauts, 


his music stopped rocks from crushing the ship. 
‘ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE’ 



This famous picture by Watts depicts a scene from the ancient 
myth. It hangs in the Tate Gallery in London. 

When his wife Eurydice died, he followed her to 
the lower regions. His lyre charmed Hades into per- 
mitting her to follow him back to earth, provided he 
did not look at her on the way. But Orpheus’ love 
made him look, and he saw Eurydice disappearing into 
the mists of the underworld. Grief-stricken, he 
scorned the women where he lived (Thrace), and they 
tore him to bits. The pieces were gathered by the 
Muses and buried near Mount Olympus, and there a 
nightingale sings over his grave. 

Osaka {o's&-ka), Japan. The largest industrial 
city of the Orient is Osaka. It is Japan’s second 
city and the capital of Osaka Prefecture. Because of 
the smoke that overlies the city it has been compared 
to cities such as Manchester in England. 

Osaka is in the south-central part of the island 
of Honshu, about 265 miles southwest of Tokyo. It 
hes at the head of Osaka Bay, toward the eastern 
end of the Inland Sea. Through it flow the Yodo and 
smaller rivers and canals. The city 
rests on the fertile Settsu Plain. 

Outside of the modern business 
district, many of the streets are 
narrow and the buildings flimsy. 

A subway has been drilled below 
the central area. Osaka lies on 
one of Japan’s great trunk rail 
lines. After Yokohama and Kobe, 
it is Japan’s third port. Osaka’s 
own harbor long remained shallow, 
and Kobe, 20 miles to the west, 
was Osaka’s deep-water port. In 
1929 the harbor was dredged so 
that it could float large ships. 

Osaka is the center of Japan’s 
light industry and has both steel 
mills and shipbuilding yards. Its 
industries produce textiles, food- 
stuffs, machinery, leather, glass- 
ware, pottery, and chemicals. 

The Osaka Imperial University 
and several technical schools fur- 


nish higher education. Osaka is famous for its ancient 
puppet theater and other stages. It has Buddhist 
and Shinto temples and some Christian missions. 

An imperial palace was built on the site about 
A.D. 300. Osaka was Japan’s military capital from 
1583 to 1598. The city’s commercial importance dates 
from this period. In the 17th century Osaka was 
called the “banker of Japan.” In the 19th and 20th 
centuries the city’s increasing foreign and domestic 
uade was built on this banking foundation. In 1945, 
during the second World War, Osaka became a major 
target for American bombs. About one third of the 
city was destroyed and many of its people killed. 
Population (1950 census), 1,956,136. 

Osceola {ds-e-o'la) (1804!'-1838). The leader of the 
Seminole Indians in their second war against the 
United States was Osceola,. Osceola hated the white 
men because they wanted to move the Seminoles from 
Florida to new lands west of the Mississippi. His 
hatred grew when white men seized his part-Negro wife 
and enslaved her. Defying the agreement to move made 
by some of his chiefs, Osceola led his people in daring 
raids against the United States Army. He was cap- 
tured only when the whites violated a flag of truce. 

Osceola’s name' is more properly spelled As-se-he-ho- 
lar, which means “Black Drink.” He was also known 
as Powell, the name of the man who may have been 
his white stepfather. Osceola’s early history is not 
surely known. He was born about 1804 along the 
Tallapoosa River, in Georgia. When he was four his 
family moved to Florida. As a boy he may have fought 
against Gen. Andrew Jackson in the first Seminole 
war. As a grown brave he was tall and spare, with reg- 
ular teeth, a straight nose, and flashing eyes. Indian 
and army authorities at Fort King sometimes hired 
him to restrain plundering Indians and to capture 
army deserters. He grew in importance among the 
Seminoles, but they did not make him a chief. 

In 1832 some Seminole chiefs 
signed a treaty that called for 
them to move to Indian Territory 
in present-day Oklahoma. Osceola 
and other young Seminoles op- 
posed the move. In 1835 the In- 
dian agent, Wiley Thompson, 
called a council at Fort Gibson. 
Some of the chiefs agreed to move. 
Osceola rose and plunged his dag- 
ger through the new treaty. He 
said, “This is the only treaty I 
will make with the whites!” He 
was imprisoned. But he pretended 
to change his mind in favor of the 
move and was released. 

In December, the Indians slew 
a command of about 100 men 
under Maj . F. L. Dade. At about 
the same time Osceola killed 
Thompson, the Indian agent, and 
an army officer at Fort King. One 
of the chiefs who had signed the 


A GREAT INDIAN LEADER 



Osceola closed the white man’s effort to 
move the Seminoles from Florida to Indian 
Territory. The Federal government had to 
send 8.000 soldiers against him. 


426fl' 


OSLO 


treaty to move was tried and executed. Osceola threw 
away the money white men had given the chief for 
his slaves and cattle. 

Osceola knew that the Indians were no match for 
the white soldiers in open battle. So he led the 
Seminoles deep into the great Okefenokee Swamp. 
There he hid the wmmen and children. From the 
swamp he led the Seminole braves in fierce raids on the 
white soldiers and settlers. The American public 
criticized the conduct of the war, and one general after 
another w-as put in command. Finally Gen. T. J. 
Jesup was given 8,000 men to end the war. 

Some of the Seminole chiefs had given many braves 
as hostages for the move to Indian Territory^. In June 

1837, Osceola, with 200 warriors, liberated them and 
other Indians held by the army. In October, with 
about 80 braves and some w'omen, Osceola came under 
a flag of trace to confer rvith a subordinate of Jesup. 
Jesup ordered him seized. 

Osceola was imprisoned first at St. Augustine and 
later in Fort Moultrie, at Charleston, S. C. Jesup’s 
■violation of a flag of truce was se- 
verely condemned by the American 
people. But Osceola died, on Jan. 30, 

1838, before the criticism could bring 
his release. He was buried 'with 
full military honors. 

Osiris (o-sz'rls). The most popu- 
lar of the gods in Egyptian mythol- 
ogy was Osiris, son of Seb (the earth) 
and Nut (the sky). He was esteemed 
as a wise and just king and later be- 
came the god of the sun, of health, 
and of agriculture. But his wicked 
brother Set (night) induced him to 
enter a chest, closed it, and cast 
it iiito the Nile. Isis, the wife of 
Osiris, discovered her husband’s body, 
but Set got it again and cut it to 
pieces. These Isis gathered and 
buried, and Osiris became ruler of the dead. His 
son Horus avenged his murder by conquering Set. 

On earth Osiris took the form of the sacred b'ull 
Apis. Prom the combined name Osiris-Apis came the 
lonn "Serapis,” and later Serapis was thought of as a 
separate god. Osiris is usually represented wuappe 
'n mummy cloths and wearing a high crown (see Isis). 
OSLER, Sir William (1849-1919). One of best 
bnown physicians of modem times was Sir Wiluam 
Oder. This \rigorous Canadian won fame as a teac ler, 
cbnician, and consultant in his owm countiy and in 
be United States and England as well. He stimulated 
1!® students to make research into the caus^_ o 
oisease, and his talks and wHtings did much to 
about modem pubhe-health practises. He also helped 
^lablish the teaching methods practised today 
• ’oerican medical schools. 

;.4 ® ''as one of nine children of an ^ 

/ er. He was born in the parsonage at Bond Hea , 


SIR WILLIAM OSLER 



ndpr was a ereat teacher and a leader 
osier was a & tramine. 


cation. A small, wiry boy, Osier was good in his studies 
and athletics. He was mischievous too and once was 
caned for removing schoolroom furniture to the attic. 

In 1866 he entered a boarding school near Toronto. 
He made friends with a schoolmaster and a physician. 
With them he made field trips and learned to mount 
specimens and use a microscope. The influence of 
these two men led him to study medicine. He entered 
the Toronto Medical School in 1868, but transferred 
to McGill University’s medical school in Montreal in 
1870 because of the better clinical facilities there. 
He began writing on medical subjects before his grad- 
uation in 1872. 

Between 1872 and 1874 Osier studied in the great 
clinics of Great Britain, France, Germany, and Aus- 
tria. In a London laboratoiy he was the first man to 
obsenu platelets (platelike bodies) in the blood. In 
1874 he returned to McGill as a lecturer and the 
next year vras made a professor. The Montreal Gen- 
eral Hospital created the position of pathologist for 
him. In Montreal he continued his blood researches. 

In 1884 he became clinical profes- 
sor at the Univ^ersity of Pennsyl- 
vania. In 1888 Johns Hopkins Ho.s- 
pital made him physician in chief, 
and later Johns Hopkins University 
appointed him professor of medicine. 
Osier had long dreamed of teach- 
ing medicine in a school vvith ample 
laboratories and a well-paid, full- 
time staff. He made the Johns Hop- 
kins medical courses models for other 
schools. In 1891 he published his 
still widely read ‘Principles and 
Practice of Medicine’. In 1892 he 
married the widow of a doctor 
friend, and they had two children. 
With Thomas McCrae he edited 
a seven-volume work, ‘Modern 
Medicine’, published 1907-10. 


on Juljr 12, 1849. in 1857 the Osiers moved to 
“tadas, where “Willie” Osier received his early eao- 


in cVer^g modern rnediral trammg. 

In 1905 Osier accepted the Regius Professorship of 
Medicine at Oxford University. He also became a cura- 
tor of the famous Bodleian Library. Throughout his 
life he wrote and lectured. He accumulated ^ large 
library and spent much time and effort in improv- 
ing: library facilities wherever he was. In 1911, at 
the coronation of King George V, he was ^de a baron- 
pf 111 and grief stricken at the loss of his son in the 
first World War, he died in London on Dec. 29, 1919, 
Oslo {os'la), Norway. The capital and largest 
rity of Norway is Oslo. It is also the county; s 
clSf commercial center and seaport Oslo is built 
at the mouth of the Aker River in southeast N on ay. 
The .\ker empties into the Oslofjord, which opens 
come 80 miles southward, upon the Skaprrak._ The 
loame Oslo means “a meadow at the inouth of ^ nven 
On all land sides of the city nse pme-torcoted 
hills One of these hills is Holmenkollen. Here is 
Sva?s famous ski jump and ^ki museum^ On « 
promontorj- adjoining the city is the old ortress . 
Euis built about 1300. Several islands n 


On a 
of 
rise 




above the water of the busy harbor. The principal 
street is Karl Johans Gate. At its western end, with 
a good view of the fjord, lies the Norwegian royal 
palace, and along it are built business houses, banks, 
and the university, established in 1811. Near the 
university are the historical and art museums. Among 
the great buildings are the National Theater, govern- 
ment offices and courts, and the parliament, built 
in 1866. On a peninsula near the city is the Folk 
Museum, which has several Viking ships and the 
famous polar ship Fram (see Polar Exploration). 

Icebreakers keep the fjord free of ice during win- 
ter. Oslo’s chief exports are fish and lumber. The 
harbor has grain elevators, shipbuilding yards, a 
floating dock, and a dry dock. Oslo is Norway’s rail 
center. The chief manufactures are linens, woolens, 
wood pulp, machinery, brick and tile, flour, soap, 
hardware, glass, chemicals, and beer and liquors. 

Oslo was founded in 1048 on the east side of the 
Aker’s mouth by King Harald III. It soon became the 
seat of a bishop. In the 14th centuiy it became the 
capital. Early buildings were mostly of wood and sev- 
eral times the city was badly damaged by fires and 
invasions. In 1624 a fire wiped out the town. 

King Christian IV of Denmark, who then also ruled 
N orway, commanded a new town to be built on the Ak- 
er’s other bank. It was named Christiania for the king. 
Over the centuries Christiania spread to include the 
old site, and in 1878 the old site officially became a 


summer camps. During the second World War, 
Nonvay was invaded by the Germans and Oslo was the 
headquarters for the occupation forces. The city suf- 
fered httle damage. Population (1950 census), 434,047 
(includes 1948 extension of city limits). 

OSSIAN, or OisiN. The Irish legendary bard Ossian 
supposedly lived in the third century a.d. He is 
credited with telling in verse and prose of the battles, 
adventures, and tragedies of his father, Finn MacCool. 
In 1760 James Macpherson, a Scottish schoolmaster, 
published what he claimed were translations of Os- 
sian’s work. He followed this with more supposed 
translations. The works were enthusiastically received 
and their merit praised by Goethe and others. Dr. 
Johnson, however, claimed that they were forgeries. 
Macpherson was challenged to show his original manu- 
scripts, but never did. After his death an investigating 
committee reported that Macpherson had liberally 
edited traditional Gaelic poems and inserted passages 
of his own. Although largely forgeiy, Macpherson’s 
work is conceded to have literary merit. 
OSTEOP'ATHY. A system of health and healing 
called osteopathy was founded in the late 19th cen- 
tury. It is based on the belief that the body is a 
machine that will manufacture remedies for disease 
if it is in correct mechanical adjustment. The therapy 
may be manipulation of the patient’s body and sur- 
gery. The osteopath insists on proper diet, proper 
exercise and rest, pure air and water, and a whole- 


part of the city. The name was changed to Oslo in 1925. 

Oslo’s slums have been torn down and modern, gar- 
den-type apartment houses built. The city provides 

OSTRICHES GUARD ^ Several child-welfare 

agencies, including 

THEIR YOUNG ASl 





tit 


ivA.-iaar 


mi 





ill 











The drab female and the gorgeously plumed male guard the nest as the young birds 
break from their shells. Already the little ones are as large as barnyard hens. 
Full-grown ostriches run great distances at a speed of about 30 miles an hour. 


some mental and physical environment. 

Osteopathy was founded by the physician Andrew 
Taylor Still (1828-1917). He organized the American 
School of Osteopathy at Kirksville, Mo., in 1892. 
There are now six osteopathic colleges. Two years of 
college must be completed before en- 

- - — , tering the four-year osteopathic course. 

< There are about 11,000 osteopathic 
physicians in the United States, 
i Ostrich. The largest of liv- 

ing birds is the ostrich. It is 
an awkward-looking creature of 
\ the African and Arabian deserts. 
The feathers that grow in its 
0 wings and tail are its only 
beauty. A full-grown ostrich is 
i;,, seven, and sometimes eight, feet 

tall. It weighs from 150 to more 

than 300 pounds. The male is 
5 larger than the female. The ostrich s 

H undeveloped wings are useless for fly- 

ing, but on its long, strong, thick 
legs it can speed across the desert 
S faster than the swift Arabian horse. 

stride an ostrich’s single leap 
- covers 25 feet. 

The ancients had good reasons for 
calling the ostrich the “camel-bird, 
for it resembles the camel in a num- 
Ijgj. of ways. It has a long curved neck 
the young birds and a very small head, which it carries 
mueran hSS?: erect, a humped back, two padded toes 


- 42? «=- 


on each foot, and an ungainly walk. Like the camel 
it eats the coarsest desert plants. The ostrich, how- 
ever, swallows stones and other hard objects which 
help to grind up the mass of roughage. 

The feathers covering the body of the male bird are 
a rich black; its wings and tail have pure white 
feathers. These are highlj^ prized as plumes. The 
tail feathers are considered second in quality. The 
female’s gray feathers are not so much in demand. 
The strong leg of the ostrich and its sharp-clawed 
foot are its defense. It can kick sidewaj^s or forward 
so powerfullj’’ that men and animals have been killed 
by a single blow. The popular belief that the ostrich 
thinks it can hide by burjring its head in sand is a 
m)'th. To camouflage its presence the ostrich ele- 
vates its tail and lowers its beak to the ground; 
from even a short distance the ostrich then looks 
like a bush. 

During the breeding season ostriches are seen in 
groups of one male and four or five females. At other 
times the birds seem to enjoy the society of ante- 
lopes and other animals. To impress his harem, the 
male ostrich utters a deep muffled roar. Wlien he 
roars his neck swells to twice its normal size but 
bis beak remains closed. The females of the group 
lay their eggs, 40 or 50, in a common nest formed 
in the sand. The male sits on the eggs during the 
night, and the females take turns through the day. 
Tlie eggs hatch in 42 days. The brood rarely e.xceeds 
20 in number, for many of the eggs are broken. Often 
the male will kick out a few eggs if there are too 
many for his comfort in the nest. An ostrich egg 
"’eighs three pounds or more and is equal in amount 
and food value to two or three dozen hen’s eggs. 

0.striches have been domesticated since the 1860’s. 
Ostrich farming is a lucrative industry. The plumes 
'’arj' in value according to fashion. Ostrich skins 
are used to make shoes, dressing cases, furniture cov- 
erings, and for other leather purposes. About 85 per 
eent of the world’s supply of plumes comes from the 
ostrich farms of South Africa. North Africa, Aus- 
tralia, and America supply the other 15 per cent. 

. the United States ostriches are raised success- 
ally in California, Arizona, and elsewhere. The 
past results are obtained by hatching the eggs in 
mcubators. The newly hatched bird is the size of a 
nil-grown hen and in six months is near the size 
0 ’ts parents. Feathers are clipped when the birds 
nre only six months old and may be clipped there- 
o<ter about every six months. Each wing gives about 
feathers and the tail 60. The birds live to be 
■^0 years old. 

closest relatives of the ostrich are the rhea 
f , America, distinguished by its thre^toed 
0 , and the emu, the cassowary, and the kiwi o 
l^fralasia. In these birds the breastbone is not 
u ^^ged, as it is in all other birds, and so 
n attachment is provided for muscles strong enough 
(I- The ostrich belongs to the family Strii- 
haring species, Struthio cam 
of Xorth Africa and Arabia is best kno\^'n. 


OTIS 

‘QthellO’. One of the great Shakespearean trag- 
edies is ‘Othello’. Its tragic hero, Othello, is a 
dark-skinned Moor. Although he is a great militaiy 
leader of the city^-state of '^’’enice, he is not fully 
accepted in the social life of the city. Neverthe- 
less, he has married young and innocent Desdemona. 
the daughter of one of '\’enice’s great families. The 
vrillain of the stoiy is lago, probably the most cunning 
and certainly the most evril character drawn by^ 
Shakespeare. 

lago believes that Othello has injured him, and 
the action of the play revolves around his schemes 
to rev'enge himself. lago knows that all the joy of 
Othello’s life rests on his love for Desdemona. So 
lago plots to make Othello believe Desdemona un- 
faithful. With apparent reluctance, but with great 
skill, he hints to Othello that Desdemona really' loves 
the commander’s handsome young lieutenant. Cun- 
ningly' he contrives to bring about situations that seem 
to prov'e Desdemona’s betrayml of her husband’s love. 

Harassed by' suspicion and the anguish of wronged 
love, Othello goes temjjorarily' insane. In his madness 
he strangles Desdemona in her bed. Then he leams 
that he was tragically' mistaken — that he has been 
tricked by lago. Seized with a terrible remorse, he 
fatally stabs himself. lago is seized and forced to bear 
the punishment that awaits him — “The time, the 
place, the torture.’’ 

Many actors have become famous for their inter- 
pretation of the role of lago. His crafty speeches 
are often quoted. One. as he hints to Othello that 
Desdemona’s good name is endangered, is: 

Good name, in man and woman, dear my lord. 

Is the immediate jewel of their souls; 

Who steals my purse, steals trash; 'tis somethinB, notliing: 

'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thou.sands; 

But he that filches from me my good name 

Robs me of that, which not enriches him, 

.\nd makes me poor indeed. 

Otis, Jamks (172.5-1783). During the troubled 
days before the Revolutionary' War, James Otis fought 
for the rights of the colonists. His pamphlets pro- 
te.sted Biitish violation of those rights, and they 
were read widely in both America and England. He 
helped to bring the colonies to their first united 
action in the Stamp Act Congress of 1765. 

James Otis was the eldest of the 13 children of 
Col. James Otis, a Massachusetts lawyer, politician, 
and judge. James was bom at West Bamstalfie on 
Feb 5, 1725. He attended Han'ard University and 
was graduated in 1743. He then read law and was 
admitted to the bar in 1748. 

In 1750 Otis moved to Bo.ston, and m the spnng of 
1755 he married Ruth Cunningham, the daughter of a 
wealthy Boston merchant. They had three children, a 
son and two daughters. A portrait painted when Otis 
was 30 years old shows a strong, round, pleasant face 
and shrewd, narrow-lidded eyes. He had a quick 
intelligence and he argued his law cases persua- 

^''otri was the king’s advocate general at Boston, 
and as such was ordered to obtain court wnts that 



OTIS 


428 


would permit search for smuggled goods in any house 
without a search warrant. Rather than do this, Otis 
resigned and became the leader of the opposing coun- 
sel. At the court hearing in 1761 he defended the 
Americans’ rights to the protection of English law 
against unlawful search in a dramatic four-hour 
speech. It was this speech that John Adams called a 
“flame of fire,” and later described as the first gun of 
the Revolution. 

From this time on, Otis was increasingly active in 
fighting for the colonists’ rights. Two months after 
the speech Otis was elected to the Massachusetts 
legislature. He served there until 1769 and with 
Samuel Adams shared the political leadership of 
Massachusetts. He was an active member of the Sons 
of Liberty and other patriotic organizations. 

In the legislature Otis made the .motion that re- 
sulted in the representatives of the American colonies 
meeting in New York City for the Stamp Act Congress 
of 1765. The Congress appointed him to the com- 
mittee that framed an address of protest to the 
British House of Commons. 

In 1769 the king’s custom commissioners in Boston 
described Otis as a “malignant incendiary” and ac- 
cused him of treason. Otis retorted hotly in an arti- 
cle that appeared in the Boston Gazette of Sept. 4, 
1769. The next evening he entered the Boston Coffee 
House where some of the commissioners were assem- 
bled. A brawl resulted, and Otis was struck on the 
head. Otis became insane, and some historians claim 
his disability was caused by this blow. 

Otis regained sanity for a time, and in 1771 was 
again elected to the legislature. But he soon exhibited 
new signs of derangement, and a court declared him 
insane. Afterwards he was cared for by relatives and 
friends. He was killed by a bolt of lightning on 
May 23, 1783. 


Ottawa, Ontario. The capital of Canada is 
Ottawa. It lies on the south bank of the Ottawa River, 
near the eastern tip of Ontario. On the opposite shoi e 
is the city of Hull, in the Province of Quebec. 

The Ottawa River at this point plunges about 50 
feet over the Chaudiei'e Falls. The Rideau River 
skirts the city to the south and east, joining the 
Ottawa over the mist-shrouded Rideau Falls. The 
Rideau Canal flows through the heart of the city. 
Below Hull, from the Quebec bank, the Ottawa re- 
ceives the Gatineau River. About 22 miles of drive- 
ways and 830 acres of parks take advantage of the 
city’s beautiful location. 

Parliament Hill, crowned by government buildings 
in the Gothic style, rises steeply 160 feet above 
the Ottawa River. Ottawa has two cathedrals (one 
Church of England and the other Roman Catholic), 
the Univei'sity of Ottawa (Roman Catholic), the 
National Museum, the National Gallery of Art, and 
the Dominion Observatory. 

A National Capital Plan provides for future devel- 
opment of Ottawa and the surrounding communities. 
It anticipates a maximum population of half a million 
within a five-mile radius of Parliament Hill. The 
largest projeet within the master plan involves re- 
location of the railways and industries in a belt 
around the south and east edges of Ottawa and the 
north and west edges of Hull. There will be new 
government buildings along the river banks. National 
Zoologieal and Botanical gardens, a National Sports 
Center, a new National Art Gallery, and a National 
Library. 

Within ten miles of Ottawa, a potential of one 
million hydro-electric horse power is available. Below 
the city, canals have been built in the Ottawa River 
to form a highway through the St. Lawrence to the 
Atlantic. The Rideau Canal, running southward, con- 
nects Ottawa with the 
Great Lakes at Kings- 
ton; and the valleys of 
the Ottawa and Gatineau 
lead to rich timber and 
mining regions to the 
west and to the 
north. 

The lumber industry 
surpasses all others. Mil- 
lions of feet of logs are 
floated down the Otta- 
wa and Gatineau to the 
city’s paper and pulp 
mills and wood prod- 
ucts plants. Meat-pack- 
ing plants, railway car 
shops, clothing factories, 
and cement works are 
also important. Many 
beautiful resorts in the 
surrounding countryside 
bring in tourists, both 
winter and summer. 


THE SEAT OF CANADA’S GOVERNMENT IN OTTAWA 



The Parliament Building at Ottawa raises a stately Gothic tower high on its hill above the Ottawa 
River. At the extreme left are other government buildings. Across the river bridges reach to the 
city of Huil. In the foreground are the great locks of the Rideau Canal. The locks lower ships to 

the level of the Ottawa River, 



429 


OTTER 


Philemon Wright, a New Englander who settled on 
the north side of the river near the end of the 18th 
century, may be regarded as the founder of Ottawa, 
h 1826, Colonel By was sent from England to con- 
stract the Pddeau Canal, and his engineers and work- 


FISH DINNER— QUICK SERVICE 



sionally m various parts of the countrj' from Alaska 
to Florida. Approximate^ 25 pounds in weight, it 
has an elongated bodj^, about two and one-half feet 
long (exclusive of the tail), with short limbs and 
webbed hind feet. It is seal-like in form and is cov- 
ered vith a thick coat of fine dark brown 
fur, brighter below than above. The com- 
mon otter of Europe is similar in form to 
the American otter but shorter. 

I Otters are fond of sliding down slopes 
i into the water; and in winter they slide 
: j on the snow and enjoy coasting as well as 
I a schoolboy. Among themselves otters are 
I playful and affectionate, and they have 
i been tamed, making intelligent and useful 
I pets. Some have been trained to answer 
i their master’s whistle. In certain parts of 
; India and China tame otters are used to 
i catch fish for their masters or to drive 
; them into nets. They take excellent care 
I of their offspring, which are usually from 
i two to five in number. The dens generally 
"v ! have the entrance under the w'ater. Some- 
I times a nest is found under a hollow’ tree, 
\ again in a cave. 

■ The sea otter, which is much larger and 
heavier, and brings forth but a single pup. 


An instant ago this otter lay on shore in wait for 
his dinner. A quick oive, a short pursuit and tne 
fish is overtaken. It basnU a chance, for the otter 
IS faster in the water than the fish itself. Ashore, 
the otter enjoys a leisurely meal. Though he 
prefers fish, his diet may include crayfish, duck, 
young beavers, muskrats, or even frogs, 

wen established the settlement of Bytown 
which formed the nucleus of the present 
city. In 1854 the tow’n was incorporated and 
its name changed to Ottawa. Four years 
later Queen Victoria, unable to adjust the 
rival claims of Montreal, Quebec, and To- 
ronto, selected Ottawa for the Canadian 
capital. Fire destroyed the main parlia- 
ment building in 1916, but it w’as soon re- 
built. Population (1951 census), 202,045. 

Federal District of Ottawa. In 1945 an 
srea of 900 square miles w’as set aside as 
a federal district. Phj'sical planning of 
the area is thus facilitated. The district remains un- 
^r the political control of Ontario and Quebec. _ 
Utter, if the land animals should hold a sw’un- 
ming and diA'ing contest the otter would be a likely 
candidate for championship honors. It is so much 
at hoine in the water, dixring, rising, and turning with 
ghtning-hke quickness, that it can beat^ the fish 
^^^heir own game. In fact its food is chiefly fish. 
This aquatic carnivorous animal is related to the 
easel, but is much larger. It has been so rnuch 
^nted for its fur, especially in America, that it is 
becoming very rare; but it may still be found occa- 



is a related form that belongs to another genus. It 
is one of the most valuable of fur-beanng animals, 
and a single skin will bring over a thousand dollars. 
It was once abundant in the Pacific from a i ornia 
northward, but now is very_ ^re, except around the 
Aleutian Islands where it is protected j ' 
is about four feet long, and has j 

fur almost black, sprinkled with long whitc-tipiicd 

’’"Sientific nan .3 of con.n,oo otter of ll.e Old World 
Lvlra vnlgaris; of North .Amencan otter, Lvtra 
canndensis; of sea otter, ETihydra i* ^25- 


OTTO 


430 


Otto, Empeeoes of the Holy Roman Empibb. Most owls are blinded by daylight, so that th( 
Four emperors of the Holy Roman Empire bear the hunt at night. The short-eared owl, one of the fe 

name of Otto or Otho. Otto I of the Saxon line exceptions, hunts on cloudy days. Owls that live in tl 

ruled Germany from 936 to 973, and in 962 rees- polar regions, such as the sno^vy owl, have learned 1 
tablished the empire of Charlemagne barred owl because the summer da^ 

under the name of “the Holy Roman rci- so long. The eyes cannot move i 

Empire of the German Nation." He the eye socket, so the owl must tui 

is usually known as “the Great." He is M its head from side to side to see. Su 

described as having a powerful figure, •'5^''*} rounding the eyes is a feathered dr 

a red face, a long wavy beard, and eyes gives the effect of a mask ovi 

that moved incessantly “as if they the face. The neck is short and thic 

were watching their prey." His deeds and the legs are set so far back on tl 

show him to have been a man of energy, body that the bird sits in an uprigl 

courage, and military skill. He position. The plumage, which is gei 

strengthened the royal control over orally gray or brown mottled wit 

the unruly German dukes, conquered ^ lighter shades, is very fluffy and giv( 

Italy in 952, and three years later won an appearance of great size, 

a great victory over the invading Hun- The owls’ nests of various kinds ai 


garians (Magyars) at the battle of The Barred Owi is one of the found in old buildings and in cavitif 
Leclifeld in Bavaria. tr’nftSi’statel?'^™^" 1 young of rocks and in trees; sometimes tli 

His son Otto II was emperor from birds repair the discarded nests ( 

973 to 983. On the whole he main- ’ hawks or of squirrels. The eggs, invar 

tained the gains of Otto I, but died in Rome, at the ably white, are from barn owl 

age of 28, while on an expedition to that rebellious three to five in number, - ' - - 


country. He is buried in St. Peter’s. 

His son Otto III (983-1002) thus became German 
king when he was only three years old, and was 
crowned emperor by the pope at Rome when he was 
16 (996). His mother was a learned Byzantine 
princess, and his tutor Gerbert (later Pope Sylvester 
II) was the greatest scholar of that day, especially in 
mathematics. The young emperor himself, however, 
was dreamy and impractical. With his death at 
Rome, at the age of 22, without children, the direct 
Saxon line came to an end. 

Otto IV (1198-1214) was a member of the house 
of Welf (Guelf), was educated at the court of Richard 
I of England, and was put forth as a rival candidate 
against the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia. Although 
he gained the throne with the aid of Pope Innocent 
III, his course as emperor was so hostile to the church 
that the pope excommunicated him in favor of 
Frederick 11. The battle of Bouvines (1214) in 
northern France, in which his ally John of England 
was defeated, ended Otto’s 
hopes of the imperial throne. 

Owl, How wise is an owl? 

Probably not so wise as he is 
useful, for most of the owls 
of the United States are 
counted among the farmer’s 
friends. They devour enor- 
mous quantities of rats, mice, 
insects, and other 
enemies of crops. 

It is estimated 
that in some re- 
gions an owd is 



worth 820 a year 


to a farmer. 




Anybody can see why this one xs called 
the Spectacled Owl. 


Owls are found in all 
parts of the world. Be- 
cause of a difference in 
structure the barn owls 
are placed in a separate 
family {Tytonidae). All 
other owls belong to 
the family Strigidae, 
The barn owl of the 
United States has buff 
and grayish upper parts 
mottled Mth black and 
white. Its heart-shaped 
facial disk and under 
parts vary from white 
to deep buff with the 
buff usually dotted with 
tiny black spots. It is 
especially valuable to 
man because it preys 
chiefly on rats and mice. 

The long-eared owl, a 
woodland bird of tem- 
perate North America, 
has two conspicuous 
ear-like tufts of feathers 
on its head. It is 15 
inches long, and has 



This is the kind which makes 
its home in barns and thus has 
acquired its name. 


dark brorvn upper parts mottled with white. 

The barred owl is the “whoo? whoo?” questioner 


so often connected with ghost stories. He lives along 
swamps and in dense forests, where the deep booming 


of his call might well discomfit even a strong- 
hearted night traveler. His plumage is handsomely 
striped and barred and his eyes stare as from behind 
immense tortoise-shell-rimmed spectacles. Some- 


ooo 


Jloid 


OWL 



5CREECHEU, LEARNED to HUNT 

'^he Story o/* a Young Ovdl 


III HE OLD apple orchard was very peaceful 
I I land quiet in the twilight. Most of the 
I A jbirds had gone to rest, and only an occa- 
^■^^^•Jsional sleepy note broke the evening still- 
ness. On a branch of an apple tree at the edge of the 
orchard, Screecher, a downy young owl, sat blinking 
his great eyes. He was waiting for his parents to 
return vith food for him. 

Most of the day Screecher had been asleep in the 
family nest — a bare hole inside the apple tree. Like 
roost owls, he slept in the daytime. Now that the 
sun had gone down, he was wide awake and very 
hungry for his supper. 

He was lonely, too, because the three other little 
on Is who had been hatched there in the family nest 
had already flown away. They had wnnted Screecher 
fo fly away with them, but he was not yet ready to go. 
t nas pleasant to stay here in the old apple tree, 
“■ ®®Piug through the day, and waking at evening to 
oat the beetles and bugs, or perhaps the fine fat field 
®ouse, that his parents brought him. And it w'as 
P oasant to sit here in the darkness and listen to the 
ones of other owls, as they flew softly about in search 
Of food. So, although the other little owls had made 
On of him, young Screecher had stayed on in the old 
%le tree. 


“I wish my father and mother would hurry back 
with my supper,” he thought now', as the moon 
' M peeped over the edge of the hills. “It has been a long 
time since I had anything to eat.” 

His parents had been flying about since dusk, hunt- 
ing for food. Each night they hunted like this, through 
the darkness. The}' ate great quantities of mice and 
insects that lived in the fields around the apple 
orchard. Screecher was sure that, by and by, they 
would bring him something to eat, too. So he sat 
there on the branch and turned his round head first 
tow'ard the orchard and then tow'ard the meadow', 
looking for them. Owls must turn their whole head 
when they w'ant to look around, for their eyes are 
placed in front and do not move at all. As Screecher 
turned his head this way and that, he looked very 
grave and solemn, and a little angry, too, for he was 
getting hungrier and hungrier. 

Presently he saw his mother flying tow'ard him, her 
wings moving slowly and silently. For a moment he 
watched her in admiration. He loved to watch his 
parents fly. The soft feathers on their wings w'ere 
tipped with a dowmy fringe, so that they could move 
through the air without making any sound at all. 
And because they flew so silently, they could hear the 
little creatures moving about through the grass, and 
could pounce upon them so noiselessly that it made 
young Screecher very proud of them. He, too, would 
fly like this some daj', he knew; and he hoped he 
would have fine reddish brown feathers, like his 
father’s. Many screech ow'ls are gray, and Screecher 
thought his father w'as much more splendid than the 
gray owls. 

“What did j’ou bring me for supper?” he asked 
eagerly, when liis mother alighted on the branch 
beside him. 

“Nothing,” she told him. “Your father and I 
think it is high time you were learning to catch j'our 
own food.” 

“But I am so hungrj', mother,” Screecher com- 
plained in surprise. “Won’t you please catch me 
something to eat? ” 



OWL 


0@0 







“No,” his mother answered. “Not one mouse, not 
one bird, not even one beetle, will I ever catch for you 
again. You must look out for yourself from now on, 
Screecher. You are plenty old enough to do thi s .” 

“Oh, dear!” Screecher cried, in his high quavering 
voice. “Oh, dear! What shall I do?” 

Just then his father alighted on the apple tree, and 
the young owl stopped his crying at once. “Father,” 
he begged, “you wiU catch a mouse for me, won’t 
you? You won’t let me go hungry, I know.” 

“There is no need for you to go hungry, Screecher,” 
the father owl said pleasantly. “There is plenty of 
food to be found on the ground. You have only to fly 
a little way to get aU you want.” 

“Oh, father!” Again Screecher raised his voice. 
“I don’t want to get my own supper! I want you to 
bring it to me. PI — e — ase!” 

The father owl did not wait for Screecher to say 
anything more, but flew softly to the ground. “ Now,” 
thought the young owl, “he will bring me my supper. 
I knew he would if I coaxed.” 

The father owl had pounced upon a field mouse and, 
holding it in his claws, he flew back to the branch 
beside Screecher. But to the young owl’s dismay, his 
father at once began to eat the mouse. 

“Oh, father!” Screecher cried sharply, “you are 
eating my mouse!” 

“No,” his father replied, “this is my mouse. I 
caught it, you know. If you want food, you must 
catch it for yourself now. You have good sharp ears, 
and if you will only listen, you will hear any number 
of small creatures moving about on the ground. They 
vtU make a fine meal for you.” 

Screecher was disappointed, but he obeyed his 
father and, sure enough, he heard something stirring 
in the grass. Without waiting a moment, he flew 
down and caught a fine fat beetle! 

“There! That’s right,” said his father, when 
Screecher was once more beside him on the branch. 


The father owl had 
pounced upon a field mouse 

“A little later, you can practise catching mice. You 
will soon be able to do it as well as I do.” 

With this, the father owl gave liis long quavering 
cry and flew away. The mother owl, with only a glance 
to see that Screecher was all right, flew after him. 

“Well,” thought Screecher, as he watched them go, 
“it is plain to be seen that if I want any more supper, 
I must catch it for myself.” And then hearing an- 
other beetle he flew down and seized it. 

All night long he flew about, finding all kinds of 
dainties in the grass — earthworms, moths, spiders, and 
even an occasional snail. He ate so many of them that 
at last he could not eat another thing. 

The east was now growing pale with the coming 
dawn. The young owl decided to go back to his nest 
and sleep until another night should come. But, as 
he looked about, he found that his own apple tree 
was nowhere to be seen. He had flown so far from 
home in his search for food that he could not find his 
way back! He was lost! 

At first this frightened him, for the day was coming 
fast, and he did not see very well in the daylight. But 
after a moment, he wisely decided to seek shelter in 
the thick branches of a near-by tree. “I will wait here 
until darkness comes again,” he thought, “and then 
I can find my way home.” 

When he was settled on a leafy branch, he turned 
his round head from side to side to look about and be 
sure that he was weU hidden. Then he contentedly 
shut his eyes and went to sleep. 

Higher and higher rose the sun. The birds sang 
gayly all around him, but Screecher did not hear 




0©0 


OWL 





them. He was dreaming of the fine supper he meant 
to have when night came again. 

Presently a jay flew on to a branch just above his 
head. Seeing the owl, it screamed loudly at him. “So 
there you are, Young Owl,” it cried, “liiding yourself 
away among the leaves, hopmg I would not see you! 
But I do see you, and I mean to fly at you and peck 
you with all my might. I don’t lilce any of you owi 
people.” 

The jay had screamed so loudly that the other birds 
came flying to the tree to see what was wrong. 

“You horrid creature!” cried the flicker. “With 
your great round ej'^es, and your short sharp beak, and 
your cruel claws! YTiat do you mean by flying around 
at night, frightening our children? We will teach you 
a lesson, we will!” 

“You’re a screech owi!” piped a titmouse, fljnng 
close to Screecher’s face, “and you make dreadful 
cries in the night that wake us up. Aren’t you 
ashamed of yourself?” 

Poor young Screecher was now thoroughly alarmed. 
What should he do? He must frighten these birds 
aw'ay if he could. So he snapped his beak with a 
chattering sound, and spread his wings, and ruffled up 
his feathers, trying to make himself as tenif3ing as he 

But still the birds flew' about him, darting closer 
and closer. A cardinal had come to the tree, and now 
added its cries to those of the jay, the flicker, and the 
titmouse, so that their noise was fairly deafening. 

“Go away from this tree!” they screamed. “We 
don’t like those funny bunches of feathers that stand 



OWL 


o@o 


up on your head like horns. Why should you have 
horns, anyhow? We don’t!” 

“They are not horns!” Screecher answered angrily. 
“They are tufts of feathers that grow above my ears. 
And good sharp ears I have, too. I can hear better 
than any of you.” 

Screecher knew now that he could stay here no 
longer. So, without waiting another moment, he 
spread his wings and flew away. The birds screamed 
at him as he went, but the young owl landed safely 
in a tree a long way off and quickly hid himself in the 
heavy foliage. 

For a long time he sat there, not daring to go to 
sleep. To add to his discomfort, he began to feel 
hungry once more. Ever since he had been hatched 
from a round white egg, Screecher had always had 
food in the daytime, for his parents had left worms 
and insects in the nest where he could find them when 
he woke up from time to time. Now there was no 
food for him unless he flew to the ground and caught 
it for himself. But screech owls do not hunt in the 
daytime, and he knew he must wait imtil the darkness 
eame. So he closed his eyes and went to sleep again, 
and this time he slept in peace. 

The twilight had come again when he woke, re- 
freshed by his sleep. The other birds had gone to 
rest, and as he sat blinking his eyes and looking about 
he felt very contented and happy. It was fine, he 


round head covered with soft brown feathers, out of 
which its two great eyes gleamed. He could see the 
soft brown feathers that covered its body thickly, and 
he watched with admiration as its wings rose and fell 
without a sound. 

Another screech owl, farther off, sent up its long 
shivering cry. Perhaps it was his mother, Screecher 
thought, or his father; he did not know. And it did 
not matter much, for now the dark had come and 
owls were flying everywhere. He, too, would fly 
presently. 

Again he looked down at the ground, listening in- 
tently. All of a sudden he swooped. Straight down he 
went, softly and surely. And in a moment, his claws 
had closed around a field mouse. 

He had done it! He had caught a mouse! He was 
able now to look after himself, as his parents had said 
he must. How proud they would be! 

Flying up to a low branch of the tree, he raised his 
voice in a long thin cry that rose and fell with a 
trembling sound. From not far away there came an 
answering cry, and Screecher knew that it was his 
father’s voice, 

“I will go right now,” he thought, “and tell him 
about the mouse I caught!” And, spreading his 
wings, he flew happily away into the night. 


thought, that he was now old enough to catch his 
own food, instead of having to wait for his parents to 
bring it to him. And as for the birds who had scolded 
him, he would take good care after this to hide himself 
where they could not find him . One of these days, 
when his feathers had grown a little longer, he would 
be able to fly about through the night without fear. 
He would be able to frighten his enemies and drive 
them away by flying at them, flapping his wings, and 
even pecking them with his strong curved beak, as he 
had often seen his parents do. Yes, it was a good 
thing to be a young owl who could go where he pleased 
and catch his own food. 

Tightening his eight strong toes around the branch 
on which he sat, he looked down at the ground. Down 
there, somewhere in the grass, was all the food that 
he could eat; but, although he was hungry, he was in 
no hiury to begin his hunt. He had the whole long 
night before him. 

An old screech owl flew silently past his tree. He 
could see its body outlined against the twilight — its 
















Mm 



All of a sudden he swooped. 
Straight down he went, 
softly and surely 


=> 431 


OWL 



This is a Email birdi only nine 
to ten inches long. 


SCREECH OWL timesheeats small birds, 
but generally frogs, 
lizards, and mice are his 
diet. The burroAving owl, 
found on the western 
plains, inhabits holes dug 
usually by other animals. 
Their chief food is grass- 
hoppers, but they eat 
lizards also. 

The screech owl is re- 
sponsible for the long, 
wailing, shivering night 
cry heard so generally 
throughout the middle 
and eastern parts of the 
United States. It is of 
this bird that the child 
Hiawatha speaks: 

“What is that?” he cried in terror; 

“What is that,” he said, “Nokomis?” 

And the good Nokomis answered: 

“That is but the owl and owlet. 

Talking in their native language. 

Talking, scolding at each other.” 

Screech owls, represented by many species and va- 
rieties, range over almost all of North America. They 
nest in trees, often in a deserted 
woodpecker’s hole. In addition to 
mice they eat some small birds, 
but make up for this by destroying 
many cutworms and caterpillars. 

The great horned owl is called 
the “tiger of the air,” for he is 
powerful and bloodthirsty, and 
the sweep of his great wings 
through the night air is as noise- 
less as the tread of the padded 
^W's of the king of the jungle. 

He cannot be counted among the 
fanner’s friends, for he is fond of 
domestic fowls and will repeatedly 
mid the farmyard. A single mem- 
p of this group has been known 
0 carry off 59 young guinea fowl 
m one autumn. Babbits are also 
e avorite food, and these are the 
'^nk'^^^ hnown to dine upon the 

The snowy owl, with its white 
plumage, breeds in the cold re- 
pons of North America, but in the 
'lu er it travels south through 
states, sometimes as far as 
Having grown up in the 


THE SNOWY OWL 


■, '■ -'/> U ■ -if* - ’ ■ 

A .-vilf'rr.- 1 -I Ip ^ I 



j 

V . - 


An inhabitant of northern 
where his coloring blends 
snowy surroundings. 


THE HORNED OWL 



the 

Texas. 

Quit midnight sun, it sees swift, sUent, a^ savage w “"f'fe’aJed 

well in daylight and often raTbit" 

~ cur^ its food while other owls . 

2 sleeping. On the wing it is so swift that it ■wall 
a grouse in flight. 

r owl, no larger than an English sparry, is 

lid nesting in the giant cactus of southern Texas 


and Mexico. Its 
food is grasshop- 
pers and beetles. 

It is seldom seen 
in daytime. (For 
illustrations in 
colors of barn owl 
and screech owl, 
see Birds.) 

Primitive 
peoples have 
many supersti- 
tions about owls, 
most of which 
seem to arise from 
their peculiar 
cries. In the 
hoot of most 
owls the pre- 
dominant sound 
is 00 , hoo, or ow, 
giving it an un- 
earthly quality. 

Some of the smaller owls have, nevertheless, a low 
and melodious note. In many parts of Europe the hoot 
of an owl is regarded as a sign of death. On the 
other hand, its solemn, thoughtful 
air has caused its reputation for 
wrisdom since ancient times, when 
it was the sjunbol of Athena, the 
Greek goddess of wisdom. 

Every detail of the owl’s body 
illustrates successful adaptation to 
night life. Even the hoot startles 
animals into betraying their lo- 
cation by rustling in leaves or 
grass. Any such rustle is detected 
instantly by the owl’s sensitive 
ears. The ears have an external 
flap, which most birds lack; and 
in many species a funnel-like ar- 
rangement of feathers serx'es as 
an ear trumpet to aid hearing. The 
owl’s eyeballs are elastic and long 
from front to back; so they can be 
focused sharply for near or distant 
vision. The pupil can be closed 
nearly tight by day and opened 
wide to make the most of night 
light. 

Soft feathers make the owl’s 
flight noiseless in approaching a 
victim (see Feathers). The outer 
claws can be turned in any direc- 
tion; when the owl turns them 
backward in perching, it gets 
greatly increased strength of grip. 


Owls form the order StHgiformcs; they are close relatives 
of the nightjars. Scientific name of barn owl Tyto alba 


° ^-nnola- screech owl. Olus as<o; great homed owl, i 
xaria; long-eared owl. A«o urUomanm. 


Bubo 

owl. 




^XFORD, England. Cupped in the purple hollow 
of softly swelling hills, held in the embrace of the 
stripling Thames and its lovely tributary the Cherwell, 
this famous English city is wrapped in a haze of 
romance and beauty. For nearly a thousand years 
its gray spires and towers have looked down upon an 
unbroken procession of great men and great events. 
To its venerable colleges have come England’s youth- 
ful statesmen, poets, and philosophers to be nurtured 
in the traditions of beauty and sweetness. 

Within the crumbling fronts of the Oxford colleges 
lived and labored the philosopher Locke and the his- 
torian Gibbon, the essayists Steele and Addison, 
the encyclopedic Dr. Samuel Johnson, and the 
reformer John Wesley. Shelley, De Quincey, and 
Ruskin, Newman, and Matthew Arnold have paced 
their moldering cloisters. Shakespeare must have 
slept in the quaint inns of the city as he journeyed 
from Stratford to London. Here Sir Robert Peel 
and Gladstone laid the foundations for their emi- 
nence as statesmen by taking “double firsts” — the 
rarest and most coveted scholastic honor that can 
be won at the university. Here, in the 19th century 
alone, ten prime ministers of Great Britain spent 
their student days. To mention all the illustrious 
men whose names are linked with Oxford would be 
to call the long and glorious roll of English history 
and English letters. 

The origin of Oxford is lost in the mists of antiquity. 
It first rises from the haze in 737, when St. Frideswide 
founded her nunnery on the site of Christ Church 


College. A thriving market town soon sprang up, 
which was burned by the Danes in 1009. The oldest 
known architectural remains are the tower of St. Mar- 
tin’s Church (1034) and the castle tower (1071). In 
this tower Empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I, was 
besieged by Stephen of Blois in 1135, and escaped by 
fleeing over the frozen snow-covered river, clad m 
white to prevent detection. 

Legend attributes the founding of the University of 
Oxford to Alfred the Great, but the first discoverable 
traces of organized teaching in the city are about 200 
years later, in the 12th century. Hither soon swarmed 
students from all over the world, and by the end of 
the century it had an academic population of 3,000. 
There were as yet no university buildings, no labora- 
tories, no endowments. “Masters” gave instruction 
— all in Latin — to such students as chose to attend 
their lectures, and their entire income came from fees 
collected from their pupils. They were turbulent 
fellows, these medieval students, and enlivened their 
scholastic routine by frequent bloody affrays with 
the townsmen, so that the “town and gown” riots of 
Oxford became proverbial. 

The friars began building monastic establishments 
in the 13th century. They flocked to Oxford in such 
numbers that they soon aspired to the control of the 
imiversity. This caused ceaseless strife between the 
religious orders and the ancient colleges, which was 
only ended when Henry VIII dissolved the orders. 

During the civil wars of the 17th century, Oxford 
became the seat of Charles I and the Royalist court, 



^ L a e c t u r a l b e a uties of oxford 






Ij.jj-J[j' 


}- r 

;; Xi^ 








M. 


g57f F ; rr:= ;c 

^ y sL I: 


'si: i=^"tl<^- i 






mni 










r. •• ‘<>'%Xi-;:'. 't-jY r‘*’.' ' “■■ ;» •• 


i»iir 



ft-, ' 




r r - ,.' /•" ■ ". Vv , ^ 

^ir~ — 

16th 'century and t'^Ue^'o^fai “aS^^The xSm^Gate Sid^owe" (3) 

°"a the ** Christ Church College, whose dming h^ (61 ^fSt ?olS (1), “6 became a chanceUor of the Cmversity £n 

‘29, hst^? enlfance to this coUefe Laud was an alunmus and feUow of Sh Joto Bodleian Library (4), and Brascno.e 

just one century after the fall of Wolsey. The other 










This is one of the corners of the University which maintains a truly 17th century aspect. The library was founded in 1602, 
particularly rich in early editions of Greek and Latin classics and in books printed by Cazton and other early English printers, in 
one of the alcoves are a number of books, bound in heavy oak boards and fastened by iron chains to the bookcases, just as iney 

have been fastened for hundreds of years. 


while Parliament held forth at Westmmster. Several 
important battles of the period were fought near by. 

In organization, methods, and spirit, Oxford Uni- 
versity is strikingly different from American univer- 
sities. It is made up of 21 separate colleges, each with 
its own history, its own income, its own regulations, 
and its own characteristic organization. The colleges 
are federated into the rmiversity much as the states 
are federated into the United States. 


The colleges with the dates of their founding are: 


University 

..1249 

Brasenose 


Merton 

..1264 

Corpus Christ! . . 

1516 

Balliol 

. . 1266 

Christ Church. . . 

1525 

Exeter 1314 and 156G 

Trinity 

1555 

Oriel 

. . 1326 

St. John’s 

1555 

Queen’s 

. . 1340 

Jesus 

1571 

New 

. .1379 

Wadham. 

1613 

Lincoln 

. .1427 

Pembroke 

1624 

All Souls’ 

..1437 

Worcester 

1714 

St. Mary Magdalen (pro- 

Keble 

1868 

nounced Maudlin), 

.. .1474 

Hertford 

1874 

The university 

is an 

independent self- 

•governing 


corporation, with its own police and its own courts. 
Its main functions are holding examinations, con- 
ferring degrees, and caring for the discipline of 
students when outside the walls of their own colleges. 

Within the massive semi-monastic buildings of the 
colleges — each grouped around its own quadrangle 
of velvety lawn — ^the students live a life adorned by 
many curious survivals from medieval days. On all 
academic occasions, such as lectures, conferences 
TOth tutors, chapel, dmners “in hall,” the under- 
graduate must wear his quaint short gown and his 
“mortarboard” cap. He must be within the walls 


of his own college before midnight, and he is required 
to pay a small fine if he comes in after the great 
college gates are closed at nine o’clock. 

Members of the university are in residence only 
half the year. Most of the real reading for the degree 
is done during the six months of vacation. Lectures, 
essay writing, conferences with tutors, and reading 
take up from four to six hours of the average man s 
daily schedule during the term time. The rest of 
the day is given over to social life and athletics, which 
play a far more important part at Oxford and Cam- 
bridge than elsewhere. Every man is expected to 
spend his afternoons in some form of outdoor sport. 
There are teams enough in all the colleges so that 
everyone has a chance to play the game he likes best. 

Rowdng is by far the most popular of all sports at 
Oxford, and a large proportion of the students spend 
their afternoons on the river the academic year 
’round. Besides the university “eight,” each college 
has its own crew. The “bumping” races between the 
college eights every spring and the Oxford-Cambridge 
races in the summer have for generations been among 
the most famous sporting events of the world. 

The college tutor is the most important cog in the 
Oxford educational machine. He comes into per- 
sonal contact with the student to a degree unknown 
in the universities of other countries. Every under- 
graduate is under the direction of one or more of 
these tutors, who lays out the course of study, advises 
in the selection of lectures, and holds weekly or semi- 
weekly conferences with the student, for which the 
latter is usually required to prepare an essay. 



Through the Rhodes scholarships Americans and 
Canadians, and other British colonials have been 
brought to this famous old university in far greater 
numbers than formerly (see Rhodes, Cecil John), 
Every year sees a new group of students come from 
foreign colleges to enjoy the unique privileges 
■"hich Oxford offers — ^its finely tempered combination 
of ancient buildings and modem learning, its 
traditions of sound scholarship and keen sports- 
nianship, the close association with fellow students 
nnd teachers resulting from the college and tutorial 
sj'stems, and its unsurpassed beauties of scenery 
and architecture. 

Oxygen. What do you suppose is the most abun- 
dant^ substance in the world and the most widely 
mstributed? It is oxygen, which exists as an uncom- 
biped gas in the air we breathe, and in combination 
Jpfh other chemical elements forms water, sand, 
iraestone and other rocks, iron rust, sugar, cloth, 
paper, and so on. About half the weight of iim^ 
®fone, bricks, and such materials is oxygen, and 
^’Sbty-nine himdredths of water is the same sul^ 
a ance. As free oxygen it makes up one-fifth by bulk 
° the whole atmosphere. 

In its free state oxygen is a gas without color, 
°dor,_ or taste. Oxygen, however, is very active 
^ Gmicallyi and readily enters into combination with 
aarly all other elements. Sometimes heat promotes 


this chemical union, and sometimes moisture, as in 
the rusting of a knife blade. When wood bums it is 
a case of the oxygen of the air uniting rapidly with the 
carbon and hydrogen of the wood; for chemically 
“fire” is only the rapid oxidation of a substance. 
When oxygen thus unites in combustion with carbon, 
carbon dioxide, which also is an invisible gas, is 
formed. When oxygen unites in combustion with 
hydrogen, water is formed. It is easy to prove this, 
for if a piece of cold chinaware is passed swiftly over 
a flame of any sort (such as a gas flame) moisture 
will be condensed on it. This is an experiment w'hich 
any child can easily try for himself. From the smoke- 
stack of a locomotive comes what you may call black 
smoke and white smoke. The black smoke is com- 
posed of fine particles of carbon which have not 
burned up; the white is a cloud of condensed water 
vapor, which soon evaporates into the air. The ashes 
of wood and coal are the parts which would not bum, 
or which when burned did not become gases. 

Oxygen is necessary for all animal life. Nitrogen 
is necessary, too, but oxygen has a different use. _ It 
may be hard to believe that our bodies are being 
“burned” all the time, but this is a fact. The body 
tissues contain carbon and hydrogen compounds just 
as in wood and coal, and these are constantly being 
"nvi’di/pd ” or combined with the oxygen in the air 
we breathe. In the case of our bodies the “burning” 



436 


OXYGEN 

is a slow combustion, but it also produces heat, which 
keeps us warm. If you work or exercise violentlj'- 
you become warmer, owing to the faster oxidation. 
The same chemical products are formed as in the 
case of the oxidation of the wood — namely, carbon 
dioxide and water. Breathe on a cold mirror and 
you will see the water vapor condensed on it. 

Fish need the free oxygen that is dissolved in water. 
That is why water for goldfish must be changed and 
why air is kept bubbling through aquarium tanks 
where it is inconvenient to change the water. There 
is not as much free oxygen in water as in air, but 
the hemoglobin in the fish’s blood extracts the 
oxygen just as it does in warm-blooded animals. In 
sunlight green plants take carbon dioxide from the 
air, use up the carbon, and return the oxygen (see 
Carbon Dioxide and Monoxide). 

Ox 3 "gen was discovered in 1774 by Priestley, an Eng- 
lish chemist. Soon after this, Lavoisier, a French chem- 


ist, proved that oxygen is abundant in air. He also 
found that it combines with metals to form rusts, or 
oxides, and showed the part it plays in combustion. 

The Oxygen Atom 

Atoms of free oxygen usually combine by twos to 
form molecules (O 2 ). Three atoms may unite to form 
the allotrope ozone (O 3 ). This can be made by pass- 
ing electric sparks through ordinary oxygen. In na- 
ture it is formed at high altitudes in part at least 
by lightning. It has a peculiar smell, is a powerful 
enough oxidizing agent to attack rubber and cork, 
and is used as a germicide. 

The oxygen atom exists in three forms, or isotopes. 
Their atomic weights are 16, 17, and 18 (see Chem- 
istry^). In 10,000 parts of ordinary oxygen there 
would be only two isotopes of weight 17 or 18. Thus 
the usual practice is to give the atom weight of ox- 
ygen as 16 which disregards the heavier isotopes, or 
heavy oxygens. 


The SHELLFISH That Is CULTIVATED Like a GARDEN CROP 


^YSTER. One of the most nourishing of all sea 
foods and a valuable source of income to fishermen 
is the oj’’ster. Unlike most products of fisheries, oys- 
ters are “planted” and harvested as scientifically as 
any truck garden crop. Practically all the oysters in 
the United States today are taken from underwater 
“farms” by growers who lease the beds from the state 
government to plant and cultivate the crop. Oysters 
are shellfish. They are bivalves (two shells) of the 

ANATOMY OF THE OYSTER 



mollusk group (see Mollusks). They live in quiet bays 
and river mouths where the salt water of the ocean 
is diluted with fresh water from flowing streams. They 
are found along the shores of all temperate and trop- 
ical oceans, but the supply in the North Atlantic 
exceeds that of all other waters combined. 

In Europe, oysters are found from Norway to the 
eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. In the 
United States, oyster beds are scattered from Cape 
Cod to the Gulf coast of Texas and from Puget Sound 
to San Francisco on the Pacific coast. Chesapeake 
Bay is the greatest center of oj^ster production. 
Long Island Sound, the Louisiana coast, Puget Sound, 
and Willapa Harbor on the Washington coast are 
other highly productive regions. 

Different Kinds of Oysters 

There are about a hundred species of oysters. They 
vary widely in size, shape, and habits. The three mos 
valuable edible kinds are the North American oyster 
of the Atlantic coast (Crassostrea virginica ) ; the 
common European oyster (Ostrea edulis ) ; and the rock 
oyster (Ostrea cucullatd), found along the coasts 0 
Japan, Australia, and the many islands of the Sout 
Pacific. The native oyster of the Pacific coast 0 
North America is a small, thin-shelled, purplish- 
colored species (Ostrea lurida) marketed as the 
Olympia oyster. The meat is about the size of a 
man’s thumbnail. A large, oblong-shaped oyster 
(Crassostrea gigas) found in Japan has been trans- 
planted to the Pacific coast, where it is known as 
the Pacific oyster. It has been known to grow to a 
foot or more in length but it averages much less. 

The inedible oyster from which fine pearls are 
sometimes obtained belongs to a different genus, 
Meleagrina, native to warm parts of the Pacific 
Ocean. The edible oyster never produces a valuable 
pearl. The material with which it lines the inside 
of the shell is of a chalky consistency, lacking the 
mother-of-pearl which gives the true pearl its beauty. 


- 437 


In the United States, oysters of various sizes and 
with variously shaped shells are popularly named for 
the regions where the type was originally cultivated. 
For example, blue points, cotuits, saddle rocks, chinco- 
teagues, and lynnhavens are named for places on 
, the shores of Long Island, Massachusetts, and Vir- 
ginia. They all belong to the same species, Crasso- 
sirea mrginica. 

Life History of the Oyster 
The oyster la 5 ^s its eggs only in warm waters with 
a temperature of 66° to 70° F. In New England 
spawning begins early in July. On the Gulf coast it 
may continue from March to November. The female 
produces millions of eggs at one time and almost half 
a billion eggs in a single season. So many and so 
constant are the dangers to which oj^sters are subject 
^ that only one egg in four million can be expected to 
reach maturity. 

Eggs and sperms are discharged directh'' into the 
water and unite only by chance. The fertilized egg 
produces a free-swimming larva in 5 to 10 hours. 
Under a microscope it looks like a watermelon seed 
with a crowm of rapidly moving hairs at the small end. 

' The larva swims by means of these hairs (cilia), which 
■ extend outside the two tiny shells. Eggs, sperms, and 
larvae become a part of that great mass of living, 
microscopic material known as 'plankton, which forms 
the basic food supply of other dwellers of the sea. 
Few eggs or larvae survive. Those that do drift with 
the tides and ocean currents and may travel far from 
the quiet harbors where they were spawned. 


OYSTER 

FRONT AND EDGE-ON VIEWS OF OYSTER LARVA 




! • - ... , . . 

The oyster larva develops a tiny shell within 12 hours of hatch- 
ing. It swims by means of a tuft of rapidly moving hairs. 

At the end of two weeks the larva is about one 
seventy-fifth of an inch in diameter. Now it is 
reader to give up its free but hazardous life and 
attach itself to some firm object — a rock, another 
shell, perhaps the pilings of a wharf. The proce.ss 
is known as “setting” or “striking.” 

Only a few larvae make a successful “strike.” 
For best growth they require a hard, clean surface. 
If the}' fall into a muddy bottom or a growtii of algae 
and weeds they may smother. On the Gulf coast many 
oysters settle in mud. They develop a long, narrow 
irregular shape and small, poorly shaped meat which 


AN OYSTER BOAT IN LONG ISLAND SOUND 


" T 



dr°edvp up oysters from a bay in Long • 

tepfh ® openwork bag of cord and iron oba^ wito 
eth on the lower edge. The dredge is dmwn over the 


The ovsters are caught by the teeth, dragged into the 
hfe Sid brought to the siXe. Another type of boat draws 
ufem?S by sucUon pump on the prmaple of the vacuum sweeper. 





OYSTER 438 

MOVING OYSTERS FROM THE SEA TO THE PROCESSING PLANT 



The loaded basket is pulled over the side of the boat with a winch 
and dumped on the deck. It takes two men to handle each basket. 


make them unmarketable. They are known as “coons” 
because raccoons feed on them. Many of them grow 
on the roots of mangrove trees. When the tide re- 
cedes the roots are left high above water with the 
oysters clinging to them. 

The larva attaches itself by means of a cement- 
like substance which it secretes. It is never again 
able to move of its own accord. The young oyster at 
this stage is called a “spat.” It grows rapidly and 
in two weeks, at the age of about four weeks, its 
shell is a quarter of an inch long. Any oyster from a 
quarter inch to two inches in length is known as a 
“seed oyster.” 

In southern waters oysters reach market size in 
two or three years. About four years are required 
in the north, where they stop growing in the winter 
and go into an arrested condition similar to hiber- 
nation. They start feeding and growing again when 
the waters become warm. Their food is the one-celled 
plant life known as diatoms. 

The Anatomy of the Oyster 

The oyster shell is usually oval in shape, somewhat 
enlarged at one end, grayish and coarsely 

ridged. There are two halves, ori valves, which open 
and close at the hinge. The half which attaches to 
the submerged object becomes hollowed out as it 
grows in order to accommodate the body of the grow- 
i ing oyster. The upper half is flattened or even pushed 
|Y'-jfrom above. The soft body of the' oyster is attached 
the shell by a stout muscle. It Extends from one 
'valve, or half of the shell, through the animal's body 
to the other valve and enables the\ oyster to close 
its shell tightly. A fold, called the mantle, grows 
from each side of the body, completely lines the shell, 
and secretes new shell. Large flaps form the gills. 
The gill plates are covered on the surface with very 



A conveyer belt moves the oysters from the boat into the process- 
ing plant. In the background may be seen a mound of empty shells. 


fine hairs. When the shell is open the hairs move 
rapidly, producing a current which flows over the 
gills and carries oxygen to the blood. The current 
also drives in food particles. They strain through 
the gills and into the mouth and the digestive tract. 
Two folds, called palpi, enclose the mouth. A large 
oyster may filter more than a barrel of water through 
its body in a day. 

Enemies of the Oyster 

Throughout its life the oyster is attacked by hordes 
of enemies. Many larvae are consumed by fishes such 
as the menhaden, which strain their food from the 
water. The attached oyster has a new set of shellfish 
enemies. One of the worst is the oyster drill, a kind 
of sea snail. It kills the oyster by drilling a small 
round hole into the shell, through which it thrusts 
its long feeding tube. 

Equally destructive is the starfish. Sometimes 
starfish, moving over the bottom in great armies, as 
in Long Island Sound, destroy several hundred thou- 
sand bushels of marketable oysters in a season. The 
starfish wraps its arms about the oyster and liber- 
ates some of its own stomach juice which the oyster 
draws in with the water. The juice gradually para- 
lyzes the oyster’s muscle, and the shell is forced open. 
The starfish pushes its stomach out through its 
mouth, wraps it around the meat of the oyster, and 
quickly digests it. 

Among other oyster enemies are fish armed with 
crushing teeth like the sting ray of California and 
the black drum of the Atlantic. Certain sponges also 
burrow into and riddle the shell. 

Oyster fishermen attempt to destroy these enemies 
by various ingenious devices. Starfish are entangled 
in great mops — ^iron bars with five-foot strands of 
rope yarn. The mops, attached to chains, are dragged 




OYSTER 


over the oyster beds from a boat, then immersed in 
tunica of hot Water on deck. Drills and starfish are 
pulled off the bottom by suction dredges, similar to 
big vacuum cleaners, which can bring up 15 bushels 
in ten mmutes. Experiments are being made with 
chemicals which kill or injure starfish but do not 
affect other fish or shellfish. 

Commercial Oyster Fishing 


A new type of dredge operates on the principle of 
the vacuum sweeper. It sucks up not only the oyster 
but also its enemies, the drills and starfish, which 
are separated and saved for fertilizer. Some growers 
plant the seed oysters in wire baskets which are 
easily taken up for transplanting and collecting. 

Oysters are shipped long distances in refrigerator 
cars or in ice, either alive in the shell, as bulk oj-ster 


Oyster beds in the United States once seemed in- 
exhaustible. They have declined very greatly in recent 
years, however, due to overfishing, wasteful methods 
of fishing, water pollution, and natural enemies. The 
catch declined from 101 million pounds in 1931 to 
about 7 ^ million pounds in 1950. Chesapeake Bay 
is the chief producing region, accounting for almost 
40 per cent of the total. The Middle Atlantic region, 
chiefly Long Island Sound, and the Gulf coast of 
Louisiana rank second and third respectively. 

Through the activity of the United States Fish and 
Wildlife Service, the states have passed laws regu- 
lating the fisheries. Today the industry is almost 
wholly dependent on systematic cultivation. Natural 
oyster beds account for less than one per cent of the 
total production. 

The oyster grower leases beds from the state, choos- 
ing a site in shallow bays and coves. He clears the 
bottom of snags and debris. If the bottom is too 
muddy, it is prepared by strewing it with a layer of 
dean oyster shells, gravel, or other hard material to 
which the spat may attach themselves. 

Unless an oyster spawning ground is near there 
will be no spat. In this case seed oysters are sown 
over the bottom, about 500 bushels to the acre. On 
the Pacific West coast oyster beds are commonly 
seeded by stock from Japan. The oysters may be 
transplanted several times to thin them out and pro- 
vide the best feeding conditions. 

In shallow waters the oysters are collected by 
means of tongs. In deeper waters a dredge is used. 


meats, or canned. Biloxi, Miss., is the center for 
the production of caimed oysters. Oyster shells 
are used for strewing over fresh beds, pulverized 
for chicken feed and fertilizer, or burned to make 
quicklime. 

Food Value of Oysters 

The belief that oj’sters are edible only in the 
“R-months” (September through April) dates from 
prerefrigeration days when shellfish could not safely 
be shipped during wmrm weather. Actually they are 
at their best in May. Fishing in most areas, how- 
ever, is not permitted during the summer spawning 
season, and so they are scarce at that time. 

Oj-sters are among the most nourishing of all foods. 
They contain copper, iron, and manganese, which are 
valuable in combating anemia; iodine, which regulates 
the thyroid gland and helps prevent goiter; and cal- 
cium and phosphorus, needed for bone growth. They 
contain most of the essential vitamins. The protein 
is especially high in nutritive value, and starch is 
present in the form of glycogen, which is readil}' di- 
gestible. No food product is subject to more rigid 
sanitary regulations by state health authorities. 

Huge heaps of oyster shells found near prehistoric 
settlements along the coasts of Europe and America 
show that the 03'ster has always been a favorite food 
of humans. A simple type of cultivation, with the 
formation of artificial beds, flourished in China at a 
very remote period. In Italy oyster culture was prac- 
ticed as far back as 100 b.c. In the important mari- 
time countries of Europe artificial cultivation accounts 



440 


OYSTER 

for fullj' 90 per cent of the output. In France oysters 
are cultivated in oyster parks. The spat are col- 
lected on fagots of brush, on tiles, or on other types 
of collectors placed near spawning beds. The seed 
oysters are then removed to partially enclosed ground- 


ing ponds which admit the tides through sluices 
and flood gates. WTien fully grown the oysters are 
fattened in small ponds, or claires. The Japanese 
harvest oysters from thickets of bamboo sticks 
thrust into tidal flats. 


IN THE PLAYGROUND OF THE MIDDLE WEST 



The quiet charm of the Ozark count^side is felt in the scene and pine forests to the lonely hills beyond. The stake and 
pictured here, with its dirt road winding through hardwood rider fences are typical of a region where timber is abundant. 


Ozark mountains. The upland region of the 
Ozark Mountains rises like an island in the midst of 
the Middle Western plains. Until modem highways 
penetrated its beautiful forested hills and deep coves, 
it remained isolated — a bit of the American frontier 
left behind and almost forgotten in the march west- 
•ward. 

More properly known as the Ozark Plateau, the 
region covers about 40,000 square miles in southern 
Missouri, northwestern Arkansas, and northeastern 
Oklahoma. The plateau is a low dome thrust upward 
less than 2,000 feet above the surrounding plains. 
The top of the dome is in the St. Frangois Mountains 
of southeastern Missouri. Here the limestone covering 
has been stripped by erosion, lea^’ing the crj^stalline 
core of the continent e.xposed in such hills as Iron 
Mountain (1,077 feet high) and Pilot Knob (1,014 
feet high). 

Southward the plateau is a rolling plain, heavily 
forested and pocked with caves and sink holes where 
underground water has dissolved the limestone. The 
White River and its tributaries have carved deep gorges 
across the plateau. The Ozarks end abraptly in Ar- 
kansas before a higher plateau known as the Boston 
Mountains, whose bold escarpment rises a thousand 
feet above the l^Tiite River valley. These wild and 
deeply dissected mountains are about 2,200 feet high, 
200 miles long, and 35 miles wide. They descend on 
the south to the valley of the Arkansas River. 


Along the ridges and deep in the “hollers" the 
farmers raise corn, cattle, and pigs. Most of the soil, 
however, is a flinty mantle of chert which gives a poor 
return for their labor. National forests cover many 
thousands of square miles. In the western part of the 
plateau there is more level surface, and the limestone 
covering remains to create rich soil. Here dairying, 
track gardening, and fruit raising are commercially 
important. Zinc deposits around Joplin, iron in the 
St. Frangois Mountains, lead, manganese, barite, and 
tripoli are among the many minerals. 

Scenery is the greatest asset of the Ozarks. Mod- 
ern highways have brought its beautiful hills and for- 
ests, its lakes and streams, within a day’s drive of 
10 million people. Dams across Ozark streams, built 
to give hydroelectric power and water to the cities 
of the plains, have proved perhaps equally valu- 
able in providing new recreational facilities. The 
Lake of the Ozarks, created by Bagnell Dam across 
the Osage River, and Lake Taneycomo behind For- 
syth Dam on the White River are Missouri’s most 
popular resorts. Spavinaw Lake Dam and the Grand 
River Dam, both in Oklahoma, have created popular 
lake resorts. The mineral waters of Eureka Springs, 
Ark., have attracted health seekers since the middle 
of the 19th century. The word Ozark is a corruption 
of the French name for the region, Aux Arcs, which 
means “at the bows,” so-called for the Bow, or 
Quapaw, Indians. 



THE EASY REFERENCE 
FACT-INDEX 

GUIDE TO ALL VOLUMES FOR SUBJECTS 
BEGINNING WITH 

N-O 


TO SAVE TIME 

USE THIS INDEX 

editor’s note on next page tells why 



SPECIAL LISTS AND TABLES 


National Flowers . • • • 

Common Nautical Terms 

Nobel Prize Winners— United States and 

Canada 

Oceans and Seas of the World 


446 

448-9 

464 

473 


Numerous other lists and tables in the fields of 
literature, science, mathematics, and other 

will he found with their appropriate arUcles m the mam test 


tH F E COMPTON a COMPANY' AND AKE FVUY 
-HE PEAM. aERAKOEMENT. AND CONTENTS OF TH.S AN^ HHO.STEPED TRADE TURK NO. 336.781. 

protected by united states, imperial, and INTE 


EDITOR’S MOTE 


E very user of Compton’s Pictured Encyclopedia should form the habit 
of Jirst turning to the Fact-Index section at the end of each volume 
when in search of specific information. This index is a miniature work 
of reference in itself and will often give you directly the facts, dates, or defini- 
tions you seek. Even when you want full treatment of a subject, you will 
usually save time by finding in the index the exact page numbers for the 
desired material. 

All page numbers are preceded by a letter of the alphabet, as A-23. The 
letter indicates the volume. If two or three page numbers are given for the 
topic you are seeking, the first indicates the more general and important 
treatment; the second and third point to additional information on other 
pages. Where necessary, subheadings follow the entry and tell you by guide 
words or phrases where the various aspects of the subject are treated. 

The arrangement of subheadings is alphabetical, except in major historical 
entries. In these the chronological order is followed. 

The pictures illustrating a specific subject are indicated by the word 
picture or color picture followed by a volume indicator and a page number. 
A picture reference is frequently intended to call attention to details in 
the text under the illustration as well as to the illustration itself. This 
picture-text, therefore, should always be carefully read. The pictures are 
usually on the same page as the text to which you are also referred; some- 
times they are found in a different but related article which will add in- 
terest and information. 

The pronunciations given are those preferred by the best and most 
recent authorities; alternative pronunciations are indicated where usage 
is divided. 

In recent years hundreds of foreign geographical names have been 
changed, either officially or by custom. Both old and new names are given 
at the appropriate places in the alphabet. 

Populations are those of the latest census or an official estimate when 
available if no census has been taken since World War II. Distances 
between points are map or air distances, not distances by railroad. 



THE EASY REFERENCE FACT-INDEX 

Eet.n.s. Pitoa. 



Sv 

• -■ 


‘ ^ 

1 


; :i L 

y ; :2 

m 

laBi 

ai 

■ ■ 3.' : • . .4;/ ■' 

m 

A^N 


5 . . 6 .. 


■unr 


: 7- _ 


Our letter N probably started in ancient Egypt as a picture of a snake (i). To 
the Egyptians the picture meant ‘snake’; but soon after 2000 b.c., a Semitic peo- 
ple called the Seirites adopted it as an alphabetic sign for the sound of ‘n’. They 
did so because their word nahash for ‘snake’ began with this sound. 

For their sign the Seirites made a crude snake (2). The later Canaanite- 
Phoenician alphabet made the sign with angles (3). The Semitic names for the 
sign resembled the name nun in Hebrew. 

When the Greeks learned to tvrite from the Phoenicians, they changed the 
name of the sign to nu, and made all the strokes about the same length (4). Later 
they equalized the upright strokes (5). Meanwhile the Romans had -worked out 
the same change in Latin (6). From Latin, the letter came without change into 
English. 

The small handwritten ‘n’ always has been a quickly made, simplified imi- 
tation of the capital. In Greek it was a direct imitation with one stroke omitted 
(7); in medieval Latin and in English it is more like the capital, with cun'es sub- 
stituted for angles (8). The printed small ‘n’ imitates the handwritten character. 

isjoTE. — For the stor^' of how alphabetic writing began and developed, see the 
articles Alphabet; Writing. 


XAACP. See in Index National As- 
sociation for the Advancement of 
Colored People 

•'abatcans (ndh-a-te'dns), people of 
ancient Arabia; flourished from 
about 312 B.c. to A.D. 105 
rains of Petra, picture A-418 

‘ ck “l Palestine. See in Index 
ohechem 

^ of Babylonia 747- 

tjit- vassal of Tlglath- 
tvho Invaded Babylonia 
tkoi Nabonassar to re- 

” nominal independence, 
last ruler of Chaldean 
father of Belshazzar; 
to throne 556 b.c., but 
w\e more time to building temples 
tnn? k? preparing for Persians, who 
looK him prisoner in 538 b.c. 

king of Babylonia 
P-c., founder of the Chal- 
Mnl*. aided by Medes, he 

of In 606 B.c. ; father 

ot ^ebuchadnezzar. 

* owner of a vine- 

1,,. ooveted by Ahab, and obtained 
fraiiri through murderous 

« Kings xxi). 

in airplane A-97. 
o( terms ^'<'-dex Aviation, table 

Chri'EtT!,^’ nianger scene in Spanish 
® oelebration C-293, 295 
toivn ^‘’^^^-d-dd'cliiz) , Tex., 

rountv'lT”^ ’Pi- n-e. of Houston; 
ton PPii center of rich cot- 

Stephen P°P- 12,327; 

In 18th „ • .-^-P^i’n State College; 
Sion- P’as Spanish mis- 

. niap’ T.ggP’'®'^ i’y Americans 1812: 

iinillr' Mother-of-pearl 

bolnt' in ip astronomy, the 

Posltp tn Ik ® celestial sphere op- 
bnderfoot ® zenith ; that is, directly 
Sh 

tnler nr s7ia) (1880-1933), 

. i'nd setn.p^’®PPP*®inn 1929-33 ; he 
“t Afehan commander in chief 
, ^’rance 1919; minister to 

sLk^t-26: A-33 

, Persia ruler of 

I>eJP°n6 D-so 

^^^.^^LTiP’cne D-61 


Naevlus (ne'vi-iis), Gnnens (Sd cen- 
tury B.C.), first Roman epic poet 
L,-130 

Nafels (na'fels), Switzerland, village 
in canton of Glarus; at battle here 
in 1388 Swiss won independence 
from Austrians. 

Nasa (na'aci), a number of tribes in 
the hill country of Assam, India; 
language Indo-Chinese. 

Nagana (n^-pd*u<s) , a disease of ani- 
mals caused by tsetse fly T-203 

Nagasaki (ito-tfa-sci'fce), Japan, sea- 
port on w. coast of Kyushu: pop. 
241,805; beautiful natural harbor; 
coal, cotton goods, r'ce exports; 
shipbuilding: maps J-297, A-406 
atomic bomb W-272, picture 
W-293 

Nagler propeller W-68 

Naffora (na'ffd-ya). city 

pop, 1,030,635: N-1, maps J-297, 

A-406 ... f 

Nagpur iniiO'VVr), India, capital of 
Madhva Pradesh state; pop, 449,- 
099- railway center: cloth manu- 
factures, manganese mines: maps 

Nagufb,"*^ Mohammed (born 

Egyptian army officer and si^f® 
man born Khartoum, Anglo- 
E^ptian Sudan; served dis- 

tinction in Palestine war 1948, 
seized power after successful revolt 
against King Farouk 1 ^; premier 
and president of Republic of ugyp 

Nogysz-ebtlif^Rumania. Sec in Index 

Nabr H ‘Asl, in s.w. Asia. See in Index 
Orontes River T-oion tribes 

gr'etllf. .t 

kS ".t'VrSS 

mythology, spirits of tne sp 
and fowtain® N-318 -jp7g_i949), 

Naidu farmer and political 

Hindu PO®t- ’^|I°^rab?d India, of 


versity of Madras: studied at Lon- 
don and Cambridge Universities, 
England; broke tradition, 1898. by 
marrying Dr. M. G. Naidu, medical 
officer, of lower caste than she; first 
Indian woman president of Indian 
National Congress 1925; jailed 
for Nationalist activities; wrote 
three books of poetry in English 
(‘The Golden Thre.shold’: ‘The Bird 
of Time’: 'The B>-oken Wing’). 

Nails, hardware N-1-2, pictures N-1-2 
scarcity in colonial period A-193c, 
N-2 

Nails, of fingers and toes S-193, H-426 

Nainsook (nan'suk or ndn'spk), fine, 
soft-finished white cotton fabric 
with lustrous finish on one side; 
lighter in weight than longcloth. 

Nairne. Carolina (Ollplmnt), Baroness 
(1766-1845). Scottl.sh pret; known 
for lyrics to traditional Scotti.sh 
tunes ('The Land o’ the Leal’; ’O. 
Charlie Is Mj’ Darling’; ‘The Laird 
o’ Cockpen’); poems written anon- 
ymously, were published after death 
as ‘Lays from Strathearn'. 

Nairobi ini-rO'bi), capital of Kenya 
Colony. British East Africa; pop. 
118.976: game-outfitting point; 

headquarters of Uganda ra'’’-">vT 
K-35, maps E-199, A-46, picture 
K-35 

Naismith, James (1861-1939). Amer- 
ican educator, born Almonte. On- 
tario. Canada: professor of physical 
education. University of ICansas, 
L^iwrence. after 1898 
originated baskotb.all B-76 

Vajaf, An (dii nd’ndf). Iraq, town 90 
mi. s. of Baghdad: pilgrimage 
center: map 1-224 

NfiJera (na’hu-ra), Afanncl GntlC-rrez 
(1859-95). Mexican -writer L-128 

Naked flowers F-184 

Nnktong Hirer, in s.e. Korea, flows 
from north into Korea Strait near 
Pusan; 326 ml. long; navigable for 
214 mi. for motor and sailing boats: 
map K-65 

Nambe (imm-be’) N. M. a pueblo 
about 10 mi. n. of Santa Fe: Nambe 
people belong to the Tanoan lan- 
guage group of Pueblo Indians: 
map N-178 

Names N-2a-3, pictures N-2g-3 


443 








NAMIB 


444 


NARBADA 


Chinese custom C-267 
nicknames N-235 
personal N-2a— 3j Ust N-2I) 
place N-3, pictures N-2n-3. See also 
Fact Summary with each state 
article for origins of state names 
superstitions about M-34 
trade N-3 

Namib (na'anb) Desert, arid region 
along w. coast of South West Africa 
S-241, 242, map S-242 
Nampa, Idaho, fruit and dairy center 
in s.w. of state, 30 mi. from Oregon 
border; pop. 16,185; named for In- 
dian chief, Nampuh; noted for its 
potatoes and onions; car shops: 
maps 1-21, 11-252 

Namur (nd-miir'), Belgium, fortified 
industrial town 35 mi. s.e. of 
Brussels at junction of Sambre and 
Meuse rivers; pop. 31,444; repeat- 
ediy besieged; occupied by Ger- 
mans 1914 and 1940; map B-lll 
stilts used S-396 

‘Nana’, a novel by Simile Zola (1880) 
depicting the rise and fall of an un- 
talented but beautiful actress at 
the time of the Second Empire in 
France: N-311 

Nanal’mo, British Columbia, Canada, 
port on Vancouver Island opposite 
Vancouver; in coal-mining region; 
pop. 7196; coal, gold mining; agri- 
culture, fur trading; exports coal, 
lumber, herring: maps C-68, 80 
Nana Sahib (nd'na sd'th) (1825?— 
60?), Hindu prince, leader in the 
Indian Mutiny of 1857. 

Nancbang (nan' chans' ) , China, cap- 
ital of Kiangsi province; pop. 258,- 
692 ; trade and manufacturing city : 
maps C-260, A-406 
Nancy (ndn'sl, French ntin-si'), 
France, fortified city 175 mi. e. of 
Paris; pop. 108,131; old capital of 
Lorraine ; university, art and antiq- 
uity museums: maps P-259, 270, 
E-416, 425 

battle (1477) C-195-6 
‘Nancy’, famous brig in American 
Revolution W-143 

Nandu, bird, popular name for rhea 
R-132 

Nanga Parbat (nilng'ga pur'bqt), 
mountain (26,660 ft.) in w. Hima- 
layas, n.w. Kashmir; summit 
reached on Juiy 4, 1953; as of that 
date, 2d highest climbed by man. 
Nankeen', a cotton cloth first made at 
Nanking, China, from yellow cot- 
ton of that region; now made of 
ordinary cotton and dyed yellow 
or brownish yellow, 

Nanking', China, city on Yangtze 
River; pop. 1,084,995: N-4, maps 
C-259, A-406 

Nanking Treaty (1842), between 
China and Great Britain closing 
Opium War C'279 

Nankow Pass, in Great Wall of China 
P-112 

Nanning, China, treaty port and capi- 
tal of Kwangsi province, in s. 
China; pop. 202,720; trade center: 
maps C-260, A-407 
Nansel Islands, between Formosa and 
Kyushu. See in Index Ryukyu 
Islands 

Nansen (ndn'sen), Fridtjof (1861- 
1930), Norwegian scientist, Arctic 
explorer, and humanitarian; pro- 
fessor of oceanography at Oslo Uni- 
versity; influential in separation of 
Norway from Sweden, and first 
minister to England from Norway, 
1900-8; after World War 1 he 
worked for repatriation of prisoners 
and directed relief for refugees 
from Russia and the Near East, for 
which he received Nobel peace prize 
In 1922 


Nantes (nant), historic city of France; 
pop. 187,259: N-4, maps P-269, 
E-416, 425 

Nantes, Edict of. See in Index Edict 
of Nantes 

Nanteuil (nan-ffl'j/ft), Robert (1630- 
78), French engraver; portraits 
show skillful composition, forceful 
modeling, truthful characteriza- 
tion ; engraver and illustrator in 
court of Louis XIV. 

Nanticoke (ndn'ti-fcdfc). Pa., coal-min- 
ing town on the Susquehanna River 
7 mi. s.w. of Wilkes-Barre; pop. 
20,160; mining and agricultural 
implements, silk and rayon yarns; 
map P-133 

Nanticoke Indians, an Algonquian 
Indian tribe formerly living in 
Maryland. 

Nantucket Island, off s.e. coast of 
Massachusetts; about 15 mi. long; 
separated from Cape Cod by Nan- 
tucket Sound; township of Nan- 
tucket (pop. 3484). a summer 
resort; important historically as 
whaling center: map M-124 
Cape Cod Canal avoids shoals C-118 
Naomi (nti-o'mi). mother-in-law of 
Ruth R-299, picture R-299 
Nap, of cloth W-197, picture W-196 
teasel plant used 'r-120, picture 
T-120 

Nana, Calif., city 35 mi. n.e. of San 
Francisco; pop. 13,579; prunes, 
grapes ; basalt products, apparel, 
wine, leather; state hospital; Napa 
Junior College: maps C-34, U-252 
Napneads (nd-pe'ddz), in Greek my- 
thology, nymphs of valleys N-318 
Napli'tha, an oil distilled from petro- 
leum 

soap S-213 

solvent for rubber R-241 
Naplxthalene, coal-tar product C-371 
Napier (nd'pl-er or nd-per'), Sir 
Charles James (1782-1853). English 
general, born London, England; 
fought in Spain and Prance in 
Napoleonic wars; in 1841 in India 
commanded army which conquered 
the Sind; for six years successfully 
governed territory hehad conquered ; 
a brave soldier, loved by his men. 
Napier, or Neper (nd'per), Jolin (1550— 
1617), Scottish matliem'’ tician, in- 
ventor of logarithms L-296 
Napier, Robert Coriielis, first Baron 
Napier of Magdala, (1810—90), Brit- 
ish field marshal, born Colombo, 
Ceylon; took part in first and sec- 
ond Sikh wars, relief of Lucknow, 
and later Indian campaigns; com- 
manded expeditions against Peiho 
ports in China 1860; captured Mag- 
dala, stronghold in Ethiopia in 1868. 
Nanier, port on e. coast of North 
Island, New Zealand; pop. 24,538, 
with suburbs; wool and meat ex- 
ports; 77iaps P-16, N-228, inset 
A-489 

Na'ples, Italy, also Nupnil (xio'po-Ie), 
city of s. Italy, on n. shore. Bay of 
Naples; pop. 1,003,815: N-4-5, 

maps 1-262^ E-416, 425, picture 
N-5 

antiquities P-367, N-5 
banner of the Middle Ages P-136c, 
color picture F-132 
history N-5 

annexed to Holy Roman Empire 
H-335 

Charles VIII captures C-194 
Joseph Bonaparte king B-225 
Garibaldi conquers for Italy G-21 
Mount ■ Vesuvius V-465-6, picture 
V-465 

National Museum. See in Index 
Naples National Museum 
Naples. Bay of, inlet of Mediterranean 
in s.w. Italy N-4, picture N-6 
Naples, University of N-6 ' 


Naples National Museum, Naples, 
Italy; established 1738: N-Sl Sec 
also in Index Museums, table 
Pompeii collection P-367 
Napo (nd'pd), river rising in Ecua- 
dor; flows 700 ml. s.e. to Amazon: 
maps P-164, S-252 

Napoleon (nd-pd'le-dn, French nd-p6- 
ld-6ii') I (1769—1821), emperor of 
the French N-8— 11, pictures N-6— 7, 
9, 11, Reference-Outline F-S74!). 
For military campaigns, see in In- 
dex Napoleonic wars 
Alexander I and N-10 
Bonaparte family B-226-6 
code of laws N-9 
continental system fails N-10 
Cuvier honored by C-532 
Elba and the Hundred Days N-11, 
W-66 

empire, extent of N-9 
Josephine Beauharnais J-363-4 
Louisiana sold to U.S. L-334-6 
Marie Louise N-9, picture N-9 
method of warfare W-10 
Ney N-228b— 9, picture N-10 
Paris, improvements P-84—5 
reforms N-8-9 

Regent, or Pitt, diamond D-81, pic- 
ture D-79 
St. Helena N-11 
sugar-beet industry S-445-6 
Talleyrand and T-8 
tomb P-B4 

Napoleon 11. See in Index Relch- 
stadt, duke of 

Napoleon HI (1808-73), emperor of 
the French N- 11-1 2 
aluminum production A-183 
American Confederacy and C-3?6 
Franco-Prussian War and surrender 
at Sedan P-277-8, S-95. See also 
in Index Franco-Prussian War 
Mexico, establishes empire in M-206 
Paris beautified P-85 
Sardinia-Piedmont aided by 1-273, 
C-168, V-468: Solferino 1-273 
Victor Hugo opposes H-441 
Napoleon, former French gold coin 
valued at 2o francs, or about $3.86 
when current; bore picture of head 
of Napoleon I. 

Napoleonic code N-9 
Louisiana Code based on L-333 
opposed women’s rights W-184 
Napoleonic wars (1796—1815) N-7— 11, 
chart H-365. See also in Index 
Vienna, Congress of 
Amiens, treaty of A-236 
Baltic, battle of the B-37, N-109 
continental system N-IO; effects 
on U. S. W-11-12 
Egyptian expedition N-8 
Italy and Austria N-7-8 
Jena, battle of N-8, P-424o 
Malta, seizure of M-60 
Nile, battle of the N-109 
Peninsular War N-10, W-91 
Pyramids, battle of the N-8 
Russian invasion and retreat from 
Moscow N-10, picture N-10 
Tilsit, treaty of N-10, A-147 
Trafalgar, battle of N-109-10 
Waterloo, battle of W-66 
Napoli, Italy. See in Index Naples 
Naprapathy (na-prdp'd-thi), system 
of treating disease by manipulation, 
based upon theory that most bodily 
ailments are caused by abnormal 
strains in ligaments, particularly 
those of the spine. 

Nara (nd'rd), Japan, picturesque oiu 
city on Honshu, e. of Osaka; capital 
of Japan 710 to 784; pop. 77 , 806 ; 
contains beautiful ancient tem- 
ples, shrines, giant Buddha image 
art museum J-314 

Narbada River, or Nerbndda Oier- 
biid'a) River, in India, rises in n. of 
Central Provinces and flows 750 
ml. to Gulf of Cambay; held sacred 
by Hindus: maps 1-54, A-407 


Arctic explorations F-350a, map 
P-34e 


Key: cdpc, dt, far, fast, whert, full; me, yet, fern, there; ice, bit; row, won, for, not, d.o; cure, but, rifde, ft‘ll, bflrn; out; 


I 


'I 






<: 



narbonne 


Xarboniie (ndr-hon'), town in s. 
France 5 mi. from Mediterranean; 
pop. 26,301; wines; eariy Roman 
colony, Narbo Martins: mat) B-425 
Karclsins (ncir-sis'us') , in Greek 
mythology N-12 
loved by Echo E-209 
.Varclssns, plant N-12, picture N-12 
how to plant G-13 

Xarcofic Drugs Commission, United 
Nations U-243 

.Narcotics, substances producing sleep, 
stupor, or relief from pain N-13 
antinarcotic laws N-13, H-333, 

0*399 

cocaine N-13, A-246-7, B-147 
efficiency reduced by ■W'-200 
ha.ohish, or marihuana N-13, H-333 
opium 0-398-9, N-13, P-370, picture 
0-399 

poisoning, treatment F-96a, P-341: 
artificial respiration if breathing 
stops F-96, pictures F-95 
Narcotics. Federal Bureau of N-13 
Narcotics limitation Convention N-13 
Nard. See in Index Spikenard 
Nares Deep, a depression In floor of 
Atlantic Ocean, about 700 mi. n.e. of 
Puerto Rico; depth 22,950 ft.; the 
most northerly and largest of the 
3 deeps which lie n.e. of Puerto 
Rito; named for British Admiral 
George Strong Nares (1831-1915). 
Narodnaya, Mount, highest point In 
Ural Mountains (6184 ft.) U-405, 
_ map R-259 

Narragan'set, tribe of Algonquian In- 
dians; lived along w. side of Narra- 
gansett Bay, R. I., and controlled 
surrounding regions 
befriend Roger Williams W-140 
King Philin’s War K-47 
threaten Plymouth P-325 
hnrragansett Bay, inlet of Atlantic, 
mdentlng coast of Rhode Island 
R-U2, map R-141, picture R-136 
Providence harbor, picture R-135 
Jarratlve poetry P-337 
narrows, The, strait between Brook- 
>>-n and Staten Island, N. T. N-215, 
_ map N-222 

Jiarses (ndr'sez) (478?-573?), gen- 
% of Byzantine Empire, grand 
Chamberlain to Justinian J-367 
■'ana (nar'pci), port on Gulf of Fin- 
land in Estonian S. S. R. ; pop. 
^3 ,o 12; cotton and lumber trade; 
makes textiles: maps E-417, R-266 
battle of (1700) C-196 

(nar-vd'ath). PAtifllo de 
°-“fa28), Spanish soldier and 
aoventurer, one of earliest explor- 
es of Florida 
bortez and C-488-9 

P-149, map P-151 
Pot)*'’ ,, cway, port on w. coast: 
V ff"14l ; railway terminus: 
•Varv^ P "““R® N-301, E-416 
jo! sea animal related to por- 
kon- W-114 

f“®Ks 1-284 

the of fUe bones forming 

Wai ‘I'O nose S-192 

fn ethnology R-22 


445 


NATIONAL 


cial congress: advanced to brigadier 
general of First North Carolina 
Regiment: fatally wounded in bat- 
tle of Germantown; monument at 
Guilford Courthouse, N. C. 
Nashville, Tenn., named for N-14 
Nash, John (1752-1835), English 
architect; laid out Regent’s Park 
in London 

Buckingham Palace L-304, picture 
L-305 

Nash, John Henry (1871-1947), Amer- 
ican printer, born Woodbridge, On- 
tario; printer in San Francisco 
after 1895; folio edition of Dante 
probably his best work; one of the 
best typographers of his time. 

Nash, Ogden (born 1902), humorist, 
born Rye, N. T.; noted for light 
satirical ver.se (Tm a Stranger 
Here Myself’, ‘Good Intentions’, 
‘Many Long Tears Ago’, ‘Versus’, 
‘Family Reunion’, ‘Parents Keep 
Out’, ‘The Private Dining Room’). 
Nash, Richard (1674-1762), English 
society leader, popularly called 
“Beau” Nash; made Bath a fashion- 
able resort, ruled it like a king. 
Nash (or Nashe), Thomas (1567- 
1601), English dramatist, pamph- 
leteer; satirical, sometimes violent, 
tracts; pioneer in English hovel of 
adventure (‘The Unfortunate Trav- 
eller ■ or. The Life of Jacke Wilton’ ) . 
Nash'ua, N. H., city on Merrimack 
and Nashua rivers, near Massachu- 
setts boundary: pop. 34 669; shoes, 
cloth, paper and wood products, 
machinery, asbestos products, radio 
and television Parts; Rivier Col- 
lege: N-144, 154, maps N-151, U-253 
Nashville. Tenn.. state capital on 
Cumberland River; pop. 174,307. 
N-13-14, maps T-66, U-253 
Capitol, State N-14, picture T-60 
Peabody endowment P-19I 
Vanderbilt University, picture T-60 
Nashville, battle of. in American Civil 
War (1864) T-121, map C-5Zi. 
Naskapi, also Nascapee 

Indian tribe that lives in Quebec, 
map 1-106/. table 1-107 
Nnsm.vth (.ndz'mith), James (1808- 
90), Scottish inventor 
steam hammer T-150 nR31- 

■Vnsr-ed-Din ina’sr-ed-den) 

^“96)! shah of Persia: succeeded 
1848; introduced postal sys em. 

Nassau, a diamond, Plganort 

Nassau (iids'd), capital and seaport 

of Bahama s e 

New Providence Island. 200 ® 

O, Miami » 

at a«k, B/’VirS 

"iSS. 

military ouk i in 12=2; 

president Nov 19^^^^ American 
>'ast, Thomas (18 because 

caricaturist, those who 

"LT Civil W^r ^'1®^ I’y 

helped destroy Tweed 
Erratic donkey Pt^«ra^Pp-357^ 
Sa'^’aauffl^st B-43 

u ; pern, p-o ; thin. ' “ ‘ 


N'a 'K in 

Davi’a P'frolenm V., pen name of 
ist ? Uocke (1833-88), humor- 

after N. T.: in Ohio 

lnfavn„“?i his “Nasby letters, 
first in °f Utncoln policy, appeared 
■ater in m , Jeffersonian and 
^■«s«nA f oledo Blade. 

^’atkapi See in Index 

tree. See in In- 

^c!lg\ f’>“a'bi), battle of C-616, 

(17427-77), soldier, 
t^UlPri ,h®® Edward County, Va.; 
fi'embpf*'', County, N. C.; 

ana “ J1 °f f’^sembly 1771. 1773-75, 


leaf, picture L-152 
pollen grain, picture P-186 
Natal (nri-tdV, Portuguese nn-tdl'), 
seaport near n.e. tip of Brazil, 
capital of province of Rio Grande 
do Norte; about 550 ml. from 
Bahia, 1400 mi. from Rio do 
Janeiro; take-off point for flights 
to Africa; port for coastal trade; 
pop. 97,736; map S-252 
Natal, province of Union of South 
Africa; 35,284 sq. ml.; pop. 2,408,- 
433; cap. Pietermaritzburg: N-14, 
maps A-47, S-242 

dipping vat for cattle, pictures C-146 
education S-243 
history S-244-5 

Nafalo (nd-ta'lCi) , Italian Christmas 
C-299 

Natchang (nn-c/igp') River, Conn., a 
stream uniting with the Willlman- 
tic River to form the Shetucket 
River, maps C-438, 445 
Natcli'ez, Indian tribe that formerly 
lived in Mississippi, picture 1-99, 
table 1-107 

Natchez, Miss., industrial city and 
port on Mississippi River; pop. 22,- 
740; exports cotton and beef cattle; 
cotton and cottonseed-oil mills, 
packing plants. lumber mills; set- 
tled as Fort Rosalie by Bienville 
(1716) ; occupied by Federal troops 
in 1863; maps M-303. U-253 
Natchez Trace, road R-161, N-38d, 
map E-159 

Natchitoches (ndh'i-tosh) , La., parish 
seat of parish of same name. 72 
mi. s,e. of Shreveport, on Red Riv- 
er; pop, 9914; founded 1713-14 by 
French : Northwestern State College 
of Louisiana: S-308, map L-330 
Na'tlian, Hebrew prophet; rebuked 
David for treachery to Uriah (II 
Sam. vii, xii). 

Nathan, George Jean (born 1882), 
editor, author, dramatic critic, born 
Fort Wayne, Ind.; one time editor, 
with H. L. Mencken, of The Smart 
Set and American Slercury (‘The 
Popular Theatre’: ‘Comedians AH’; 
‘Art of the Night’; ‘Since Ibsen‘; 
‘Autobiography of an Attitude’). 
Nathan, Robert (born 1894), writer, 
born New York City (‘A Winter 
Tide’, ‘The Green Leaf’, poems; 
‘Portrait of Jennie’, ’Air. Whittle 
and the Alorning Star’, 'The River 
Journey’, ‘The Alarried Look’, prose ) . 
Na’tick, Alass., town on Charles River 
at head of Cochituati Lake 15 ml. 
s of Boston: pop. of township, 19,- 
838; boots and shoes, baseballs, 
paper boxes, tools; founded 1650 
by John Eliot as a home for Indian 
converts: map, inset AI-132 
Nation, Carry A. ( IR^G— 191 1 ). re- 
former, born Kentucky: in prohibi- 
tion crusade aroused sensation by 
smashing Kansas saloons operating 
in defiance of anti-liquor laws. 
Nation N-15-16a, tables N-16-16a 
member nations of international 
organizations, table N-16a 
nations of the world, table N-lG-16a 
National Academy of Design A-5 
National Academy of Sciences, Amer- 
ican society incorporated 1663 for 
purpose of making Investigations 
and reports, at call of U. S. gov- 
ernment. on any subject of science 
or art; meetings held In Washing- 
ton. D. C. 

National Air Jlnscnm, U.S. A-n37 
National ..Americanism Commission, of 
American Legion A-223 
National American IVoman Suffrage 
Association W-184 , , 

National Arcliives. The. at WasWng- 
ton D C.. created bj- act of Con- 
gre.ss 1934 to inspect and pre.servc 


;• (s in azure) ;/: = Gcrman guttural ch 



NATIONAL 


446 



NATIONAL FLOWERS 


Manv countries have adopted flowers as national emblems. 

In other lands while 

no flower has been ofSciallv adopted, a 

certain flower may be so typical of a country I 

or may have become so closely associated with its history. literature, or folklore 

that it has come to be regarded as the national flower. Below arc listed the chief 

11 countries in which a national plant or 

flower has been adopted by official decree or | 

1 bv common consent. The United States has no official national flower although the I 

goldenrod and other flowers have been suggested. 


Australia 

Golden wattle 

Ireland 

Shamrock 

Belgium 

Azalea 

Japan 

Chrysanthemum 

Canada 

Maple leaf 

Netherlands 

Tulip 

Cliina 

Plum flower 

Paraguay 

Orange blossom 

Denmark 

Forget-me-not 

Poland 

Cornflower 

Egypt 

Lotus 

Rumania 

Rose 

England 

Rose 

Scotland 

Thistle 

France 

Iris (Fleur-de-lis) 

Spain 

Red carnation 

Germany 

Cornflower 

Switzerland 

Edelweiss 

Greece 

Laurel 

Wales 

Leek 

Hungary 

Tulip 

Yugoslavia 

Lily of the valley 

Iran (Persia) 

Red rose 




archives and records of the U.S. gov- 
ernment, historical material, and 
motion pictures of histor'cal activi- 
ties; publishes the Federal Register. 
building W-28, map W-30, picture 
U-347: V. S. documents in D-35, 
pictures U-345, C-319a 
National Assembly, French parliament 
F-266, map P-83a 
French Revolution F-292-3, E-399 
National Association for the Advance- 
ment of Colored People (NAACP), 
organization founded 1909 to safe- 
guard civii, legal, economic, and 
political rights of colored people; 
national headquarters New Torli 
City. 

National Association of Rlannfaetur- 
ors, an organization founded 1895; 
composed of, and promotes Interests 
of, individuals, firms, and errpora- 
tions engaged in manufacturing. 
National Association of Professional 
Baseball Reagiies B-64, 72 
National Association of Student Coun- 
cils, founded 1931 by National 
Association of Secondary-School 
Principals (a department of Na- 
tional Education Association) ; aim, 
to foster in secondary schools 
through authorized student activi- 
ties the spirit of responsibility, 
leadership, self-discipline, and citi- 
zenship and to promote a balanced 
school program and acceptable, in- 
tegrated standards; 6025 chapters 
in 1954; headquarters, Washington, 
D.C. 

National Aiidiibon Society. See in In- 
dex Audubon Society, National 
National Aviation Bay P-57 
National banks, U. S. B-60, 52 
Federal Reserve membership P-49 
.supervision U-360 
National HaBcball Congress B-70 
National Baseball Hall of Fame and 
Museum B-70. See also in Index 
Baseball Hall of Fame and Mu- 
seum, National 

National Baseball Museum B-70 
National Basketball Association 
B-75b-6 

National battlefield sites N-38e 
National Board of Fir© Underwriters, 
in New York City; established 
1866; protects Interests of fire-in- 
surance companies, establishes 
safety standards In building con- 
struction, represses incendiarism 
and arson: picture S-6 
National Book Award, The, instituted 
in 1950 by its sponsors, American 
Book Publishers Council, Inc., 
American Booksellers Association, 
Inc., and Book Manufacturers' In- 
stitute, Inc.; presented annually to 
American writers for fiction, non- 
fiction, and poetry; gold medal. 
National Broadcasting Company 
(NBC) R-48 ■ 


National Bureau of Standards P-236 

National Button Society B-370 

National Cancer Institute, atBethesda. 
Md., created 1937 by act of Con- 
gress; conducts researches, investi- 
gations. experiments relating to the 
cause, prevention, diagnosis, and 
treatment of cancer. A division of 
the U.S. Public Health Service. 

National Capital Parks, in United 
States N-20 

National Capital Planning Commission 
W-28 

National Cathedral, The. See in Index 
St. Peter and St. Paul, Cathedral 
Church of 

National Catholic Welfare Conference 
(NCWC), an agency to promote 
welfare of Roman Catholics in 
U. S.; organized 1919; has five 
departments: education, press, so- 
cial action, laws, lay organization; 
succeeded National Catholic War 
Council, founded 1917. 

National cemeteries, U. S. N-16b-17, 
pictures N-16b-17 
Cemetery Hilt G-106 

National Citizen’s Commission for the 
Public Schools E-261 

National City, Calif., residential and 
trading city on San Diego Bav. 5 
mi. s. of San Diego; pop. 21,i99: 
map C'35 

National Civic Federation, an organ- 
ization founded in 1901 for the 
study of social and industrial prob- 
lems; executive committee com- 
prises representatives of the public, 
employers, and wage earners. 

National Collegiate Athletic Associa- 
tion (N.C,A.A.), organized 1905, to 
maintain high standards in inter- 
collegiate athletics; makes playing 
rules, conducts championships. 

National Commission for the Defense 
of Democracy Througli Bduention 
E-261 

National Committee for Mental Hy- 
giene M-173 

National Committee on Boys and Girls 
Clubs F-2526 

National Conference on Citizenship 
C-320 

National Congress of Mothers P-80 

National Congress of I’nrents and 
Teachers P-80 

National Conservation Commission 
C-464 

National Consumers’ Beagne, organ- 
ized 1898 to regulate conditions of 
manufacture by helping to enforce 
labor laws, investigating condi- 
tions of labor, and awarding 
league's label to manufacturers 
conforming to its standard; state 
leagues in U. S. since 1891. 

National convention. See in Index 
Convention, in U. S. politics 

National Council of Geograpliy Teach- 
ers G-47 


NATIONAL 

National Council of the Churches of 
Clirlst in the United States of Amer- 
ica, an interdenominational organi- 
zation representing 29 U.S. denom- 
inations for purpose of co-ordinat- 
ing efforts in matters of religious 
and moral interest; formed 1950 
through merger of Federai Council 
of Churches cf Christ in America 
with seven other interdenomina- 
tional agencies; headquarters New 
York City. 

National Council of Women of the 
United States W-185 
National debt N-17, table N-17 
reparations, World War I. See in 
Index Reparations 
United States N-17, U-S93 
Debt Funding Commission W-242-3 
14th Amendment U-355 
Hamilton funds H-253 
Liberty bonds W-236 
war debts N-17: World War I 
'W-ZiX—'i, pictures W-243, 244, toble 
N-17; World War II, table N-17 
National Defense Act (1916), U.S. 
W-234 

National Defense Advisory Commis- 
sion, appointed May 1940 by Presi- 
dent Franklin D. Roosevelt to 
serve the then re-established Coun- 
cil of National Defense (created by 
Congress 1916); consisted of com- 
missioners in charge of industrial 
production, raw materials, employ- 
ment, farm products, transporta- 
tion, price stabilization, consumer 
protection ; many of its duties taken 
over (1941) by Office for Emer- 
gency Management. 

National Defense Building, See in 
Index Pentagon 

National Doll and Toy Collectors Club, 
Inc. D-121-2 

National Education Association, 
American society of educators, or- 
ganized at Philadelphia, Pa., 1867; 
devoted to the study of methods, or- 
ganization, and courses of study in 
educational work: E-261 
cardinal principles of education 
B-251 

Committee of Ten on Secondary 
School Subjects E-251 
National Conference on Citizenship 
C-320 

National Emergency Council (NEC), 
U.S. R-205 

National Farmers Union, See in Index 
Farmers Educational and Coopera- 
tive Union of America 
National Federation of Business and 
Professional Women’s Clubs, Incor- 
porated, The, an organization 
founded 1919 to elevate standards 
for business and professional 
women and promote their interests; 
160,000 members; 3800 local clubs; 
publishes Independent ^iVomanj 
headquarters New York City. 
National flower, a flower, leaf, or plant 
adopted as a national symbol. See 
table on this page 

National Football League F-232— 3, 
table P-232 

National forests. See Fact Summary 
with each state article; also see in 
Index Forests and forestry, sub- 
head national forests 
National Foundation for Infantile 
Paralysis V-433(Z 
National 4-H Club Camp F-262a 
National 4-n Club Congress F-262a 
National 4-H Clnb Foundation of 
America, Inc. F-252b 
National Gallery, London, England, on 
Trafalgar Square, built between 
1832 and 1838 ; several times en- 
larged; rich in Italian works; Flem- 
ish and Dutch schools and early 
British masters well represented , 
a branch, Tate Gallery, houses 


Key; cape, dt. fefr, fdst, what, fgll; me, yet, fern, thdre; ice, bit; row, won, fdr, ndt, dp; cure, bdt. r])de, Rill, bilrn; out; 



NATIONAL 


447 


NATIONAL 


and 


modern British sculptures 
paintings: L-305, map L-SOl 
Jan van Eyck’s 'The Marriage of 
Giovanni Amolfini and Giovanna 
Cenami' P-25a-h, color picture 
P-25a 

Uccello’s “Battle of San Romano’ 
P-26, color picture P-26 
Kational Gallery of Art, "Washington, 
D. C., one of the "world’s great 
art museums, established 1937, 
opened 1941. The 515,000,000 build- 
ing, gift of Andrew W. Mellon, is 
bu'ilt of pink Tennessee marble and 
stands on the north side of the 
Mall, between 4th and 7th Streets. 
Designed by John Russell Pope to 
house Mellon’s 550,000,000 collec- 
tion and later contributions, such 
as the Samuel PI. Kress and the 
Joseph E. Widener collections. The 
gallery is administered as a bureau 
of the Smithsonian Institution; 
"W-Sl, map "17-30, picture W-28. See 
also in Index Museums, table 
Botticelli’s ‘Portrait of a "Touth’ 
P-21, color picture P-21 
Cezanne’s ‘Portrait of Louis Guil- 
laume’ P-34-340, color picture 
P-34 

View of Salisbury 
tatoedral’, color picture P-29c 
Desiderio da Settignano’s ‘Laughing 
Boy S-78b, picture S-781) 

Oiorgmne’s ‘Adoration of the Shep- 
herds , picture G-110 
oya s ‘Senora Sabasa Garcia’, color 
picture P-31a 

Wheezing Up’, color picture 

'The Dead Toreador’ P-316, 
color picture P-316 

Child -with 

RevJnm!. picture P-25o 

amt B Elizabeth Delmd 

B'29d f-hlldren’, color picture 

‘Portrait of 
Stuart- picture P-25b 

George Wash- 
P.30 ’ ^ W-19, color picture 

^P°27n®® Finding of Aloses’ 

irest's ■n?''"' P'<’t»re P-27o 
Ficfiirc w”n®,} Johnson’ P-31a, 
iChistiirt cJOlor picture P-31 

Phonv^® ''^hite Girl: Sym- 

cohlWf No- 1’ P-31d, 

.Vatl P-32 

can'orp.?^?®^'SBhic Society, Amerl- 
at "With headquarters 

1888 D. c., founded 

observLf^®°'‘''^se exploration and 
?rSion°” to spread geo- 

'’huOrv » Patrons of Hus- 

and fl farm organization 

hhd fraternity for farmers 

fhrm nri f®railies, the oldest of the 

f'J' Oliver founded 1867 

farmer Nelley, a Minnesota 

hf Acrin staff of Department 

states, organized in 37 


With 


"National Homes, Bnrean of, govern- 
ment bureau in charge of national 
homes for disabled soldiers and 
sailors, established by Congress at 
end of Civil "War. 

National Honor Society of Secondary 
Schools, an organization founded 
1921 by Kational Association of 
Secondary-School Principals (a 
department of National Education 
Association) ; members must be 
outstanding in scholarship, leader- 
ship, service, and character; society 
open to students in grades 10, 11, 
and 12; 3,500,000 members and 
4725 chapters in U.S., Philippines, 
Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Panama, 
Argentina, and China; headquar- 
ters, "Washington, D.C. 
mock election, picture J-368a 

National Housing Agency (NHA), 
U.S. R-205 

National income, U.S. U-329— 30 

National Industrial Kccovery Act 
(1933), U.S. M-360, R-206-7 

National Institute of Health, head- 
quarters at Washington, D.C.; a 
division of the U.S. Public Health 
Service for study of causes and 
prevention of diseases; developed 
from a bacteriological laboratory 
established 1887 at Marine Hospital, 
New York City; got present naine 
1930; field stations throughout u.b. 

National Inventors Council, branch of 
U S. Department of Commerce in 
national defense program; created 
1940; made up of scientific, tech- 
nical, military experts "with duty of 
e-xaminlng 

and mechanisms for defense value. 

Nationalism N-16 
development in E^ope E-433 
economic 1-196, T-166: tariff aids 
T-17-18 ^ 

fascist doctrines P-44 
Naziism G-98-100, lOl 

National Labor Belarions Act of 193a 

fWagner act), U.S. L-72, it 

National Labor 36?®“*’ 

(NLRB), U.S. L-72, 73, U-SBS 

Kational lica&ne, in baseball B . 
72 

Sr Lla^e-^of .l^^n 

Natfo^naf Legion of Pecenjy M-431 
National MiUtaryE^tabUshmenri^^^ .. 


former name ' 
Defense T-198, 


TT-''i60- See also 

^Defense Department of 
in Bidea: Defense. 

National military index 

National monuments. 

National parks ™®^^Xs Sec 

s-j. 

Mich., summer scnooi founded 

allied arts; nonproni. 


1928: B-460 
National parks 


wembPrt,. than seo.ooo 

for bovo '_®POhsors Juvenile Grange 
quartern under 14; head- 

ttllroaa Washington, D.C. 

^'•I'onri * movement A-391 
tiross P*"odnct. See in Index 

^ "f ^ product 

"teanlzed ^ militia force 

voliiTrto*” ®^ch state; composed 
^hns- Wke part-time 

'teekiy n-lS'hg through attending 
t’^uitner und two-week 

^“'"ernor fn^^i ®u^Jeot to call by 
or i,®. -hifaster or emergency 
.®atlo'n.ai tederal government in 

Disabled Volnnteer 
J*--Cl!li_^ani2ed 1865 V-466 
'^''■enchu I 


„na monuments 

names of various p k 
^Tris S/. A- 141 . C- 117 . color 

pictures N-29 jjaster 

foreign countries N-39. lh 

Island is-ssf map N-18, 

United States N-^ 8 38d, 

state article m U. S., 

co"nse^“aUon organisation C-454b, 

N-21 „ Tj s N-20-1 

National Park 17 

national cemeterie s 


National parkways N-38(7-C 
National Pike. See in Index Cumber- 
land Road 

National Police Academy F-49 
National Production Authority (NPA), 
U. S. U-368 

National Ecclamation Act (1902), U.S. 
1-250-1 

National Itccovery Administration 
(NRA), U.S. R-205, 206, 208, 209 
National Recreation Association, 
founded 1906; recreation programs 
for home, church, school, and for 
industrial workers: headquarters. 
New York City: P-86a 
National Research Council, Canada 
C-90 

National Research Council, Wash- 
ington, D. C., established 1916 by 
National Academy of Sciences to 
solve military problems; duties now 
embrace promotion of math- 
ematical, physical, and biological 
sciences and their application to 
engineering, agriculture, medicine, 
and other useful arts ; supported by 
Carnegie Corporation, Rockefeller 
Foundation, and other funds. 
National Resources Planning Board 
(NRPB), U.S. R-205 
National Rifle and Pistol Jlnfclics, 
U.S. R-153a-5 

National Rifle Association of America 
R-1530-5, F-81 

National Roadside Conncil, a conser- 
vation organization C-454& 
Nationals, legal term for the citizens 
or subjects of a nation 
foreign jurisdiction over I-1B0 
National Safety Connell S-4, 8, A-513 
National Science Foundation, estab- 
lished by Congress 1950 to foster 
basic research in mathematical, 
physical, medical, biological, en- 
gineering, and other sciences: con- 
sists of director and 24-man board 
appointed by president of U.S. and 
confirmed by Senate: U-S68 
National Security Conncil, U. S. U-358 
National Skeet Slioofing Association 
F-81 

Notional Socialist party (Nazi). Sec 
in Index Nazi 

National songs N-40-3, pictures N-40, 
42-3 

National Story League S-406a 
National Tea Company, a retail food 
chain store company; founded Illi- 
nois Feb. C. 1902; .seif-.service 
■stores; about 15% of products 
sold are manufactured, processed, 
or packaged under trade names 
controlled by company. 

National territory, in international 
law 1-190 

National Trnst for Historic Preserva- 
tion, a private organization char- 
tered by Congress 1949 with the 
power to accept, hold, and admin- 
ister sites, buildings, and objects 
significant in American history 
and culture; also functions as a 
clearinghouse for Information and 
techniques in the field of preser- 
vation; 1000 individual members 
and 125 member organizations in 
1953- is.sues quarterly publication, 
Eisloric Preservation; headquar- 
ters Washington, D.C. 

National Urban League, an organiza- 
tion founded in 1910 for the im- 
provement of economic and social 
conditions of Negroes living In 
cities: branches in 50 cities. 

Nntlonnl War College, U. S., at Wa.sh- 
Inirton D. C» A-385 
Natmnal War Labor Board (1918), 
U S. T-5 

N.atl’onnl War Labor Board (NWLB) 
tr. S. R‘-215 

National Wild Flower Preservation 
.fioclety C-451b 


.German ti ; pem, ffo ; thin, then ; « =Frencb 


-rT^i^^^^iTTTTi'n azure) :A-=German guttural ch 

nasal (Jean) I- ' 



Abaft, aft, after. Toward the stern of a 
vessel: abaft the mainmasts; to walk 
aft; the after engine room. 

Abeam. Off to the side of the ship and 
even mth her. 

Aloft. Above the weather deck. 

Amidships. On the center line of the 
ship. 

Anchor. A heavy metal device for hold- 
ing a vessel fast to the bottom. All 
anchors have a ring at the top for the 
anchor chain, a vertical shank, and 
flukes which bite into the bottom. An 
old-fashioned anchor has a horizontal 
stock j\ist below the ring; the curved 
flukes are set at right angles to the 
stock. A "patent” anchor has no stock; 
its flat fimtes are in the same plane. 

Astern. Backward; behind the vessel. 

Athwartships, At right angles to the 
fore-and-aft line of the vessel. 

Ballast. Anything used for a weight to 
keep a ship seaworthy when she is sail- 
ing or steaming without cargo; she is 
then said to be "in ballast.” 

Batten. A thin strip of wood placed in 
a pocket in the leech of a sail to stiffen 
it; timber or metal bar used in fasten- 
ing, or battening down, a hatch. 

Beam. The width of a vessel at her 
widest part. Abaft the beam, in a direc- 
tion between abeam and astern. 

Bearings. The directions in which points 
lie relative to some line. True bearings 
are given relative to true north; relative 
bearings, to the ship’s beading. 

Belay. To fasten a rope. 

Bells. Strokes of the ship's bell used to 
indicate the time of day. Eight belle 
indicates 12, 4, or 8 o'clock, one bell 
a half hour later, two bells an hour 
later, and so on to eight. The strokes 
are sounded in groups of two. 

Bend. A knot which fastens one rope to 
another; to bend on a sail is to fasten it 
to the Bjjars which support it. 

Berth. The anchoring or mooring posi- 
tion for a vessel; sleeping space assigned 
to a member of the ship’s crew. 

Bilge. The curved part of the bottom of 
the ship’s hull. Bilge water is water 
which collects in the bilge. 

Bitts. A post, or usually a pair of posts, 
fastened to the deck of a vessel for 
attaching the mooring lines or towing 
hawsers. 

Block. A casing fitted with grooved 
wheels {sheaves) through which a rope 
may be passed for hoisting or hauling. 

Bollard. A post on a pier to which moor- 
ing lines may be fastened. 

Boom. A spar used for holding the foot 
of a fore-and-aft sail, one end being 
movably fastened to the mast; also a 
similar spar for hoisting cargo. 

Bow. The forward part of a ship; on the 
bow, in a direction between abeam and 
dead ahead. 

Boxing the compass. Naming the 32 
points of the compass from north 
around through east back to north. 

Brace. Rope used to move a yard hori- 
zontally. 

Bridge. An elevated part of a vessel 
running athwartships for the use of 
the navigating officers. 

Broach to. To swing toward the Viand 
unintentionally. 

Brow. A portable ^ang plank. 

Bulkhead. A partition in the hull of a 
ship. 

Bunker. That part of a vessel’s hull 
where the coal or other fuel is carried. 

Buoy. A floating marker: red, cone- 
shaped nun buoys mark the right side 
of a channel as ^newed from the sea, 
and black, cylindrical can buoys mark 
the left side. 

Cable. A heavy rope or chain; generally 
used to connect anchor to ship.^ 

Capstan. Vertical drum on a windlass, 


A LIST OF NAUTICAL TERMS 

used to handle lines in hoisting or haul- 
ing; formerly manned by the crew with 
capstan bars, now usually power- 
driven. 

Carvel-built. Built with the planking 
flush on the outside. 

Cast off. To let go mooring lines. 

Caulk. To fill the seams of a wooden 
vessel in order to make them water- 
tight. 

Centerboard. A plate or board on a 
sailboat, arranged to drop through a 
well in the bottom of a boat to act as a 
keel. 

Chains. A platform near the bow of a 
ship for the leadsman. 

Chine. Angularpart of thehull of aboat 
between side and bottom. 

Chock. A metal fitting used as a lead for 
lines. 

Cleat. A two-homed device to which a 
line may be secured. 

Clew. The clew in a square sail is either 
lower corner; that of fore-and-aft sail 
is the after lower comer. The loop and 
thimbles in the corner of a sail; also to 
haul up a square sail for furling, as 
"clew up,” or to lower a yard, as “clew 
down.” 

Clinker-built. Built with the planking 
overlapped. 

Close-hauled, Arrangement of sails for 
sailing as close to the wind as possible. 

Coaming. A vertical strip around a 
cockpit, s^lightj or hatch to keep out 
water; a high sill in a bulkhead opening. 

Cockpit. An open space in small vessels 
which is low'er than the deck; the tiller 
or w’hcel is located here. 

Come about. To tack. 

Cringle. A reinforced eyelet in a sail, 
used for holding it to a spar. 

Davits. Vertical metal pillars, wdth the 
upper ends bent over, to which a small 
boat is attached. They turn to allow 
the boat to be raised from the deck and 
then swnng out clear of the side for the 
boat to be lowered. 

Dead reckoning. Finding the position 
of a vessel by a record of the courses 
followed and the distances traveled on 
each. An estimated position differs 
from a dead reckoning (or "D.R.”) 
position by taking account also of 
the effects of >vind and current. 
"Dead” is a corruption of "ded.” 
short for deduced. 

Dinghy. Any of several small boats. 

Dog. A small metal fitting to secure 
watertight doors, hatch covers, etc. 

Downhaul. A rope for hauling down a 
sail. 

Draft. The depth to which the hull of 
the vessel sin^ in the w'ater. 

Fake down. To lay a rope down in 
figure-of-eight turns for ease in running 
it out. 

Fall off. To cause a vessel’s bow to drop 
away to leeward of her course. 

Falls. Tackle used in hoisting and lower- 
ing a boat. 

Fantall. On naval vessels, the after seo- 
tion of the main deck. 

Fid. A tapered wooden pin used in splic- 
ing rope. 

Foot, The lower edge of a sail. 

Fore-and-aft. In the direction of the 
keel- 

Forecastle. The forward part of the 
hull under the main or weather deck; 
on sailing ships, the crew’s compart- 
ment was located here. 

Foul, Tangled, not clear. 

Freeboard. The vertical distance be- 
tween the main deck of a vessel and the 
water line. 

Furl. To wrap a sail tightly on a yard, 
stay, or mast. 

Gaff. The spar to which the bead of a 
fore-and-aft sml is secured. 

Galley. Kitchen. 

(Continued on tbe next page) 


Gangway. A passageway for entering or 
leaving a ship; stairs fitted to the side 
of a ship for the same purpose. 

Gasket. A short line for securing furled 
sail. 

Gear. The gener^ name for ropes, 
blocks, spars, and equipment of other 
sorts. 

Go about. To tack. 

Grommet. A ring of rope formed by a 
single strand laid three times around. 

Gunwale. The upper edge of a vessel’s 
side. 

Halyard. A line for hoisting a sail, yard, 
or flag. 

Hatch. An opening in the deck of a ves- 
sel; the cover for such an opening. 

Hawser. A heavy line used for mooring, 
towing, etc. 

Head. The upper edge of a quadrilateral 
sail; the forward part of a vessel; also 
the vessel’s toilet. 

Heading. The direction steered by a 
vessel. 

Headsail. A sail set forward of the fore- 
mast. 

Headway. Forward motion of a vessel. 

Heave. To throw; the rise and fall of a 
vessel in a seaway. 

Heave to. To stop a vessel’s headway, 
usually by bringing her into the \Wnd. 

Heel. To lean over (said of a sailing 
vessel or boat). 

Helm. The whole steering apparatus of 
a vessel; also, specifically, the tiller. 

Hold. The main cargo space below the 
lowest deck. 

Hull. The body of a vessel. 

Jib, A triangular headsail. . , , . 

Jibe. To steer so far off the wind that 
the wind catches the sails on the 9PP0- 
site side (said of a fore-and-aft tigged 
sailboat). 

Jury rig, A makeshift rig. 

Keel. A timber or series of plates run- 
ning the length of the bottom of a ves- 
sel from stem to stern on the center line, 
to which the ribs are attached. 

Keelson. Wood or steel reinforcement 
bolted on top of the keel to strengthen 
the vessel. 

Larboard. An old word for port. 

Lead line. Line secured to the lead, used 
for soundings. 

Leadsman. Man detailed to heave the 
sounding lead. 

Leech, The after edge of a fore-and-aft 
sail. 

Leeward. Away from the wind. 

Leeway, The drift of a vessel to leeward 
caused by the wind of tide. 

Line. A rope used for a specific purpose. 

Luff. To turn the head of a sailing ship 
into the ivind. 

Marline. A small rope or cord of two 
strands, usually tarred, often used for 
"whipping” or winding the ends of 
large lines. . . j 

Marlinesplke. A tapered iron pm used 
for spreading the strands of ware rope 
in making a splice. 

Oakum.' A caulking material made from 
tarred hemp fiber. 

Overhaul. To overtake (said of vessels). 

Painter. A rope at the bow of a small 
boat, used to make her fast. 

Pay out. To let out chain, or to slack 
off a line. 

Point. To head close to the wind; one 
of the 32 main divisions of a compass 
card; hence, a circle (llK 

degrees). 

Poop. A raised deck at the stern of a 
vessel. 

Port. The left-hand side of the ship as 
seen when looking forward; also^a port- 
hole or circular opening in the side of a 
ship. A vessel is on the port tack when 
sailinii wdth the wind coming over the 
port side. 


Kcj'; cupe, «t, far, fast, wh^it, fflll; me, y^t, fern, there; ice, bit; row, won, for, ndt. clf?; c»re, bnt, rj/de, fyll, brtrn; out 



NATIONAL 


<a 449 


NATURE 


A LIST OF NAUTICAL TERMS— Conc/wdctZ 


r 


Quarter-deck. On sailing vessels, a part 
of the weather deck reserved for the 
officers of the vessel; on naval vessels 
the part of the deck where the officer 
of the deck stands his watch in port. 

Ratline. A small rope fastened between 
a vessel’s shrouds to form the rungs of 
a ladder. 

Reef. To shorten the sail by folding or 
tying a portion of it to the yard or 
boom. 

Reef points. Short pieces of rope set in 
a sail and used in reefing. 

Reeve. To pass a rope through any lead. 

Rigging. The ropes of a vessel. Stand- 
ing rigging is not movable. Running 
rigging is movable. 

Scope. The length of anchor chain out. 

Scuppers. Holes in the side of a vessel 
at the deck level for draining the water 
from the deck. 

Sea anchor. A drag thrown overboard 
to the windward of a disabled vessel 
to keep her head into the wind while 
riding out a storm; usually a conical 
canvas bag. 

Secure. To make fast. 

Shackle. A U-shaped metal link closed 
with a shackle pin across the open ends. 

Sheave. Small wheel with a grooved rim, 
usually enclosed in a block. 

Sheet. A line attaehed to a sail to regu- 
late its angle to the wind; the open 
spaces between the thwarts and the 
ends of a small boat as the foresheels 
and sternsheets. 

Ship. To put in place; to take on board; 
to send cargo on board; to enlist. 

Shrouds. Part of the standing rigging, 
consisting of two or more ropes, usually 
wire, from the masthead to the gun- 
wale of a ship; on large vessels they are 
generally fitted with ratlines. 


Small stuff. Small rope ns marline, rat- 
line, etc. 

Spar. Any mast, yard, or boom. 

Spinnaker. On racing yachts, an ex- 
tremely large triangular headsail used 
in running before the wind. 

Stanchion. A post or pillar placed up- 
right in a ship. 

Starboard. The opposite of port. The 
right-hand side of a ship when looking 
forward. A vessel ia on the starboard 
tack when sailing with the wind coming 
over the starboard side. 

Stay. A rope used to brace a mast or 
yard. 

Stem. Extreme forward timber in a ves- 
sel to which the sides are joined. 

Stern. The after end of a vessel. 

Sternway. Backward motion of a vessel. 

Stop. A piece of small stuff or canvas 
used to secure something. 

Stow. To put in place. 

Strake. One continuous line of plank- 
ing or plates on a vessel’s bottom or 
sides. 

Tack. To change the course of a sailing 
vessel by putting her bow across the 
wind, bringing the wind on the other 
side; the lower fonvard corner of a 
fore-and-aft sail. 

Tackle. A system of blocks and ropes to 
increase hauling power. 

Taffrall. The railing placed around the 
stern of a ship. 

Throat. The forward upper corner of a 
quadrilateral fore-and-aft sail. 

Thwart. A seat in a boat. 

Tiller. A wood or iron bar fitted into the 
head of the rudder, used to turn the 
rudder. . . , , 

Top. A platform at the foot of each 
topmast on a sailing ship. 


Topside. On or above the main deck 

Trim. The angle to the horizontal at 
which a vessel rides; shipshape; to han- 
dle the sheets to make the most out of 
the wind. 

Two-block. To take up on a tackle ns 
much as possible; to run a flag up all 
the way. 

Underway. tVhen a vessel has no con- 
nection with land it is underway. 

Unship. To remove from its place. 

Waist. The central part of the ship. 

Warp, To move a vessel by hauling on 
lines made fast to bollards. 

Watches. The periods into which the 
day is divided. ’These are: first watch, 
8:00 p.M. to midnight; midwatch ormid- 
dle watch, midnight to 4 :00 A.M.;morning 
watch, 4:00 a.m. to 8:00 a. M.; forenoon 
watch, 8:00 A.M. to noon; afternoon 
watch, noon to 4:00 p.M.; first dogwatch, 
4:00 p.M. to 6:00 p..m.: second dogwatch, 
6:00 p.M. to 8:00 p.M. The dogwatches 
arc short so as to allow time for an eve- 
ning meal. A tratch is also all the cren- 
members on duty at one time; when 
the crew is divided into two watches, 
these are called the port and 
starboard watches. 

Weather. The wind; cxposed_ to the 
wind. The weather side is the windward 
side. A weather deck is any open deck. 

Whip. To bind the end of fiber or wire 
rope so as to prevent its unlaying. 

Wildcat. Drum on a windlass construct- 
ed to handle the anchor chain. 

Winch. A horizontal power windlass 
used to haul on heavy lines. 

Windward. Toward the wind. 

Yard. A spar set athwartships on which 
a sail is bent. 

Yaw. To swing from side to side; to steer 
wildly because of a heavy sea. 


National "Wildlife Federation, a con- 
servation organization C-454& 
National Woman’s Party W-186 
National Woman Suffrage Association 
,W-184 

National Y’outli Administration 
(NYA), U.S. R-205, 209 
Nations, battle of (1813) N-10 
Nations, law of. See in Index Inter- 
national law; International relations 
Native companion, also called brolga, 
Australian crane C-507 
•^‘)*;''<'ad Ind-te-ve-ttuid'') , Spanish 
t-hrlstmas C-299 

Church of the. See in Index 
X- .fhh'oh of the Nativity 
P'“NS C-2946 

See in Index North Atlantic 
treaty Organization 
Natrium, Latin name for sodium, 
table C-211 

Natron (.nd'tron), native sodium 
S^Tbonate crystallized with water 
Ai.265. See also in Index Soda 
elassmaking G-123 

Jean Marc (1085- 
French portrait painter; por- 
l^'ts of Peter the Great and noted 
Iw., Louis XV's court (’Mag- 

uaicn in Louvre). 

• "A^ral, in music. See in Index 
-luslc, table of musical terms and 
forms 

Natural arch, how formed E-183 
- ‘Uural bridge. See also in Index 
Bridge of Virginia 
noh formed E-183, diafjram E-182 
^ural Bridges National Slonu- 
ffient, Utah N-37-8, map N-18 

Bridge National Monu- 
ment, Utah N-380, map N-18, pic- 
turc N-38 

■ Bridge of Virginia, on U.S. 

^‘‘ffbway No. li, 39 mi. n. of 


Roanoke; used as shot tower during 
Revolutionary War; Henry Clay 
said, it "spans a river, carries a 
highway, and makes two moun- 
tains one": V-478 
how formed, diagram E-182 
S'atural Bridges National Monument, 
in Utah N-37-8, map N-18 
s'atural cement C-167 
Vatural dam, how formed E-183 
s'atural gas. See in Index Gas, natural 
S'atural history, the study of nature 
in general; forerunner of trie 
sciences of biology and ecolotpr: 
B-147, E-214. See also vi Index 
Nature study 

s'atural History, Americon Museum of. 
New York City. See in Index Amer- 
ican Museum of Natural History 
S'atural Iiistory museums. Sec in Jn- 
dex Museums, table 
s'aturalism. in literature, the tendency 
to reproduce life as it appears, with- 
out idealization, to show human mo- 
tives and emotions; represented m 
France by Zola and the Goncourts ; 
in England by Hardy .and Gissing; 
in United States by Drei^ser and 
Sherwood Anderson: Is-Sli 

French literature F-288, Z-3B2 
German literature G-85 
,'aturalism. In painting P-3B 

,'afiiraliza'iian. 

to citizenship ls-43, G-319/ 

Chinese rmd'^Japanese excluded 1-48 

gh'ilfg^'oaSi^o/ allegiance, picture 
C-313/ 

service: Tmm^gratlo^ 

' na'd* Sc^ in Index Immigration and 
Naturalization .Seiwice 
s'ntiirnl minor scale, in music M-4Cg 




. -Ji — T-'*rr>nrh 


Natural regions of earth W-201-2, 
table W-202 

Natural resources, in economics E-222, 
223, diagram E-226 
conservation. See in Index Conser- 
vation 

Nalijral Selection, Darwin’s theory 
D-19-20, E-452. Sec also in Index 
Evolution 

Natural tunnel T-208 
Natural vibration period 
electric circuits E-306 
Nature Association, American. See in 
Index American Nature Association 
N'nturc Conservancj' C-454h 
Nature Hunting, a game G-8c 
Nature study N-44— 69, pictures N-45— 
67, color picture N-44, Rcjcrcncc- 
Ontliuc N-68-68h 
bibliography H-392-5, K-eSb-O 
collections 

insect.s 1-160-1, picture H-394: 

cocoons and chrysalids N-62 
plants: flowers F-181; leaves L-152, 
N-46; seeds N-48 
shells S-141 

field trips and hikes, pictures N-37, 
P-86i) 

plant life P-298-301, pictures P-209— 
300, B-263, P-8Cb 

stiidv at home and in the field 
,N'-64-7 

birds B-187-90, N-62 
earthworm.s, raising as food for 
pets N-65 

fish N-G6: aquarium A-280-2, pic- 
tures A-281-2 

Insects, pictures I-lGl, N-65, P-SGh.' 
ants N-67; bees N-07; butter- 
flies. monarcli B-367d-8: cricket 
C-513 

lizards L-284 
turtles T-223-4 

zoo Z-353— CO, picture.^ Z-353— CO 
)■ (g in azurej :K=:Germ;in guttuml cb 


NATURE 


450 


NAYARIT 


•winter nature study N-62 
bird feeding B-187, pictures B-190, 
191 

insects I-1B9 
plants P-298 

Nature worship, adoration of forces 
and objects in nature. See also in 
Index Animal -svorship; Fire -wor- 
ship; Mythology; Sun worship 
ancient Egypt E-283 
Druids C-163 
Japan J-299 

Nau, Jean David, late 17th-century 
French pirate; alias Francis L’Ol- 
lonais ; intensely cruel ; plundered 
in Caribbean ; captured and tor- 
tured to death by Darien Indians. 
Naucratis (?iff’?crd-fjs) , Greek colony 
in 0th century B.c. on Nile Delta, 
Egypt, 50 mi. s.e. of Alexandria. 
Nau'gatuck, Conn., borough on Nau- 
gatuck River about 5 mi. s. of 
Waterbury; pop. 17,455; chemicals, 
rubber footwear: map C-444 
Naugatuck Ttiver, tributary of the 
Housatonio River, 65 mi. long, maps 
C-438, 444 

Nauheim (noti’Jiim), or Bad-Nauheim, 
Germany, watering place in Taunus 
Hills 22 mi. n. of Frankfort-on-the- 
Main ; saline springs. 

Nauplin (nd'pii-ij), Greece, fortified 
seaport in south; pop. 7960; com- 
mercial center; ancient and medi- 
eval tomhs and buildings. 

Nauru (na-n'rji), coral island in 
Pacific 26 ini. s. of equator: 8 sq. 
mi.; pop. 3269; valuable phosphate 
deposits; Nauru captured from 
Germans in 'World War I; became 
British mandate 1920; in 1947 be- 
came trusteeship administered by 
Australia for Australia, New Zea- 
land, and Britain as joint admin- 
istering authorities: map P-16 
Nauset (ttff'set), an Algonquian In- 
dian tribe formerly living on Cape 
Cod, Mass. 

Nausicaii (iid-si7s'd-(i) , in the ‘Odys- 
sey’, Phaeacian princess who be- 
friended Odysseus 0-344-5 
Nautch inoch) dancing, of India 
D-14/ 

Nautical almanac N-74 
Nautical mile, table AV-87 
how measured at sea L-294 
Nautical terms. For list, see table on 
preceding pages 

Nau'tilus, a mollusk N-69-70, M-333, 
pictures N-69-70 

‘Nautilus’, U,S. Navy atomic-powered 
submarine S-438, pictures N-87, 
1-204 

interior, picture PI-377 
Nauvoo', 111., village on Mississippi 
River 40 mi. n. of Quincy; pop. 
1242; founded by Mormons 1839: 
map 1-36 
Mormons at M-392 

Navajo, or Navaho (nSv'<f-hd) , Indian 
tribe that lives in Arizona, New 
Mexico, and Utah I-104c— d, map 
1-106/, pictures 1-105, 108a, color 
pictures I-104o, U-249, table 1-107 
Arizona A-346 
arts and crafts 

blankets and rugs R-250: weaving 
S-351, pictures A-358, S-350 
sand painting, picture 1-1080 
silverwork 1-104(1, picture 1-105 
customs described A-357 
education, picture I-lll 
hogan I-i04c, picture A-356, color 
picture l-104c 
Kit Carson defeats C-128b 
New Mexico N-181 
Navajo Indian Kcscrvatlon, largest In- 
dian reservation in U. S. (nearly 
16,000,000 acres), located mainly 
in Arizona, extending into New 
Me.xico, Colorado, and Utah; occu- 
pied by about 60,000 Navajos who 


engage in sheep raising, farming, 
blanket weaving, and siiversmith- 
ing: maps A-352, N-171, picture 
I-110(i 

Navajo National Monument, in Ari- 
zona N-38, map N-18 
Naval Academy, United States N-70— 1, 
A-253, picUires N-70-1 
Naval armament limitation. See in 
Index Armaments, limitation of 
Naval aviation. See in index Avia- 
tion, military and naval 
Naval bases, IT.S. N-82 
Naval brass B-285 

Naval conference. See in Index Arma- 
ment. limitation of 
Naval holiday H-267. P-102 
Naval Observator.v, Washington, D.C. 
W-32, picture 0-325 
American Nautical Almanac 0-326 
time signals U-362, W-59 
Naval operations, chief of 11-362 
Naval Personnel, Bureau of N-90 
Naval Reserve, force to supplement 
regular Navy forces in time of war 
or emergency. U.S. Naval Re.serve 
established 1915; term of enlistment 
is two, three, or four years; recruit 
must be 17 to 50 years old: N'89 
Naval stores, wood distillation products, 
including resin, tar, pitch, and 
turpentine W-187. See also in In- 
dex Resins; Tar; Turpentine 
Mississippi M-296 

Naval M ar Collcge,for advanced train- 
ing of Navy officers, conducted by 
officers of U.S. Navy at Newport, 
R.I.; three one-year courses and a 
correspondence course offered. 
Navariiio (nn-ua-rc’nd), battle of 
(1827) G-191 

Navarre (na-vdr'), medieval kingdom 
on both sides of Pyrenees; now di- 
vided between Prance and province 
of Navarra in Spain: map F-270 
Henry I'V of France, king H-339 
struggle with Moors S-321 
Navarre, Henry of. See in Index 
Henry I'V, king of France 
Navarra, Mary Anderson de. See in 
Index Anderson, Mary 
Navas de Tolosa (nd'vds dd td-lo'sd) 
battle of (1212) M-389, S-321 
Nave Cndv} A-312, diagram A-315. 
See also in Index Architecture, 
table of terms 

Cathedral of St. John the Divine, 
picture A-323 

Salisbury Cathedral, picture A-iOOg 
Navel orange 0-400 
Navelwort, See in Index Chinese 
forget-me-not 

Navigation N-72— 80, pictures N-72— 9 . 
See also in Index principal topics 
below by name. For list of nautical 
terms, see table on preceding pages 
airplane A-93-5, A-534-5, iHcture 
A-538 

ahnanacs N-74, 0-325-6 
barometer B-67-9, diagrams B-68-9 
buoys L-238, A-7, pictures N-75 
chronometer W-57, N-74, L-313 
Coast and Geodetic Survey U-366 
Coast Guard service C-371 
compass C-427-9, pictures C-427-9 
dams aid blocked river beds D-7 
early methods N-78-80, picture N-73 
gyropilot, steering device G-238 
history N-78-80, A-187-8 
hydrographic surveying S-458 
icebergs 1-8, pictures 1-8 
latitude and longitude L-132-5, 
L-311— 13, diagrams L-132— 4, pic- 
tures L-312-13, table L-136: deter- 
minations N-73-4, 78 
Lighthouse Bureau L-238 
lighthouses and Jightslups L-235-8, 
pictures L-236-8 

maps and charts M-84-91b, N-74, 76, 
maps M-86— 8, 90—1, 91b, pictitres 
M-84-5, 89, table M-91a.- compass 
rose, pictures N-75, 79 
pendu'um used P-118, picture P-118 


radar R-25-8, pictures R-25-8 
radio aids N-75: Marconi’s inven- 
tions M-94; remote control E-40 
relative and exact location G-42, 
maps G-42 

sextant N-77, A-94-5, diagram N-78, 
picture N-70 

ship, wheelhouse of, picture S-160 
ship’s log L-294-5 
shooting the sun N-77, diagram 
N-78, pictures N-79, A-433 
signaling .S-179: wireless M-94 
storms S-403-403a, diagrams S-403- 
403a 

submarine 8-436 
tide tables T-131 
time at sea T-137 

traffic laws for ships 8-160-1: tracks 
for ships N-76-7 

winds W-160-5, diagrams W-151-5 
Navigation Acts, British U-370 
Navigators Islands, former name of 
Samoa, See in Index Samoa 
Nav.v N-80— 94, pictures N-SO-8, 90-4, 
tables N-82, 89. See also in Index 
Armaments, limitation of; Avia- 
tion, military and naval; United 
States Marine Corps; United States 
Navv 

artillery A-397-9, 400, N-83, 84, 85, 
pictures A-400, N-81, 82, 85 
battleship N-85. See also in Index 
Battleship 
books about N-94 
courts-martial C-500 
decorations of honor D-38-40 
destroyer S-438, N-86~7, pictures 
N-86, W-227 
development N-91-4 
ancient and medieval S-150, color 
picture S-27 

first steam warship P-S15, S-154 
modern war vessels N-83-9 
history N-91-4 

ironclads M-347, E-S92, picture 

C-3S7 

marine engineering B-345 
navies of the world N-93-4 
oil as fuel S-156 

submarine S-435-8, pictures S-436-8 
torpedo and mine T-156-7, pictures 
T-156-7 

Navy. Department of the, U. S. C-3, 
U-360, 381-2, list U-3B9 
building, map W-30 
Coast Guard C-371— 2 
flag of secretary P-129, color pic- 

Marine Corps M-96— 7b, pictures 
M-97-97b 

Naval Academy N-70— 1, S-58, pic- 
ture N-71 

Naval Observatory 0-326, W-32. 

picture 0-325 

Pentagon, headquarters, picture 
U-361 

secretary of the navy N-89, C-3- 
flag F-129, color picture F-125; 
Naval Academy appointments N-'71 
Navy and Marine Corps Medal, U. fa. 


u. s. 

of 


D-38 

favy bean B-84 
s’avy Commission Pennant, 

F-130, color picture F-125 
favy Cross, U. S., a decoration 
honor D-38, color picture D-41 
lavy Day (October 27) F-67 
(avy Jack, U. S., flag F-130c, color 
picture F-128 

'a.Yos (ndje'sos), Greek Aegea 
island, largest and most tortile m 
Cyclades; 163 sq. ml.; pop. 20,13- 
famous wine; center of worship oi 
Dionysus; ravaged by Persians 490 
B.c. ; occupied by Venetians 1207, 
captured by Turks 1566: maps 
G-189, B-23 
emery deposits E-339 
laynrlt (na-ga-ref), Mexico, state 

on central w. coast; until 1917 ter- 
ritory of Tepic; 10,444 sq. ml.: POP; 
291,088; cap. Tepic (pop. 24 , 000 ). 


r ^ nA 


Key: cape, dt, for, f(ist, whqt, fflll; me, yet, fern, thdre; Ice, bit; row, won, for, not, dp; cure. 


btlt, rifde, f(dl, bfirn; out; 



451 


NEERWINDEN 


NAZARENE 


Nniarene, Church of the. See in Index 
Church of the Nazarene 
Nazareth {ndz’d-reth), Israel, town 
65 mi. n. of Jerusalem; pop. 
20,067; much visited by pilgrims; 
great Church of the Annunciation; 
boyhood home of Jesus: maps 
1-256, P-46, B-138 
Nazareth College, at Louisville. Ky.; 
Roman Catholic; for women; 
founded 1920; arts and sciences. 
Nazareth College, at Nazareth. Mich.; 
Roman Catholic; for women; 
founded 1897; arts and sciences. 
Nazareth College of Rochester, at 
Rochester, N.Y.; Roman Catholic; 
for women; founded 1924; arts and 
sciences. 

Naz'arites, name given among the 
Hebrews to certain men who conse- 
crated themselves to God in ac- 
cordance with the Law of the Naz- 
arites given in Numbers vi. . 

Nazi (nat’si), popular name of Na- 
tional Socialist party of Germany 
G-98-100, 101, H-385 
Munich, home of party M-449, 450 
Nazllsm, a political doctrine G-98-100 
form of Fascism F-44 
Hitler exponent of H-383— 5 
Nazlmova (nfl-gim'd-u<l) , Alla (1879- 
1945), actress, noted for work in 
Ibsen’s plays; born Russia; New 
York debut 1905: picture D-135 
Neagh, Lough (IdK nd), Northern 
Ireland, largest lake in British 
Isles; 153 sq. mi.: 1-231, maps 
B-321, 325 

Xcale, John Mason (1818-06), English 
divine and scholar; translated an- 
cient and medieval hvmns (‘Jeru- 
salem the Golden’: ‘Brief Life Is 
Here Our Portion’) ; founded Angli- 
can sisterhood of St. Margaret; 
wrote on ecclesiastical subjects. 
Jfeanderthnl (nd-dn'der-tnl'' man M-69 
Saldanha man a type M-70 
Xeapolls (ne-dp'o-lis), ancient Greek 
settlement on site of Naples N-6, 
*nop G-197 

Neap (nep) tide T-130, diagram T-130 
Nearctlc region, one of the six zoogeo- 
graphlcal regions of the world 
Z-361 

Near East, historically a term for 
region including Turkey, Syria, 
Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, n. 
Arabia, and Mesopotamia. Not to 
be confused with Middle East. 

^ear Islands, westernmost group of 
Aleutians, map A-135 
Nearsightedness, or myopia E-462 
spectacles for S-330 
Neat’s-foot oil L-339 
N’eb-ncb, an African acacia A-5 
Nebo, Assyrian god of learning who 
IS said to have invented writing; 
Mount Nebo named for him. 

Nebo, a mountain in PalesUne 
from W’hich Moses saw the Promised 
Land; perhaps the modern Jebel 
Neba (2650 ft.) near Dead Sea: 
map B-138 

Nebraska, a n.-central state of the 
u. S.; 77.227 sq. mi. ; pop. 1.325,510 ; 
cap. Lincoln: N-96-106, maps 
N-102-3, 96, 99, U-252-3, 286, pic- 
iurcs N-95-6, 100, 105 
agriculture N-95, 96, 98 
Arbor Day. origin A-295 
bird, state N-97 
Capitol. State, picture N-105 
cattle N-96, picture N-105: early 


picture 

picture 

N-98, 


counties, map index N-101 
education N-106, 98 
elevation N-97 
extent N-97 

Pact Summary N-97-100 
flag F-130a, N-97, color 
F-127 

flower, state N-97, color 
S-384a 

forests, national and state 
map N-99 

geographic regions in which situ- 
ated, maps U-250, 286: Great 

Plains U-291-3; North Central 
Plains U-284-90 
government N-97 

history N-106, 99-100: Kan-sas- 

Nebraska Act K-17: Oregon Trail 
F-40 

industries N-96, 98 
irrigation N-96-6: Enders Dam, pic- 
ture M-325 
land use N-97 
minerals N-96, 98 
motto N-97 

name, origin of, and nickname N-96, 
97 

natural features N-95, 97 : artesian 
basin A-390 

natural resources N-95, 96, 97 
occupations N-97 

parks, monuments, and other areas 
N-98-9, maps N-99, N-18 
Homestead National Monument of 
America N-35 
ScotLs Bluff N. M. N-38b 
pioneer sod house, picture P-268 
places of Interest N-98-9, map N-99 
population N-97 
products N-95. 96. 98 
rivers N-95, 96, 97: Missouri M-325- 
6, picture M-326 

son N-95! 96. S-227, picture S-228 

song, state N-97 * n vr no 

trade, wholesale and retail N-98 
transportation N-97 
tree, state N-97 

Nebraska, University of, at Lincoln. 
Neb • state control: founded 1869. 
opened 1871 ; arts and sciences, agri- 
culture, business administration, 
dentistry, engineering, fine arts, 
home economics, journalism, law, 
medicine, music, nursing, 
macy, speech, teaching ; 
college: picture 
Art Galleries: Hartleys 

Katahdin, Autumn, No. 1 P-23a, 
color picture P-23a 
Nebrasim City, Neb., f 

in° rich agricultural region ; 
Siuf. "cigars^ ^.canned fruits, 
vegetables: map N -103 
early fur post N-106 
Nobraska ice slieet 1-5 
Nebraska State Teachers 
Chadron, Neb.; 
founded 1911; 
tion. 

Nebraska State Teachers 
Kearney, Neb.; 
founded 1905; 
education, 


phar- 
graduate 


'Mt. 


College, at 
state control: 
liberal arts, educa- 


ranges C-148, 165; ranch, picture 
N-66 


Cities N-106, 99, map index N-101, 
104. See also in Index names of 
cities 

Lincoln L-251 

Omaha 0-382, pictures 0-382 
climate N-96. 97 
communication N-97 


College, at 
state control ; 
arts and sciences, 
vocational home eco- 
Tomicyr summ“ graduate school. 

I nci'n state TcacJiers Collcpe* nt 
Pe?u Neb.; state control: founded 
ISGI; liberal arts, education. 
Nebrask.a SLnte 'Teachers College.^jjt 

^:^^Sed 18^89’^-artl‘and sciences. 

fHr^-eTeyr’u'!:^^" at 
^ Lincoln. Neb.; Methodist: char- 
^mcoiii. sciences. _ 

Ne£n^.adne»nr^^rcz»r:“'B^ 

Jrr=,“c‘£.rr 

captures Jerhs^’^P 
favors Daniel P-418 


^—French u.GGrmani/; oem. do : thin, then 


7d=French nasal(Jcan) :r7.=French 


Hanging Gardens S-104, B-5, pic- 
tures S-106, B-9 

Nebula (nch'yu-la) , in astronomy 
N-106-7, picture N-107 
Andromeda, a galaxy, charts 
S-378-9, picture N-107 
extraga'actic A-443 
Orion N-106, chart S-373 
Ncb’ular Ii.vpof li’csis, theory that solar 
system condensed from a nebula 
P-285. E-177, N-107 
moon M-388 

Necator. genus of nematode worms to 
which hookworm belongs. 

Necli'bct. a vulture-goddess wor-shlped 
in ancient Egypt. 

Neelies (ncch’cz) River, in Texas, 
rises in n.e. and flows 350 mi. s. to 
Sabine Lake, map T-78 
Neclio (ne'lco) II (died 593 B.C.), king 
of Egypt 609-593 B.c. : said by 
Herodotus to have attempted to 
complete a canal from Nile River 
to Red Sea and to have sent a 
Phoenician ship which circumnavi- 
gated Africa. 

Neck, in anatomy 
cervical nerves, picture N-113 
muscles, color pictures P-239’-40 
Neckam, also Ncckimm, Alexander 
(1157-1217), English scholar, lec- 
turer at University of Paris, school- 
ma.ster at Dunstable, later abbot of 
Cirencester: wrote scientific trea- 
tises (’De Naturis Rerum’ and ‘De 
Utensillbus’) : the latter contains 
first European mention of mariner’s 
magnetic needle. 

Ncek'nr River, Germany, tributary of 
Rhine rising in Black Forest: enters 
m.ain stream at Mannheim B-203 
Heidelberg on H-329 
Nerker in^k’er, French n£-l:cr'), 
Jneques (1732-1804), French finan- 
cier and statesman, also writer, 
born Geneva, Switzerland; father 
of Mme. de Stael; director general 
of French finances under Loui.s 
XVI: F-292 

Ncckincc. jewelry, color picture J-347 
Ncc'romnneer, one who claims to h.ave 
magic power through communion 
with the dead (from Greek words 
for "corpse” and "divination”) M-36 
Nccrop'olis, term meaning "city of the 
dead.” applying to cemeteries near 
ancient cities, particularly to .sub- 
urb of Alexandria. Egj-pt, where 
corpses were embalmed, 

Nect.ar (nck’tcr). in Greek mythol- 
ogy. drink of gods. See also in In- 
dex Ambro.sla 

Nectar, the sweet liquid found in 
many flowers 
Pppc f,iT-n to honey B-94 
bumblebee gathers, color picture B-97 
Ncc'tarine. a variety of peach (Pmnus 
persica) ; smooth, waxy .skin and 
firm, aromatic pulp: grown either 
from seed or by grafting; cultiv.ated 
prinelpally in C.allfomia: has been 
known for more than 2000 years. 
Nccdbain. Mass., town 12 ml. s.w. of 
Boston, chioflv residential; pop. 
of township. 10,313; knit goods: 
map. Inset M-132 
Ncrdlc, phonograph P-206, 207, 208 
Necd'e. sewing N-107 
Nce'llenshes. excellent food fishes 
(lictonidac), found In all warm 
seas: silvery green In color, includ- 
ing the bones; bodies long and 
powerful: jaws tapered. 

Needle gun F-79 

Needlepoint laee L-77-8, picture L-79 
Needles, rock formations In Black 
Hills, picture S-305 
Needlework. Sec in Index Embroid- 
ery; Quilts; Sewing 
Neennh. IVis.. city on Fox River. 30 
mi. n. of Fond du Lac: pop. 12.437 ; 
paper, veneer and doors: map tV-173 
Neerwinden (ndr'iin-d'ii), Belgium, 

j 1= In azure) :g=Germ.an guttural ch 


NEFRETETE 

village 30 mi. e. of Brussels where 
French defeated English 1693, and 
Austrians defeated French 1793; 
occupied by Germans 1914 and 1940. 
Nefretete, Egyptian queen. See in 
Index Nofretete 

Nefud Desert, Arabia A-286, map 
A-285 

Negative, photographic P-214, 221 
Negative bias, negative charge in 
radio R-S7 

Negative electricity E-294, 297, E-S16— 
17, A-467-8 
battery B-79-80 

Negative number, in mathematics 
A-154-7 

Negative pole, of magnet E-303 
Negeb (ncg’eb) , area in Israel P-43, 
map P-45 

Negotiable paper, or negotiable In- 
struments, notes, bills, contracts, 
or documents, which can be en- 
dorsed and transferred to third 
party. Common negotiable instru- 
ments are checks, bonds, bank- 
notes, bills of exchange, and 
promissory notes: C-509-10 
Negri (na'gre), Ada (1870-19451, 
Italian poet; her poems show great 
sympathy for the working class 
(‘Tempeste’; ‘Maternita,’ ; ‘Sorelle’). 
Negrillo (ng-gril'd). Pygmy P-444. 

See also in Index Pygmy 
Negri Sembilan (nd'gre sem-iS-laii') . 
a Malay state bordering Strait- of 
Malacca; 2580 sq. mi.; pop. 267,668 ; 
exports tin. See also in Index 
Malay States. Federated 
Negrito (ne-gre’td) , Pygmy P-444. 

See also in Index Pygmy 
Ne'gro N-107, Sec also in Index Slav- 
ery 

Africa A-40, 43, S-242, maps A-36, 
39, pictures A-39-40, 49, 53, S-243, 
color picture A-38; Bantu C-434- 
4340, A-43, M-442, T-10; Gold 
Coast G-134a; Liberia L-178; Su- 
dan S-441-2; Uganda Protectorate 
E-199 

Central America C-173 
Bast Indies E-204-5 
Guiana G-223 
hair H-243 

Latin America L-110, N-108 
numbers: Africa A-39; United States 
N-108 

racial classification, chart R-22 
United States N-107-9 
Constitutional amendments assure 
civil and legal rights U-347-8, 
354-5, R-85a-& 

education N-108-g: Booker T. 

Washington W-15-16, H-297 
folk tales and songs P-196, 199-200, 
S-418 

foundations and charities P-249, 
H-296 

lynching, decline of L-355 
music M-467 
slavery S-197 

Civil War and Reconstruction. 
Sec in Index Civil War, Ameri- 
can; Reconstruction period 
Confederate States of America 
C-433 

Emancipation Proclamation E-336 
suffrage S-443 

West. Indies W-94, 97, pictures 

W-95: Barbados B-64; Haiti 

H-244, 245, 246; Jamaica J-292 
Negroid race, or black race R-21— 2, 23, 
graph R-22, Reference-Outline 
R-23-4 
hair H-)243 
numbers P-373 

racial classification, chart R-22 
Negro minstrel, theatrical perform- 
ance D-14I 

Negro Mountains (Mount Davis), 
highest point in Pennsylvania, in 
Somerset County (3213 ft.) : map 
P-132 


452 

Negroponte, island of Greece. See in 
Index Ew'oia 

Negro River. See in Index Rio Negro 
Negro Rural School Fund, founded 
1907 by a bequest of ?1, 000,090 
frorp Alina Thomas Jeanes for im- 
proving elementary education of 
Negroes in southern states of U.S. 
See also in Index Southern Educa- 
tion Foundation, Inc. 

Negros (.n&'grds), fourth largest 
island of Philippines, near center of 
group; 4903 sq. ml.; pop. 1,218,710: 
maps P-195, P-16 
Nehantic. See in Index Niantlc 
Nehemiah ine-he-mi’a) (5th century 
B.C.), governor of Judea under 
Artaxerxes; restored walls of Jeru- 
salem, relieved condition of poor, 
and re-established temple service: 
J-353 

Nehemiah, Book of, book of the Old 
Testament largely written by 
Nehemiah; recounts the events of 
his rule. 

Nehru («dV?e), Jawaharlal (born 
1889), Indian nationalist leader, 
prime minister of India N-109, 
I-6Saj h, picture N-109 
Neighborhood Guild, New York City 
S-218a 

Neighborhood playground P-86c 
Neihardt, John Gneisenau (born 1881), 
poet, born Sharpsburg, 111.; ap- 
pointed poet laureate of Nebraska 
1921; lived among Omaha Indians, 
studying them and their folklore; 
wrote of American pioneer life 
(‘A Cycle of the West’, 5-part epic 
including ‘The Song of Hugh Glass’ 
and ‘The Song of Three Friends’). 
Nell Boxing Trophy, awarded to out- 
standing boxer of the year. Orig- 
inated 1938 by Boxing Writers’ 
Association to honor Edward J. Neil, 
reporter killed in Spanish Civil War. 
Nellson, (Lilian) Adelaide, real name 
Elizabeth Ann Brown (1848-80), 
English actress famed in both 
America and England for Shake- 
spearean roles. 

Nejd (tiepd), the larger part of King- 
dom of Saudi Arabia; formerly part 
of dual state of Hejaz and Nejd; 
chief cities Riyadh and Hofuf ; pop. 
about 4,000,000: A-284, map A-285 
Ibn Baud’s rule A-290 
Nekrasov (npe-krd’s6f) , Nikolni 
Alexei jevich (1821-77), Russian 
poet; beloved by common people 
whose daily lives he described ; pub- 
lished, at different times, two radi- 
cal periodicals (‘Peasants’ Children’, 
‘Last Songs’) ; long poem ‘To Whom 
Is Life in Russia Worth Living?’ 
Nek'ton, form of marine life 0-332 
Nell, Little, sweet unselfish child- 
heroine of Charles Dickens’ ‘Old 
Curiosity Shop’, who dies from 
weariness and privation. 

Nelligan (nel-e-gah') , Emile (1882— 
1942), French-Canadian poet, born 
Montreal, Quebec C-106 
Nelson, Horatio, A’iscount Nelson 
(1758-1805), English admiral 
N-109— 10, picture N-109 
Copenhagen, battle of N-109, B-37 
monument, map L-301, pictures 
L-299, 1-229 
Nile, battle of N-109 
tomb in St. Paul’s L-301 
Trafalgar, battle of N-109-10, N-91 
Nelson, Knuto (1843—1923), American 
statesman, born Evanger, Norway; 
came to U. S. with mother in 1849 ; 
with Wisconsin regiment in Civil 
War; moved to Minnesota 1871; 
congressman 1882-88 ; governor 
1892-95; U. S. senator 1895-1923; 
liberal Republican; was author of 
bankruptcy act (1898) and act 
creating Department of Commerce 


NEMI 

and Labor (1902) ; called “grand 
old man of Minnesota.” 

Nelson, Thomas (1738-89), signer of 
Declaration of Independence; born 
Yorktown, Va. ; governor of Vir- 
ginia (1781); gave fortune for 
equipping troops 'during Revolu- 
tionary War and for other public 
expenses 

signature reproduced .D-37 
Nelson, William Rockhill (1841-1915), 
journalist, born Fort Wayne, Ind.; 
founder (with S. E. Morss) of 
Kansas City Star, which under his 
editoriai poiicy (‘^independent, but 
never neutral”) exerted consider- 
able infiuence; left greater part of 
his wealth for erection of art mu- 
seum in Kansas City 
museum, picture U-331 
Nelson, British Columbia, Canada, 
city in s.e. on artn of Kootenay 
Lake.; pop. 6772; center of the min- 
ing, lumbering, and fruit-growing 
Kootenay district: maps C-68, 80 
Nelson Monument, London, England, 
map L-301, picture L-299 
Nelson River, Canada, outlet of Lake 
Winnipeg in Manitoba; flows 400 
mi. n.e. to Hudson Bay; inciudlng 
headstfeams, Saskatchewan and 
Bow, its length is 1600 mi.: maps 
C-68, 81 

Nelumbo. See in Index American lotus 
Neman inye'mgn) River, Polish 
Nicmcn (nyg'men), German Memel 
(ma'mel'), Lithuanian Nemunns 
(nd’m\i-nas) , about 600 mi. long, 
rises in w. Russia s. of Minsk, flows 
generally w. to (Jrodno, turns n. 
into Lithuania, then flows w. Into 
Baltic Sea s. of Memel (Klaipeda) : 
map R-26e-7 

scene of Peace of Tilsit N-10 
Nemathelminthes inSm-tf-thel-mW- 
thez), a phylum , of invertebrate 
animals, comprising the nematoda. 
Nemato’dn, class of unsegmented 
worms of phylum Nemathelmin- 
thes; also called a phylum: W-S03- 
4, Reference-Outline Z-364, table 
W-303 

Nemean (ne-me'dn) Games, ancient 
Greek athletic and musical festivals 
held in valley of Argolis in mid- 
summer every two years in honor 
of Nemean Zeus; the games orig- 
inated in 516 B.c. 

Nemean lion, in Greek mythology, 
monster slain by Hercules H-342 
Nemertea ine-mur’te-a') , a phylum of 
aquatic worms W-362-3, Reference- 
Outline Z-364, table W-303 
Nemesia ine-me’shi-g,) , a genus of 
annual and perennial African 
plants, of the figwort family. Low, 
erect, with narrow, toothed leaves; 
flowers snapdragon-shaped and 
orchidlike in beauty, ranging from 
white through purple with contrast- 
ing shades in throat of blossom. 
Nemesis (nem'e-sis) , Greek goddess; 
name means “one who deals out, 
hence one who distributes good or 
bad fortune according to man‘s de- 
serts and punishes violations or 
any arrogance or presumption; la- 
ter thought of only as the angry 
avenger of crime, relentlessly pur- 
suing the evildoer. 

Nemi (nd'me). Lake, Italy, In Alban 
Mountains, 18 mi. s.e. of Rome, In 
crater of extinct volcano ; in ancient 
times called “Mirror of Diana” and 
famous for beauty and for temple 
of Diana on its shores. Two Pleas- 
ure barges built by Emperor Gailg- 
ula W’ere uncovered in 1928-oo 
when the lake level was lowered; 
village of Nemi on height overlook- 
ing lake , . 

watchtower in village of Nemi, pic- 
ture 1-278 


Rey: efipe, dt, far, fast, wh(xt, fflll; me, yet, fern, there; fee, bit; rfiw, won, fdr, not, do; cure, but, rpde, ffill, bfirn; out; 



nemo 

Ne'nio, Captain, the central character 
of the novel ‘Twenty Thousand 
Leagues under the Sea’, by Jules 
Verne. _ _ 

Nemophlla {tiG-inof t-l(t), a genus of 
dwarf spreading annual plants of 
the waterleaf family (Hydro- 
vhylUiceae) with delicate w’hite or 
purple spotted blue flowers; among 
the species cultivated as garden 
plants are the five-spot (.Nemojihila 
maculata), baby blue-eyes (.Nemo- 
phila menzieaii) , and the climbing 
nemophila or fiesta flower (Nemo- 
phila aurita). „ 

Xemunas Itlver, in ^iVhite Russian 
S.S.R. and Lithuania. See in Index 
Neman River , v. 

Nen’nius (flourished 796), Welsh 
monk and historian, lived in Mercia 
‘Historia Britonum' A-394 
Nenclassicism, in art 
painting P-38 
.sculpture S-79 

Neod.vm'lum, chemical element, tallies 
P-151, C-214 
Xeolitc Pi-241 

Ncolitli, man-made implement of New 
Stone Age S-401, picture S-401 
Xeolith'ic Age, or New Stone Age 
M-69, S-401, C-325, pictures E-357, 
M-65, 66, S-401, color picture JI-68 
Britain E-357 

Ncomy'cin, an antibiotic derived from 
soil mold; discovered by Dr. Selman 
A. Waksman : B-14 

Ne’oii, an inert, rare gaseous element, 
forming one-thousandth of one per 
cent of air; obtained liy distilling 
liquid air; tahles P-151, C-214 
atomic structure A-460 
chemical inertness C-213, diagram 
1-205 

electric signs and lights E-314: glow. 

how produced B-318 
electronic structure, diagrams C-213, 
A-458 

Neon tetfa, tropical fish A-281 
Nco-l’la’tonism, a revival of Platonic 
philosophy, mixed with the pan- 
theistic religion of the Orient; 
originated in Alexandria, Egypt, in 
the 3d century. 

Neoprene, a rubberlike material R-244 
Xeoptolemus {ne-op-toV e-miis) , in 
Greek mythology, son of Achilles; 
entered Troy in the wooden horse; 
slew Priam, king of Troy; also 
called Pyrrhus. 

Nco'slio River, in Kansas and Okla- 
homa (in n.e. Oklahoma called 
Grand River) ; flows 350 mi. to the 
Arkansas: maps K-4, 11, 0-371 
uam, picture 0-374 
Xeotrop’ieal region, one of the six 
zoogeographical divisions of the 
world Z-361 

XEP (New Economic Policy), in 
Russia R-289-90 

Nepal (ne-pdl'), country between n.e. 
India and Tibet; 54,000 sq. mi.; 
pop. 6,910,000; cap. Katmandu: 
N-llo, maps 1-54, A-407 
nag P-137, color picture F-135 
Mount Everest E-450 
Mount Kanchenjunga, picture 1-53 
relationships in continent, maps 
A-406-7, 411-12 

Nepeu'tlies, or nepenthe, mythical 
Egl'Ptian drug producing forgetful- 
ness of pain and trouble; referred 
_ to in the ‘Odyssey*. 

^|epentlies, pitcher-plant genus P-274 
^'epeta, a genus of plants of mint 
family, includes the catnip and 
ground ivy. 

ocpli'oscope, instrument used in 
''■^■ather reporting to determine the 
direction, velocity, and angular ele 
V:ition of elnnrlR 


453 


NETHERLANDS 


Neph’rite, a somewhat common vari- 
ety of jade, occurring in Turkestan, 
New Zealand, Siberia, and Alaska; 
colors range from white to dark 
green; J-349 

Nepos (ne'pds), Cornelius (99?-24 
n.e.), Roman historian (‘De viris 
illustribus’). 

Nep'otism (from nepos, Latin for 
“nephew"), practice of rulers or 
state executives who give official 
positions to relatives. 

Nep'tune, in Roman mythology, sea- 
god corre.sponding to Greek Po- 
seidon P-381. Sec also in Index 
Poseidon 

Neptune, planet P-282, 285, N-110, dia- 
grams P-282-3, picture P-285, table 
P-283 

satellites P-285 

Neptunium, chemical element, tables 
P-151, C-214 

in atomic power A-466, diagram 
A-465 

radioactivity R-S4 

Nerliudda River, India. See in Index 
Narbada River 

Nereids ine're-idz) , in Greek mythol- 
ogy, sea nymphs N-318 
Calypso 0-344 
Poseidon attended by P-381 
Thetis, mother of Achilles A-8, 9 
Nereus (ne're-us), in Greek mythol- 
ogy, a minor sea god, father of the 
Nereids; sometimes called “the old 
man of the .sea”; after changing 
ills form in turn to fire, lion, water, 
and smoke in effort to escape from 
Hercules, he guided him to the 
Garden of the Hesperides. 

Nernst (n£rnst), Walter (1864-1941), 
German physical chemist; pro- 
fessor physics Gottingen Univer- 
sity and University of Berlin, di- 
rector Chemical Institute, Berlin; 
invented Nernst incandescent lamp 
in 1897; won Nobel prize in 
physics, 1920. 

Nc'ro (A.D. 37-08), Roman emperor 

N-110 

persecutes Christians N-110 
poisons guests with mushrooms 
^ 1-455 

removes statues from Delphi D-62 
Ner'oli oil, in perfume making P-148 
Ner'va (A.D. 307-98). Roman en'peror 
(A.D. poetic and Kindlj , 

liberal and just administrator; 
adopted Trajan as successor. 

Nerve blocking, a mode of producing 
anesthesia A-247 

Nerves N-110-13, pictures N-111-13 
auditory, or acoustic ^-170, 171 
autonomic nerves N-110, ill 
brain B-279-83, pictures B-279, 

281-3 M 111- 

cells N-110-11, V>edurcs N-111. 

ganglia P-245, N-111 
condition in: sleep S-198 9 
diseased and damaged N-113 
fibers N-110-11, picture N-113. 
nem-e impulse and the synapse 
N-111-13, picture N-111 
heart H-313 ^ 

njircotics and 

^lerve impulse and the symapse 

n-111-13, picture N-111 

nervousness not caused bj N-113 
nervous systems. Sec in Index 
Nervous system 
olfactory (smell) S--00. - - 
optic E-460, diagram E-459 
plexuses of P:;245 

?eSs ?^89-90, B-279^ experimen- 
tal study, pictuic P-4-8 

regeneration of damaged 

X-110-11. 113 


nerve 


respiration center R-118 
spinal N-111, pictures B-281, 
N-112-13 

sympathetic P-245 
teeth T-35 
touch T-158-9 
vitamin Bi protects V-494 
Ncr'vo. Aiiuido (1870—1919), Mexican 
poet L-115, 128 
Nervousness 

not caused by nerves N-113 
Nervous s.vstem, in anatomy, the 
complete .system of nerve cells and 
nerve libers 

brain B-279-83, pictures B-279, 281-3 
central N-110, 111, 112, 113, pictures 
N-111-13 

peripheral (outer) N-110, picture 
N-111 

spinal cord B-279, 280, pictures 
B-279, 281; . reflexes B-279 
Nerviires, veins or ribs in the wings 
of insects. 

Ness, Loch, lake in Scotland ; 23 mi. 
long, average width one mile; dis- 
charges into Moray Firth by River 
Ness, 8 mi. long; maps B-321, 324 
Nes'siis, in Greek and Roman 

mythology, centaur slain by Her- 
cules PI-343 
Nest 

alligator A-171 

birds. See in Index Birds, subhead 
nests 

duckbill D-162 

fish, males build and guard F-106, 
pictures F-106 

Insects 1-158, pictures 1-157 
orangutan 0-402 
rabbit R-15, picture N-66 
squirrel S-369a 
turtle T-223 

Nes'tor (10507-1114?), monk of Kiev, 
Russia; reputed author of the 
‘Chronicle’, the first national history 
of Russia 
quoted R-284 

Nestor, in the ’Iliad’, an aged king, 
renowned for his wisdom, eloquence, 
justice, and knowledge of warffire; 
when ruling over the third genera- 
tion of his people, ho sailed with 
other Greeks against Troy and re- 
turned .safely home (the “Nestor" 
of an organization or group means 
“the oldest member") : T-190-1 
Ncsto'rhiiis, Christian sect named 
after Nestorius (died about 140). 
patriarch of Constantinople: cen- 
tered in Persia; catholicus. or chief 
bishop, had seat at Baghdad 
from 762 to 12.58; In 0th and 7th 
centuries spread over much of 
.■\sia, evangelizing India and China; 
there are still a number of adher- 
ents in Turkey and Iran. 
Netherlands (Holland), kingdom in 
n.w. Europe; 1. '1,000 S(|. mi.; pop. 
9,625.499; cap. Amsterd.am: N-114- 
23, H-407, maps B-111, E-410, 424, 
pictures X-114-22. Jtcfcrrncc-Out- 
linc N-123 

agriculture N-117-18. ]iiiturcs N-115, 
E-418: farm life N-117-19, pic- 
tures N-115, 117, E-418 
art: painting N-120, I’-255-c. 27d, 
29-296, color pictures l’-23d, 29- 
296, Itcfcrencc-Outlinc P-38a 
bibliography N-123 
books: manu-script writing B-235: 

medieval trade B-238 
bulb growing; hyacinths 11-454; 

tulip.s T-204, N-118, picture N-117 
ceineterv, U. S. permanent military 
N-166 

children, picture P-142c 
cities N-119, 120, list N-lll. Sec also 
ill Index names of cltlc.*- 
Arnsterdam A-237, pieturr A -237 



ETHERLANDS 


454 


NEVADA 


Haarlem H-239, picture H-239 
Hague, The H-241— 2, picfiire H-242 
Rotterdam R-235, picture R-235 
Utrecht U-420 

clothing X-120, P-142C, pictures 

X-li6, 119, C-354, 11-218, 11-467, 
P-142C, P-248, color pictures P-29— 
29a.’ sabot, picture S-162 
colonies and affiliates X-117: In- 
donesia E-205— 9, B-255— 6; Suri- 
nam G-222cI, 223 

commerce X-117, R-235. See also in 
Index Trade, tahle 
Java J-326-7 

per capita foreign trade, taile 1-192 
customs; Christmas C-2946j’ pic- 
tured in ‘Hans Brinker’ L-274 
dairj’ing X-117-18: cheeses C-206, 
picture X-117 

dikes and canals 1-253, X-116, 117, 
pictures X-114, 115, 118 
doll, color picture D-122a 
education X-120: illiteracj’ P-374 
flags F-1366, color picture F-133: 
historic F-130c, color picture 
F-128 

flood control X-115— 16 
flood of 1953 X-122, F-146, pictures 
X-122 

government X-121-2 
history X-120-2, B-115, Reference- 
Outline X-123 

under Charles the Bold C-195 
printing introduced P-414d 
struggle for independence X-120— 1; 
ITilHam the Silent lV-139; siege 
of Haarlem H-239 
early spice trade S-339, E-208 
conquest of llalay Peninsula 11-60 
conquest of East Indies E-208 
Formosa settlement F-242a 
Admiral Robert Blake B-205 
Pilgrims in 11-145 
American Colonies A-191: Connecti- 
cut C-449; Delaware D-48, 56, 
59, 60; Xew Amsterdam, life in 
X-213, A-198— 202, pictures 

A-198-202; Xew Jersey X-167; 
Pennsylvania P-138 
flags P-130C, color picture F-128 
wars ivlth Louis XTV' L-319-20, 
W-139 

-American Revolution R-127 
Louis Bonaparte, king B-225 
loses colonies in South Africa S-244 
gains Sumatra S-449 
Congress of Vienna and union with 
Belgium X-121 

Scheldt River controversy S-56 
effects of "World War I X-122 
World War II X-114, 122, W-250. 
See also in Index World War H, 
chronology 

colonial rule in Xetherlands Indies 
E-209 

Xetherlands Indonesian Union E-209 
Benelux E-438 
illiteracy P-374 
language and literature X-120 
libraries L-186 
manufactures X-117, A-237 
national songs X-42 
natural features X-114, 115, Refer- 
ence-Outline X-123 
people, picture P-142c.’ farm life 
X-117-19, pictures X-115, 117 
population density X-115 
pottery P-396b 

products X-117, 118, list X-114 
puppets, favorite character P-440 
relationships in continent, maps 
E-416-17, 419-20, 429, 429d 
rivers X-114: Maas (Meuse) M-185: 

Rhine R-133; Scheldt S-56 
shelter X-118, 119, A-237, pictures 
X-115, 116, E-418, A-237 
ships: merchantman of 1650, picture 
S-153: tonnage S-161 
transportation X-116-17, pictures 
X-115, 120 

windmills W-149, pictures X-119 
Xetherlands --Intmes, See in Index 


Xetherlands West Indies 
Xetherlands Borneo. See in Index 
Borneo, Indonesian 
Xetherlands Indies, or Butch East 
Indies. See in Index Indonesia, 
Republic of 

Xetherlands-Indonesian Union E-209 
Xetlierlands Xew Guinea. See in Index 
Dutch Xew Guinea 
Xetherlands West Indies, officially 
Xetherlands Antilles, formerly 
Curasao, Dutch overseas territory 
made up of two island groups about 
550 miles apart; total area 403 sq. 
mi.; pop. 154.194; one group, just 
n. of Venezuela, includes Aruba, 
Curasao, and Bonaire: the other 
group, at n.w. end of Leeward Is- 
lands, includes Saba, St. Eustatius, 
and the s. portion of St. Martin; 
huge oil refineries on Curaqao and 
Aruba; territorial cap. Willemstad, 
on Curagao; in 1954. the territory 
was given complete internal auton- 
omy: ma;js W-96a, V-442, S-252. 
See also in Index Aruba; Bonaire: 
Curagao; Saba; St. Eustatius; St. 
Martin 

Xctlicrsole, Olga (1870—1951), Eng- 
lish actress; emotional roles — Sap- 
pho, Camille, and Paula Tanqueray 
— in France. America. Australia. 
Xethou, Pic de, Spain. See in Index 
Aneto, Pico de 

X'ct price system, in bookselling 
B-248-9 

Xets, fish F-113, pictures F-112, W-47 
deep sea. pirlure 0-331 
X'etsuke (nef'ai.i-fcd or nd'fsi.i-7.’d), 
Japanese carting J-314 
Xetted melon, or nutmeg melon M-168 
Xetting, in fabric making F-8 
Xettle, a plant of the nettle family, 
although name is often applied to 
any plant with stinging hairs. 

X'ettle family, or Urtlcaceae (flr-fi- 
;.’d'se-e) (from Latin word, to 
bum), family of plants, shrubs, 
and trees some of which have 
stinging hairs. These hairs are 
sharp-pointed tubes containing 
formic acid; they break off in the 
skin and cause irritation and welts. 
Family includes members of genus 
Parietaria. source of niter used in 
drugs; also genus Boehmeria, 
source of China grass, or ramie, 
used in making textiles. 

Xettle tree. See in Index Hackberry 
X'et tonn.age, of ships S-162 
X'ctivorks. broadcasting R-48, 50 
X’et worth, in accounting B-229, 230 
Xeuchatel (nu-shS-teV), city in w. 
Switzerland on Lake Xeuchatel; 
pop. 27,998; watches and clocks; 
university: maps S-475, E-425 
X’euchatel. lake in w. Switzerland, 18 
mi. n. of Lake Geneva: 93 sq. mi.; 
traversed by river Thifele: map 
S-47S 

lake dwellers, color picture M-68 
Xeuilly (nii-ge'), or Xeuilly-sur-Seine 
isur-sen), France, manufacturing 
and residential town, suburb of 
Paris, on Seine River; pop. 58,658. 
Xeuilly, Treaty of (1919), between 
Allied Powers and Bulgaria, signed 
at Xeuilly, France, by which Bul- 
garia lost its conquests of Balkan 
War (1912-13) and of World 
War I to Rumania. Yugoslavia, and 
Greece: W-240 

X’eukulln (noifciiZii'), Germany, a 
section of s. Berlin. 

Xeumann (noi'mdn), Alfred (1895— 
1952), German writer, best known 
for historical novels and plays 
(‘The Devil’, ‘The Rebels', ‘Six of 
Them', novels: ‘The Patriot', a play). 
X'eumann, John X. (1811—60). Roman 
Catholic prelate, bom Prachatitz, 


Bohemia: missionary worker in w. 
Xew York (1836—40), as far west 
as Ohio (1842—44); appointed vice- 
provincial of Redemptorist order 
1847 : bishop of Philadelphia 1852. 

Xeume (unm), in musical notation 
M-468 


Xeuratli (noi'rdf), Otto (1882—1945), 
Austrian social scientist, bom in 
Vienna; originator of an interna- 
tional picture language of symbols 
called "isotypes” (‘Basic by Iso- 
type’ ; editor ‘International Ency- 
clopedia of Unified Science’). 
Xenrilemma fnu-ri-lem’a), of nerve 
fiber, picture X-111 
Xeuritis, inflammation of nerves X-113 
Xeurology, science of the nerves and 
their diseases. 

Xeuron, also neurone, nerve cells 
X-110— 12, pictures X-111, 112 
Xeurbp'tera, an order of four-winged 
insects I-160a 
Xenrosis X-113 
brain and B-283 

psychoanalysis in treatment 
P-4246-5 

X’ensatz. Yugoslavia. See in Index 
Xovi Sad 

X’euscinvanstein inoi-shvan'shtinf 
Castle, in Bavaria, picture G-95 
Xeuse (utis), a river of Xorth Caro- 
lina, 300 mi. long, maps X-268, 275 
Xentra, Richard J. (bom 1892), 
American architect born Vienna, 
Austria; to U.S. 1925; advocate of 
functionalism; housing, city plan- 
ning: (‘Survival Through Design’). 
X'eutrai colors C-392, 394-5 
Xeutral cqnllibrinm M-160, picture 
M-160. See also in Index Equilib- 
rium, in physics 
Xentral ground, Gibraltar G-IOS 
Xeutral'ity, in international law 
1-190-1 

Dardanelles zoned D-18 
embargo acts E-336— 7 
league of 1780 R-127 
Xapoleon’s Continental system N-10 
Non-Intercourse Act W-12 
Orders in Council W-11, 12 
Switzerland S-482, 483 
Tangier, international zone T-11 
War of 1812 W-11, 12 
Washington’s policy W-24 
Wilson’s policy W-146— 7 
World War I W-146— 7: Belgium 
W-217-18: England “rations” neu- 
trals W-224; ships W-224— 5, 
226; United States W-232-4 
World War II W-249: United States 
E-211, 212 

Xeutralization, of acid or alkali A-10 
Xeutri’no, particle of matter R-S5, 
table A-460 


Neutron, in physics A-458, pictures 
E-54a 

atomic fission A-464-5, 466, 467, 
X-332, diagram A-468 
neutron-proton ratio R-546, picture 
R-54C 

size, mass, electric charge, table 
A-460 

Xeuve-Chapelle (nur-slid-pel'), French 
■village, 25 mi. s. of Ypres; in battle 
March 10-12, 1915,British advanced 
a few miles at terrific cost. 

X’evada (ne-vad'gi , state in w. U. S.: 
110,540 sq. mi.; pop. 160.083; cap. 
Carson City: X-124-34, maps 
X-132-3, 126, 129, U-252, 303. pic- 
tures N--124-6, 130-1, 134 „ 

agriculture X-124, 128, picture X-134 


bird, state X-127 
Capitol, State, picture X-125 
cities X-126, 128, map index X-131. 
See also in Index names of cities 


Carson City C-129 
climate X-127 
communication X-127 
counties, map index X-131 
dams X-124, pictures X-131, 1--°-' 


Key: cape, dt, far, fast, whqt, fgU; me, yet, fern, there; ice, bit; row, won, f6r, nfit, ds: cure, blit, rgde, ft<ll, bum; out; 



NEVADA 


« 455 •=- 


NEWBURGH 


See also in Index Dam, table; 
Hoover Dam 
education N-128 
elevation N-127 
extent H-127 

Fact Summary N-127-30 
flag: F-130a, color picture F-127 
flower, - state N-127, color picture 
S-384a 

forests N-124: national and state 
N-129, map N-129 

geographic region in which situated, 
maps U-250, 303: Western Basins 
and Plateaus U-29 9-301 
government N-127 
history N-126, 129-30 
hydroelectric power, pictures N-131, 
1-252 

Indian reservations and tribes N-126 
industries N-124, 126, 128 
irrigation N-124 
land use N-127 

minerals N-124, 126. 128: Comstock 
Lode N-126, S-186, 188, E-4586; 
copper C-474 
motto N-127 

mountains N-124: Sierra Nevada 
S-177 

name, origin of, and nickname N-127 
natural features N-124, 127: Great 
Basin U-299 

natural resources N-124, 126, 127 
occupations N-127 

parks, monuments, and other areas 
N-129, maps N-129, N-18 
Death Valley N. M. N-33, D-26 
Lake Jlead N. R. A. See Index in 
Vol. L 

Lehman Caves N. M. N-36 
people: Indians N-126 
places of interest N-128, map N-129 
population N-127 
products N-124, 126. 128 
rivers N-124, 127: Colorado C-414o, 
414h-lS, map C-ilib, picture 
C-414a 
seal N-127 
song, state N-127 
trade, wholesale and retail N-128 
transportation N-127 
tree, state N-127 

Nevada, tJniversUy of, at Reno, Nev.; 
state control; founded at Elko 
1874; opened at Reno 1886; arts 
and science.s, agriculture, civil, 
electrical, and mechanical engineer- 
ing, home economics, mining, nor- 
mal school; graduate studies: pic- 
ture N-125 

Ne’va JRiver, in n.w. Russia; flows 40 
ml, from Lake Ladoga to Gulf of 
Finland; connected by canal with 
Volga system: L-84 
Leningrad on L-162, 163, 164 

Nevers (ne-ver'). Prance, manufac- 
turing town 140 mi. s.e. of Pans; 
pop. 32,246; cathedral: maps P-270, 
E-425 

Neville inev'tl), great English fam- 
ilj’: famous member was Warwick, 
called “the Kingmaker” (Richard 
Neville). See also in Index Warwick 

^ "'■''endcll Cushing (1870-1030), 

U.S. Marine officer, born Ports- 
mouth, Va,: served in Spanish- 
American War, in Boxer Campaign 
m China, at Vera Cruz, Mexico, and 
m the Philippines; commanded 4th 
brigade of the 2d division in France 
In World War I ; rose to rank of 
major general 1920; commandant 
■Marine Corps 1929-30. 

Ncvln (iieu'fn), Arthur Finley (1871- 
1943). composer, brother of Ethel- 
bert Nevin; lived for time among 
Blackfeet Indians and used Indian 
memes in his music ('Poia'; ‘The 
Daughter of the Forest’; ‘Lorna 
Doone'). 

Hthelhcrt Woodbridge (1662— 
1901), composer, born Edgeworth, 
Pa.; studied in Germany; his piano 


pieces and songs, many of them 
lyrical and sentimental, achieved 
great popularity ('Narcissus'; ‘The 
Rosary'; ‘A Day in Venice'; ‘Ear- 
chetta’; ‘The (Juesf). 

Neviiis, Allan (born 1890), educator 
and writer, born Camp Point. HI.; 
on editorial staff The Nation 1913- 
18, Neio York Evening Post 1913- 
23, and World 1925-31 ; professor of 
American history Columbia Univer- 
sity after 1931; Pulitzer prize 1933 
for biography of Grover Cleveland 
and 1937 for biography of Hamilton 
Fish; author of ‘Ordeal of the 
Union’ and other histories. 

Nev'is, island of British West Indies, 
one of Leeward Islands; 50 sq. mi.; 
pop. 11,388; birthplace of Alexander 
Hamilton: map W-96a 
Nevis, Ben, peak in Scotland. See in 
Index Ben Nevis 

New, Harry S. (1858—1937), U. S. 
postmaster general 1923-29. former 
newspaper man; born Indianapolis, 
Tnd.; U. S. senator 1917-23; on 
Republican National Committee 
1900-1912, 

New Albany, Ind.. industrial and 
trade city nearly opposite Louis- 
ville, Ky., on Ohio River; pop. 
29,346; extensive water power; 
furniture, stoves; national cem- 
etery: maps 1-79, U-253 
New Amsterdam, name of New York 
(iity under Dutch rule N-213, N-225, 
A-198-202, pictures A'198-202 
first Jewish community in America 
established J-354 
Stuyvesant governor S-434 
Newark (nu’Srk). Del., town 12 mi. 
s.w, of Wilmington; pop. 6731: 
D-S8, map D-63 

Newark, or NewnrU-on-Trent, Eng- 
land, old town 65 mi. s.e. of Man- 
chester; pop. 22,909: gave name to 
Newark, N. J.: map B-325 
Newark. N. .T.. largest city of state; 
non. 438,776; N-135, 158, maps 

U-253, inset N-164, pictures N-135 
button industry B-372 
first thread mill in U.S. T-124 
Newark Public Library: reference 
desk, picture R-88I> 
schrol library, picdire L-195 
Newark. N.Y., village 26 ml. s.e. of 
Pmehester; pop. 10.295; paper car- 
tons. furniture; fruit and vegetable 
canning; nursery stock; annual 
rose festival; state institution for 
feeble-minded; map N-204 
Newark, Ohio, industrial city 30 mi. e. 
of Columbus, on Licking River; 
nop 34,275; railroad repair shops 
and oil refineries; stoves, glass 
products, lighting fixtures, tires; 
Buckeye Lake nearby: map 0-356 
Newark College of Engineering, at 
Newark, N.J.: founded IBSV, state 
and city control; chemical, civil, 
electrical, and mechanical engineer- 
ing; graduate studies. _ , - „ 

New Balinma Cbanncl. See in Index 

Florida Straits 

New Bedford, Mass., manufacturing 
city on Buzkrds Bay: pon 109.189: 
N-136, maps M-133, picture 

N-136 


New’ Bern, N. C... port on KenBe 


near it^mouth: pop. 15.612; poul- 
tiw and hog raising; lumber, cot- 
ton oil; captured by General Burn- 
side 1802: wops N-27o, U-2 j3 


settlement N-278 
Newberry. Clnrc Tiiriny (born 1903), 
artist and writer, born Ente^rise, 

Ore. : famous for paint.ngs^of^c.ats^ 

‘Mittens’; 


^utb'or-illustrator of 

New-berr? College, at Newberry, P. C t 
■ United Lutheran; founded 18 jG, 
arts and sciences. 


Newberry Library, Chicago, Hi.; ref- 
erence library; general collections 
in field.s of history, literature, phil- 
ology, music, and genealogy: L-197 
Newbery, .John 0713-67), English 
publisher N-136-7, L-2G9-70 
’Circle of the Sciences’ R-88c 
Newbery medal, pictui-e L-267 
Newber}’’s bookshop, picture N-137 
prints first Mother Goose 51-406 
Newbery award (established by Fred- 
eric G. Jlelcner), for best children’s 
book L-267, 270, N-136. See also in 
Index Awards, tabic 
Newbold, Charles, American Inventor 
cast-iron plow A-59 
NeivboU, Sir Henry John (1862—1938), 
English writer; lawyer 1887-99; 

■ professor poetry at Oxford Univer- 
sity 1911-21; won literary fame 
with martial ballads ’Admirals AH’ 
(1897): knighted 1915 (‘The Old 
(iountry’, novel; ’Drake’s Drum and 
Other Sea Songs’; ‘Naval History 
of the Great War'). 

New Braiinfel-s, Tex., city 23 ml. n.e. 
of San Antonio; pop. 12,210; tex- 
tiles, flour, feed, lime, hosiery, road 
material; ranching; site of Coma! 
Springs: map T-91 

New Brifalii, largest island in Bis- 
marck Archipelago: 14,600 sq. mi.; 
pop. 85,115; formerly called New 
Pomerania: mountainous and vol- 
canic: N-143, wnps E-203, P-16 
World War II W-2G3 
New Britain, Conn., inanufacturing 
city 9 mi. s.w. of Hartford: pop. 
73,726; hardware; Teachens Col- 
lege of Connecticut; map C-444— 5 
New Brunswick, a maritime province 
of Canada; 27.985 sq, mi.; pop. 
615,697; cap. Fredericton: N-1S7- 
8b, maps C-69, 73, pictures N-138- 
1386 

agriculture N-138o, C-85 
Bay of Fundy, tides T-130, N-138 
Saint John, picture T-131: Revers- 
ing Falks N-138, S-18 
cities, list N-137: Saint John S-18 
climate N-138a 
education N-138b 
fisheries N-138ft, picture N-138 
government N-138 6 
history N-1386 

lumber N-138o, picture N-138 
Maine boundary dispute M-56 
manufactures N-138a 
minerals N-138a 

natural features C-75, N-137, 138, 
list N-137 

occupations, pirtograph C-G6 
parks, map N-3B/ 

Fort BeausGjour National Historic 
Park N-39 

Fundy National Scenic and Recre- 
ational Park N-38/ 
perpie N-1386. a 
products N-138a, list N-137 
shield F-136a, color picture F-131 
transportation N-138 
New Brunswick, N. J., manufacturing 
city on Raritan River 27 mi. s.w. of 
New York City: pop. 38,811; motor 
trucks, surgical and medical sup- 
plies, cigars and cigar boxes; 
Rutgers University: occupied by 
British 1776-77: wap N-164 
football's Hall of Fame F-232 
New Brunswick. Fniversllv of. at 
Fredericton. New Brunswick, Can- 
ada: nonsectarian: founded 1800 
(College of New Brunswick, reor- 
ganized as university IS59) ; arts 
and Fclcnce.s. civil engineering, elec- 
trical engineering. lorcsiry, law. 
Ncwbtirpli. N. Y., city on Hudson 
River t;r, mi. above New York City: 
pop. SI.95C; important trading and 
shipping point before Revoluilon; 
Hasbrouek Mansion wn." WnyhlTic- 
ton’s headquarters; trade In coal. 


«. German jck-French 


j (r in azure) :r:=Gcrman guttural ch 



NEWBURYPORT 

fruit, dairy, and farm products ; 
textiles, carpets, foundry and paper 
products: maps U-253, inset N-204 
Newburyport, Mass., city on Merri- 
mack River 3 mi. from sea and 30 
mi. n.e. of Boston; pop. 14,111; 
shoes, silverware, electrical goods; 
settled about 1635; famous for 
shipbuilding in days of wooden 
sailing vessels; many historic land- 
marks; map M-133 
■William Lloyd Garrison at G-26 
New Caledonia, French Nonvelle Cal- 
6donIe (ng-ue!' kd-la-cl6-ne’) , an 
overseas territory of Prance, in 
s.w. Pacific e. of Queensland, Aus- 
tralia; cap. Noumea; territory con- 
sists of island New Caledonia and 
the following dependencies : Isle of 
Pines, Loyalty Islands, Chesterfield 
Islands, Huon Islands, "Walpole Is- 
land, Belep Islands, Futuna and 
Alofi islands, and Wallis Islands; 
area of island New Caledonia, about 
6500 sq. mi., pop. 61,250; total area 
of dependencies, about 900 sq. mi., 
pop. about 18,000; nickel, chrome; 
livestock, chiefly cattle; coffee, 
copra; yams, manioc, taro, corn, 
bananas; map P-16, picture P-9 
French convicts F-278 
nickel N-235 

New Caledonia, fur-trading district in 
w. Canada belonging to Hudson’s 
Bay Company in 19 th century; 
mostly in British Columbia but ex- 
tended s. of Canadian boundary. 
New Castile, the s. part of Castile, 
Spain, including the old Moorish 
kingdom of Toledo; chief cities are 
Madrid, Toledo, Ciudad Real; fer- 
tile valleys, sterile plateaus. 
Newcastle, Australia, city in New 
South Wales, lOO mi. n. of Sydney; 
pop. 127,188 with suburbs; great 
coaling port; ships wool, coal, 
mutton; map A-489 
New Castle, Del., city on Delaware 
River 5 mi. s. of Wilmington; har- 
bor; pop. 5396; settled by Swedes 
1640; landing place of William 
Penn 1682; D-68, 60, map D-53, 
picture D-59 

Delaware Memorial Bridge near 
D-58, picture D-54. See also in In- 
dex Bridge, table 

New Castle, Ind., town on Blue River 
45 mi. n.e. of Indianapolis; pop. 
18,271 ; auto parts, kitchen cabinets ; 
farm trade; roses; state village for 
epileptics 2 mi. n.: map 1-78 
New Castle, Pa., railroad center 42 
mi. n.w. of Pittsburgh; pop. 48,834; 
on Shenango and Neshannock riv- 
ers; important mining and farm- 
ing region; iron, steel, and tin 
products, cement, pottery: maps 
P-132, U-263 

Newcastle-niider-Lyine, England, town 
30 mi. s. of Manchester; pop. 
70,028; potteries: map B-325 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, great coal-ship- 
ping center of England, on Tyne 
River; pop. 291,723: N-138b, mails 
B-321, 324 

Newchwang, Manchuria. See in In- 
dex Yingkow 

New College, Oxford, England 0-434 
Newcomb, Simon (1835—1909). Amer- 
ican astronomer and ,v- mathemati- 
cian, born Wallace, Nova Scotia, 
Canada; professor of 'mathematics 
II.S. Navy 1861-97; director of U.S. 
Nautical Almanac (1877—97) 

Hall of Fame, table H-249 
Newcomb College, at New Orleans, 
La.; founded 1886 by Mrs. Jose- 
phine Louise Newcomb as memorial 
to her daughter, Harriott Sophie 
Newcomb: for women; arts and 
.sciences, fine arts, music; affiliated 
with Tulane University. 


Keys cope, dt, for, lost, whqt, ffill ; me. 


456 


Newcomc, Colonel, in Thackeray’s 
‘The Newcomes’ T-109 

Newcomen, Thomas (1663—1729), 
English mechanic; made first prac- 
tical steam pumping engine: S-390, 
diagram W-75 

New Connecticut, first name of Ver- 
mont V-462 

New Dawn rose, first patented plant 
P-306 

New Deal, legislative plan for eco- 
nomic recovery in U.S. R-204-10, 
U-388. See also in Index Roose- 
velt, Franklin Delano 
end of U-392 

New Delhi (del'e), capital of India; 
pop. 276,314: D-62, maps 1-54, 

A-407 

museum. See in Index Museums, 
table 

parliament house, picture 1-68 

Newdigate Prize, literary award for 
English verse at Oxford University, 
England; established by Sir Roger 
Newdigate (1719-1806), English 
antiquary: L-267 

New Economic Poiicy (NEP), in 
Russia R-289-90 

Newell, Peter (1862-1924), writer 
and illustrator of humorous books, 
especially for children, born 
McDonough County, 111.; wrote 
‘Topsys and Turveys’; 'The Hole 
Book’; ‘The Rocket Book’. 

Newel post. See in Index Architec- 
ture, table of terms 

New England, collective name for 
states of Maine, New Hampshire, 
Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecti- 
cut, Rhode Island U-268-63. map 
U-269, Reference-Outline U-336. See 
also in Index United States, sub- 
head geographic regions; also 
names of states 

agriculture U-259-60: colonial 

A-207, 209 

architecture, colonial A-208, 213, 
S-1440, pictures A-209, A-318, 

S-144c; Cape Cod style house, pic- 
ture A-322 

commerce U-260: colonial A-212-1S; 

early trade with Par East A-419 
dances, early F-192d 
education: colonial E-242; historic 
colleges U-403 

fisheries U-260, A-212: colonial, pic- 
ture A-212 
floods P-143, 144 

history. See also in Index American 
Coionies 

Pilgrims P-325-6, A-206-7, M-145- 
7 

flags F-lSOc, color picture F-128 
King Philip’s War K-46-7, 1-llOa-b 
American Revolution R-128 
War of 1812 W-14 
aboiition movement G-26, 27. 

W-133 

immigration in coionial period A:r206 
literature A-224-5 
lumbering, 19th century L-340 ’ 
manufactures U-260-3; colonial 
A-212; Industrial Revolution 1-134 
mountains N-143, U-258-9 
origin pf name S-201 
Sabbath'; observance, colonial A-210 
slave trade P-423 

town government T-159, R-143: town 
meeting, picture U-263 
village, color picture U-262 
water power U-261, W-69 

New England-.Oicadian Highlands, phys- 
iographic region of the Appalachian 
Highlands A-276 

New England aster A-426, color pic- 
ture F-i76 

New England candle pins, a bowling 
game B-266 

New England Colonies. See in Index 
American Colonies, subhead New 
England Colonies 

Nea' England Confederation (official 


yet, fern, there; fee, bit; row, won, fdr. 


NEW GOA 

name United Colonies of New Eng- 
land), formed in 1643, at Boston, 
by representatives from the colo- 
nies of Massachusetts, Plymquth, 
Connecticut, and New Haven, as a 
defense against the Dutch and the 
Indians 

John Winthrop leads W-161 
New England flag (1775) P-130c, 

color picture P-128 
'Nea’ England Primer’, famous school- 
book; written and printed by Ben- 
jamin Harris, Boston, about 1688; 
noted for alphabet rhymes, wood- 
cuts. and child’s prayer. "Now I lay 
me down to sleep:’’ picture E-241 
New Farmers of America, national 
organization for Negro boys study- 
ing agriculture in junior and senior 
high school in those states where 
there are separate schools; col- 
legiate chapters give training in 
leadership; founded 1935. Organi- 
zation similar to Future Farmers of 
America; 17 states have chapters. 
Membership more than 38,000. 
Headquarters, Agricultural Educa- 
tion Branch, Office of Education, 
U.S., Department of Health, Educa- 
tion, and Welfare, AVashington, 
D.C.: F-326b 

New Forest, wooded district in s.w. 
Hampshire, England ; administered 
as national park since 1877 ; 145 sq. 
mi.; about one fourth used by pri- 
vate owners and tenants; includes 
several villages; created royal 
hunting ground by William I, the 
Conqueror; New Forest Act, 1949, 
increased administrative provisions 
William H (Rufus) killed in W-138 
Newfoundland (mV fiind-ldnd) , island 
in Gulf of St. Lawrence; 42,734 
sq. mi.; pop. 349,915; with Labra- 
dor forms Province of Newfound- 
land, Canada (area 155,364 sq. ini.; 
pop. 361,416; cap. St. Johns): 
N-139-40, maps C-69, 73, N-246, 
liictures N-139-40 
Cabot discovers C-9 
early cable C-7 
earthquake E-196 
education N-140 
fisheries N-139-40 
fogs F-192 
government N-140 
Labrador L-76 
libraries L-201 
occupations, pictograph C-66 
seals S-88 

shield P-136a, color picture F-131 
Newfoundland Banks, or Grand Banks, 
also Banks of Newfoundland, sub- 
marine plateau off coast of New- 
foundland, fishing grounds N-139- 
40 

climate N-139— 40: Gulf Stream 
G-228b 

Newfoundland dog, color, picture 
D-116, table D-118b 
New France, name for Canada ni'der 
French rule A-190-1, map C-69. bee 
also in Index Canada, history ot; 
French in America ’ 

Nen-gate, prison in London, England; 
built about 1200, seyeral times 
remodeled, and demolished J90.., 
notorious for wretched moral ana 
sanitary conditions due to crowding 
and mingling of prisoners. 

New Georgia Islands, group in Solo- 
mons halfway between Bougainville 
and Guadalcanal, map P-16 
World War II W-262 
New Glasgow, Nova Scotia, Canada, 

’ coal and iron-mining town on East 
River 80 mi. n.e. of Halifax; Pop. 
9933 ; steel, lumber products, ship."?: 
map C-73 

New Goa, Portuguese India. Sec in 
Index Panjim 

not, d.q; care, b»t, rj(de, ft<ll, barn; out; 



NEW GOTTENBURG 


457 «=■ 


NEW LONDON 


>'ew Gottenburc, first permanent set- 
tlfihient In Pennsylvania P-138 
New Graiiarta, original Spanish name 
for Colombia C-388 
flag F-138, color picture F-136 
New Guinea, largest island of JIalay 
Atihipelago ; 300,000 sq. mi.; pop., 

■with nearby islands, 2,476,224: 
N-141-3, maps P-16, E-203, pictures 
N'-iUl-Z 

birds of paradise P-75, color picture 
P-7i 

de^il chasers, picture jM-35 
kaligaroo K-2 

rel&tionships to continent, viaps 
A-411-12, B-203, P-16 
size, comparative. See in Index 
Islands, table 

World War II W-262, 287, 288 
New Guinea, Territory of, trusteeship 
iticluding Northeastern New 
Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, and 
part of Solomon Islands; total area 
9S,000 sq. mi.; pop. 1,100,258; cap. 
Port Moresby. Formerly called Ger- 
man New Guinea, became in 1920 
an Australian mandate under 
^League of Nations; after World 
War II, became United Nations 
trusteeship administered by Aus- 
tralia; N-141, 143, maps P-16, 

E-203 

New Hampshire, New England state 
of U. S.; 9304 sq. mi.; pop. 533,242; 
cap. Concord; N-143-54, maps 
K-lSO-l, 144, 147, U-253, 259, pic- 
tures N-143, 149, 153-4 
agriculture N-144, 146 
bird, state N-145 
Capitol, State, picture N-153 
cities N-144, 146, 154, map index 
N-149, 162. See also in Index 
names of cities 
Concord C-430 
cllinate N-145 
communication N-145 
codhtles, map index N-149 
education N-164, 146 
elevation N-145 
exlent N-146 
Pact Summary N-145-8 
nag P-127, color picture F-130a 
flower, state N-145, color picture 
,S-384o 

fotests N-144: national and state 
N-144, 147, map N-147 
geographic region in which situated, 
inap8 U-260, 269: New England 
11-258-63 

government N-145 
history N-154, 148 

boundary disputes ; Massachusetts 
N-154; Vermont V-461 
hydroelectric power N-144 
industries N-144, 146, 164 
lakes N-144 
land use N-145 

minerals N-146: granite quavTi% pic- 
ture N-163 
motto N-145 
mountains N-143-4, 146 
name, origin of, and nickname N-145 
natural features N-143, 144, 145 
natural resources N-144, 145 
occupations N-146 

parks and other areas N-146— 7, map 
A-147 

places of Interest N-143-4, 146-7, 
rftap N-147 
population N-146 
Pl-Oducts N-144, 146, 164 
nvors N-144, 145 
seal N-145 
song, state N-145 
tra(le, ■wholesale and retail N-146 
vansportatlon N-145 
.tree, state N-145 

New nampshlre, University of, at 
Durham, N, H.; state control; 
munded 1866 as Ne^w Hampshire 
College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanic Arts; liberal arts (incl uding 

n— French n, German ii; pern, So; thin, tben 


education), agriculture, tech- 
nology: picture N-153 
New Hampshire grants V-461 
New Hampshire Turnpike N-144 
Ne^jv Hanover, island, Bismarck Archi- 
pelago. 

New Harmony, Ind., town 22 mi. n.w. 
of Evansville on Wabash River; 
pop. 1360; settled 1815 by German 
Harmonists; property sold 182'4 to 
Robert Owen for socialistic com- 
munity: S-216, map 1-79 
famous scientists at 1-86 
New Haven, Conn., city, seat of Yale 
University; pop. 164,442; N-154, 
maps C-444, U-253 
early historj' C-450 
New Haven and Northampton Canal, 
map C-108 

Yale University, piefttres C-449, L-197 
Newhaven, England, seaport on Eng- 
lish Channel at mouth of OU.se 
River 50 mi. s. of London; pop. 
7785; terminus of channel stumer 
line to Dieppe, France; niap B-325 
New Haven and Northampton Canal, 
ran from New Haven, Conn., to 
Northampton, Mass.; completed 
1835: map C-108 

New Haven State Teachers College, at 
New Haven, Conn.; state control, 
founded 1893; arts and sciences, 
education. 

New Hebrides, group of islands e. of 
n. Australia, governed jointly by 
France and Great Britain; about 
5700 sq. mi.; pop. 45,000; coffee, 
copra, cotton; map P-16 
people, pictures P-3, R-21 
‘New Helolse, The’, novel by Rousseau 
R-236 

New Holland, former name of Aus- 
tralia. 

New’ Homemakers of America, national 
organization for Negro giHs and 
boys studying homemaking m 
junior and senior high schools In 

those states havingseparatescnooIS ; 
founded in 1945; chapters m 16 
states. Homemaking teachers and 
state supervisors of homb econom- 
ics education are advisers. In 19=4, 
organization had 1.236 chapters, 
with 50 288 members. Headquarters 
in Home Economics Education 
■Rr^^noh Office of Education, u.s., 
Kument of Health Education, 
and Welfare, Washington 25, D.C. 
New Iberia, La., city on Bayou Teche, 
105 ml w’. of New Orleans; pop. 

seat of Iberia Parish; 
Luled by Spanish and French 
some of the latter from Nova 
Scotia: cane sugar, salt, red pepper: 
map L-330 

New imperialism, British B-319 
New Ireland, formerly J'.f'oklen- 

burg, 2d largest island of Bismabck 
Archipelago; Z340 ^ci- »<•; 

930; mountainous 

coconut plantations: N-143. maps 

e-203, F-16 

New Jersey, a middle Atlantic state of 
TT ^ ♦ 7830 SQ* rul.; pop. 

Trenton- N-155-67, maps 
N-164-5ri5e, 161, U-253. 266. pic- 
tures N-155, 167-8, 16/ 

agriculture X-156. 160 

Capitol State T.186. picture N-167 

/u7iP<- N-157-8, 162, map indbx N-163. 
“ee see also in Index names of 
cities 

Atlantic City A-451 
Camden C-50 

picture J-3|| 
Newa'rk N-135, pictures N -135 


:='‘ = French I 


Paterson P-97 
'trenton T-186 
climate N-159 
c&lnmunicatlon N-169 
counties, map index N-163 
education N-167, 160 
el6vation N-159 
etitent N-159 

Fkct Summary N-159-62 
flag P-130a, color picture F-127 
flOtver, state N-169, color picture 
S-384a 

forests, state N-161, map N-161 
geographic region in ■which situated. 
maps U-250, 266: Jliddle Atlantic 
Region U-264-71 
government N-158, 167, 159 
history N-167, 162: Iron manufac- 
ture 1-246; American Revolution 
R-128a; Wilson’s administration 
W-144 

hydroelectric poT\-er P-97 
industries N-156-8, 160: buttons 

.,B-370 

land use N-159 

hiinerals N-156, 160 

niotto N-159 

mountains N-155— 6. 159 

name, origin of. and nickname N-159 

natural features N-165-6, 159 

natural resources N-166, 159 

riotable persons N-167 

occupations N-159 

parks and other areas N-160, 161, 
maps N-161, N-18: Morristown 
N. H. P. N-37 

places of interest N'-161, map N-161 
population N-155, 159 
products N-156, 160 
resorts N-15G 

rivers N-155, 156, 169: Delaware 
D-60; Hudson H-438 
seal N-159 
song, state N-159 

trade, wholesale and retail N-160 
transportation N-167, 158, 159, pic- 
tures N-155, 168, R-168b 
tree, state N-1S9 

Neiv Jersey plan, for U. S. Constitu- 
tion U-342, 343, N-167 
Ndfi- Jersey fen. or redroot, a genus of 
Shrubs (Ccanothus) of the buck- 
thorn family having show-y clusters 
of small white, blue, or pink flowers 
followed by black berries; leaves 
were used as tea during American 
Revolution; has dark red root. 

New .Tersey Turnpike N-157, pictures 
N-155, R-1585 

Hackensack River and Passaic River 
bridges. See in Index Bridge, 
table 

New Jerusalem Church. See in Index 
Swedenborg 

New Kensington, Pa., Industrial 
borough 15 mi. n.e. of Pittsburgh 
on Allegheny River: pop. 25,146; 
aluminum, steel and iron, and plate 
glass manufactures: map P-132 
New Lanark, village In Scotland, 25 
ijil. s e. of Glasgow 
Robert Owen S-21G 
Ncwlands, Francis GrlflKb (1848— 
3917). legislator and lawyer, born 
Katchez. Miss.; U. S. conpressman 
five consecutive terms and U.S. sen- 
htor from Nevada three terms; au- 
thor Newlands Act (1913) for 
mediation In railroad wage disputes. 
Newlands Iteclamatlon Project N-124 
New Life mo%-cmcnt. In China C-229 
New London, Conn., port and summer 
resort on Thames River 40 ml. e. 
of New Haven; pop. 30,551; print- 
ing prcsse.s. silk and rayon goods; 
Connecticut College for Women, 
tounded 16 10: burned by Brltl.sU 
Under Benedict Arnold 1781; Har- 
vard-Yale crew races each June: 
maps C-445, U-253 
Coast Guard Academy C-371, picture 
C-448 


(z In azure) ;g=:Gcrroan guttural ch 



- 458 


NEW MADRID 

New Madrid, Mo., city In s.e. _ on 
Mississippi River 50 mi. s. of Cairo, 
111.; pop. 2726; agricultural and 
lumber interests: Confederate post 
1861-62: map M-319 
earthquake (1811 — 12 i E-196, M-323 

Newman, John Henry, Cardinal 
(1801-90), English churchman 
N-168, E-382 

Newmarket, England, town 14 mi. n.e. 
of Cambridge; pop. 10,184; famous 
for horse races; map B-325 

New Market, Va., town in Shenandoah 
Valley, in n. part of state; pop. 701; 
here, in Civil War battle. May 15, 
1864, the Confederates under 
Breckinridge defeated the Union 
forces under Sigel: Piaps V-486, 
C-335 

New Mecklenburg, Island, Bismarck 
Archipelago. See in Index New Ire- 
land 

New Mexico, state of s.w. U. S. ; 
121,666 sq. mi.; pop. 681,187; cap. 
Santa Fe: N-168-81, mans N-178-9, 
171, U-252, 297, N-17B, pictures 
N-168-72, 176, 181 
agriculture N-171, 174 
animal life N-170 
antiquities I-108e-/, F-209 
bird, state N-173 
Capitol, State, picture N-181 
cities N-172, 181, 174, map index 
N-177, 180. See also in Index 
names of cities 
Albuquerque A-145 
Santa Pe S'43a-b, picture S-43o 
cliff dwellings C-347-8 
climate N-170-1, 173 
communication N-173 
counties, map index N-177 
dams N-171, 172, picture N-170 
education N-174 
elevation N-173 
extent N-173 
Pact Summary N-173-6 
flag P-130a, color picture P-127 
flower, state N-173, color picture 
S-384a 

forests: national N-175, map N-175 
geographic regions in which situ- 
ated, maps U-250, 279, 297: Great 
Plains U-291-3; Rocky Mountains 
U-294-8; Western Basins and 
Plateaus U-299-301 
government N-173 
history N-172, 181, 175-6 
acquired in Mexican War M-186 
American immigration S-308b 
missions S-30S, picture S-308 
Pike’s visit P-38 
Santa Pe Trail F-41 
hydroelectric power N-171 
Indians 1-104(1, N-181: cliff dwellers 
C-347-8; Pueblo P-431 
industries N-171, 174 
Irrigation N-171-2, pictures N-169, 
170 

land use N-173 

minerals N-172, 174: potash deposits 
P-390 

motto N-173 

mountains N-168, 170, 173: Rocky 
Mountains R-173— 6 
name, origin of, and nickname N-173 
natural features N-168-70, 173 
natural resources N-170, 172, 173 
occupations N-173 

parks, monuments, and other areas 
N-174-5, iiaps N-175, N-18 
Aztec RuIiA N.M. N-30 
BandelievN. M. N-30 
Capulln 'Slountain N.JI. N-31 
Carlsbad Caverns N.P. N-31, C-167, 
color picture N-22 
Chaco Canvon N.M. N-32 
El Morro N.M. N-33, N-181 
Gila Cliff Dwellings N.M. N-36, 
N-181 

White Sands N.M. N-38c, N-170 
places of interest N-174-5, map 
N-175 

plant and animal life N-170 


population N-173 
products N-171, 172, 174 
rivers N-170, 173: Rio Grande R-155 
seal, state N-173 
song, state N-173 
trade, wholesale and retail N-174 
transportation N-173 
New Mexico, Museum of. at Santa Fe, 
N. M. M-172. See also in Index 
Museums, table 

New Blexico, University of, at -4.1- 
buquerque, N. M.; state control; 
founded 1889; opened 1892; arts 
and sciences, business administra- 
tion, education, engineering, fine 
arts, inter-American affairs, law, 
pharmacy; graduate school; pic- 
ture N-171 

New Mexico College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts, at State College, near 
Las Cruces, N. M.; state control: 
founded 1889; arts and sciences, 
agriculture, engineering, home eco- 
nomics; graduate studies. 

New Mexico Higiilnnds University, at 
Las Vegas, N.M. ; state control; 
founded 1893; liberal arts, educa- 
tion; graduate study. 

New Mexico Institute of Mining and 
Technology, at Socorro, N. M.; 
state control; founded 1889; chem- 
istry, metallurgical, mining, and 
petroleum engineering, geology, 
geophysics, mathematics, physics; 
graduate studies. 

New Mexico Military Institute, at 
Roswell, N. M.; state control; for 
men; founded 1893; 3-year high 
school and 4-year college; arts 
and sciences; Senior Unit, Armor 
Division of Reserve Officers' Train- 
ing Corps. 

New Mexico Western College, at Silver 
City, N.M.; state control; founded 
1893; liberal arts, education; grad- 
uate school In education. 

New moon M-384, 386, diagram M-385 
New Netherlnnd, Dutch colony in 
America N-213, A-19B 
New Amsterdam, life in A-198-202, 
pictures A-198-202 

New Old South Church, Boston, Mass. 

B-258, picture B-258 
Now Orleans ior’le-dnz) , La., port on 
Mississippi River, 115 mi. above its 
mouth; pop. 570,445: N-182-5, 

maps L-331, U-253, A-531, inset 
L-331, pictures N-182-4 
Bienville B-143 

commerce N-182-3, 185, M-310, L-333 
Cotton Exchange “ring,” picture 
C-4g6 

education N-184 
flood control N-18B 
French quarter N-183-4 
harbor N-182-3, H-263, picture N-182 
history N-185, L-334 
battle in War of 1812 W-14, L-86, 
picture J-287 

river traffic M-310 : river boat 
loaded with cotton, in 1870’s, pic- 
ture R-86 

capture by Farragut during Civil 
War P-37, P-37S, map C-334 
Huey P. Long Bridge N-183, picture 
B-307 

industries N-183 
Mardi Gras N-184 
natural-gas pipelines G-S3 
Sugar Bowl F-230, N-184 
New Orleans, battle of W-14 
Chalmette National Historical Park 
N-32, map N-18 

New Fhllndelphln, Ohio, city with 
coal-mining and clay-working in- 
terests on Tuscarawas River and 
Ohio Canal about 70 mi. s. of Cleve- 
land; pop. 12,948; stamping and 
metal-products plants: map 0-366 
New IMymouth, New Zealand, sea- 
port and railroad terminus on w. 


NEWSBOYS 

coast of North Island; pop. 24,923, 
with suburbs; flour mills, leather 
manufactures ; trade in dairy prod- 
ucts: maps P-16, inset A-489 
New Pomerania, island, Bismarck 
Archipelago. See in Index New 
Britain 

Newport, Christopher (1565?— 1617), 
English sea captain, in command of 
ship which brought Capt. John 
Smith to America; made several 
later voyages to Virginia 
monument in Richmond, Va. R-153 
Newport, England, port in s.w. on 
Usk River 4 mi. from Bristol Chan- 
nel; pop. 105,285; coal, iron, cattle 
trade; iron products: map B-325 
Newport, Isle of Wight, England, 
capital and chief market town of 
island; at head of estuary of 
Medina River; pop. 20,426; timber, 
malt, wheat, flour: map B-325 
Newport, Ky., residential city on Ohio 
and Licking rivers, opposite Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio; pop. 31,044; sheet 
iron, steel, men’s clothing; Port 
Thomas, U. S. military post, 2 
mi. south: maps U-253, inset K-31 
Newport, R. I., fashionable resort on 
s.w. coast of island of Rhode Is- 
land; pop. 37,564; beautiful estates; 
much historic interest; U. S. Naval 
College and torpedo station; 
founded 1639: R-143, maps R-141, 
U-253, picture R-136 
first gas street lighting G-30 
national historical site N-20 
Redwood Library, picture L-187 
Newport, Vt., city 39 ml. n.w. of St. 
Jchnsbury, on Lake Meraphre- 
magog; pop. 6217; farming; wood 
and maple sugar products; cloth- 
ing; airport: map V-457 
Newport Beaeh, Calif., city 33 mi. 
s.e. of Los Angeles, on Pacific; 
pop. 12,120: map, inset C-36 
Newport Netvs, Va., seaport city and 
ship-building center on James River 
at head of Hampton Roads; pop. 
42,358; railway terminal. Settled in 
1621 by Irish colonists, but develop- 
ment did not begin until completion 
of railway from Richmond to mouth 
of James River in 1882 when town 
was plotted. Pour years later a 
great shipyard (now the Newport 
News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock 
Co.) was begun and prosperity fol- 
lowed. Incorporated as city 1896: 
N-242b, C-224, maps V-487, U-253 
New Providence Island, chief island 
of the Bahamas; 58 sq. mi.; pop. 
29,391 ; contains only good natural 
harbor of the group, and Nassau, 
the capital ; settled by English 1629 : 
map W-96 

New River, rises in Blue Ridge Mts. 
of North Carolina, flows across w. 
corner of Virginia and joins Gauley 
River to form the Kanawha River 
in Payette County, W. Va.; maps 
W-106, V-486 

New Boebelle, N. T., residential 
city and summer resort on Long 
Island Sound, n. of New York City; 
pop. 59,725; College of New 
Rochelle and Iona College; settled 
1688 by Huguenots from La Ro- 
chelle, France: map, inset N-20B 
bookmobile, picture L-192 
New Rochelle, College of, at New 
Rochelle, N.T.; Roman Catholic; 
for women; founded 1904; arts and 
sciences. 

New Salem, 111., home of Abraham 
Lincoln; pop. 184: L-247, 1-27 
New Salem State Pork, in Illinois 1-27, 
picture 1-28 
pageant P-19a 

Newsboys Foundation, Harry R* 
Burroughs, Boston, Mass.; estab- 


Key: cdpe, it, far, fast, whqt, full; md, yet, fern, thdre;fcc, bit; rfiw, wdn, fdr, ndt, dp; cure, biit, rpde, fvll, btJrn; out: 


NEW SIBERIAN 


459 


NEW YORK 


lished 1928 by Harry E. Burroughs 
to raise cultural level of newsboy. 
Kcw Siberian Islands, in Arctic Ocean 
n. of Siberia: largest Kotelnoi (116 
mi. by 100 mi.) ; uninhabited except 
for hunters: maps R-259, A-406 
New shin, collodion C-384 
News magazines M-29 
New South Wales, Australia, state in 
s.e.: 309,433 sq. mi.: pop. 2,984,- 
838: cap, Sydney: N-185, map 
A-489, picture N-185 
Cook names C-462 
minerals A-484, N-185 
steel industry A-485 
New Spain, name of the American 
Southwest during Spanish rule 
S-307-85, pictures S-308— 308o 
Newsp.npers N-186-92, pictures N-186- 
7, 191 

advertising A-24, N-189: censor- 

ship A-25, N-189; display L-259, 
picture A-25: history A-27: income 
from N-189, A-26; space and rate 
policy A-25, 26 

American Colonies A-215, N-188: 

press, picture A-216 
censorship. See in Index Freedom of 
the press 

circulation N-189: audit for adver- 
tising A-26 

comic strips and cartoons N-190 
co-operative news bureaus N-192 
facsimile newspaper C-424d 
freedom of the press. See in Index 
Freedom of the pre.ss 
historical development N-188-9: 
Defoe’s The Reviexo I)-46, E-378- 
378n; The Tatter and The Spec- 
tator E-378 

journalism as career N-190 
Ubrary, or “morgue” N-192 
Linotype L-257-9 
magazines, how different M-29 
microfilming 11-230-1 
news gathering and editing N-186, 
188, 190-2, picUires N-186, 191: 
pneumatic-tube transmission P-328 
paper P-66-71, pictures P-67-71 
pictures in N-190, 192, pictures 

N-191: telephotography T-45, pic- 
ture T-45 

publicity material A-26, N-192 
reading N-l90 

reporters and foreign correspondents 
lv-192 

Russia R-271 

school newspapers, picture L-lOOd 
sources of news material N-192 
stereotyping S-393 
sjmdicated features N-190, 192 


mbloids N-189 
telephotography T-46, N-192, picture 
i-46 


Weather forecasts ^7-82 
- cwsprlnt, trade name for the low- 
machine-finished paper on 
wnich newspapers are usually 
Printed P-67, 68a, P-258 
A>e\vs service 

picture ai-407, picture Jf-408 
picture R-51 

leietlslon T-60, 52, picUire T-51 
‘ ew stars, or novae S-373 
Agl'""® Age. See in Ixidex Neolithic 

■‘'^‘c^cn, Swedish colony in U. S. 
Phil River 15 mi. s.w. of 

thiladelphia D-60 

* ^ ions-tailed amphibian of the 

g^g'^mander family S-26-6, pictures 


picture 


map 


foot, picture P-226 

'Ooa5^'‘‘"ment B-134, 136 
'' p Sinaiticus B-137, 
a.*-134 

^Pistles of Paul P-99 

cSlr-iP P-166 

J-339, A-275 

ahi!„ n. system of idealistic 

---,°®ophy; in America developed 
^ round writi ngs of Ralph Waldo 

‘^=r^^^^r;;:berman u ; pern, po ; thin. 'tJil^^Frenob nasal (Jean) :gA=French J 


Emerson : affirms control of circum- 
stances by mental power but does 
not deny existence of matter. 
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), Eng- 
lish physicist and mathematician 
N-193-4, picture N-193 
astronomy, contributions in G-173 
color studied and explained L-232, 
S-331 

gravitation, law of G-172-3, P-230 
Kepler's work comn'eted bv K-36 
light, theory of 1,-232, P-234 
mechanics, contributions to P-232 
motion, laws of ai-161: Einstein 
theory modifies R-lOO, P-232 
Newton’s rings, diagram L-233 
precession of equinoxes explained, 
diagrams A-441 

reflecting telescope invented by T-47 
sound, fundamentals studied E-210 
Voltaire spreads Newton’s philoso- 
phy V-523 

Newton, John (1725—1807), English 
clergyman and poet 
collaborates with Cowper C-503 
Newton, Iowa, city 30 mi, n.e. of Bes 
Moines in rich agricu'tural section: 
pop. 11.723: machinery: steel, iron, 
and aluminum castings: maps 
1-215, U-253 

Newton, Kan., city 25 mi. n. of Wichi- 
ta: pop. 11,590: farming and stock 
raising: flour mills, railroad repair 
shops, creamery: Bethel College 
(Mennonite) : map K-11 
Newton, Mass., city, a suburb w. of 
Boston, on Charles River; pop. 81,- 
994; electronic products: Boston 
College, Andover Newton Theolog- 
ical School, and Newton Junior Col- 
lege: map, ixisct M-132 
Newton’s laws of motion M-161 
New Towne, original name of Cam- 
bridge, Mass. C-60 

New Dim, Minn., town on Minnesota 
River. 75 mi. s.w. of Minneapolis; 
pop. 9348; farm trade center; set- 
tled by Germans: attacked in Sioux 
uprising of 1862; flour and cereal 
mills: map M-287 

New IVeBtminster, British Columbia, 
Canada, port on Fraser River 12 mi. 
s.e. of Vancouver; founded 1859; 
capital of province until 1868; pop. 
28 639; lumbering, fishing, fruit and 
Ygcrgrable canning, shipbuilding , 
exports lumber, lumber products, 
copper, lead, zinc: maps C-68, 80 
New wool W-193 

‘New World Symphony’, by Antonin 
Dvorak M-465 
New Tear’s Day N-194-5 
Chinese N-194, F-58, picture F-59 
Japanese J-304-5 
Russian R-273 

New Tear’s Day, Jewish (Rosh Ha- 
shanal, festival celebrated on the 
first or first and second days of 
Tishri (September or sometimes 
October) . . 

ram’s horn blown, picture J-3o4 
New Tork. a Atlantic state of 

U S • 49,576 sq. ml.; pop. 14,830.1 . 

ran ' Albany: N-195-214, maps 
N-2b4^, 196. 199. U-253, 265, pic- 
tures N-195, 207-13 

citteVN-211, 200, map index N-203, 
20G. Sec also iu Index names of 

Albany A-139, picture A-139 

g“f'Y?rk'cfty N.215-2G. 

N-222, pictures N-215— 26 
Niagara Falls J^_31-2 
Rochester K-le6-/ 

Saratoga Springs 
S-44 

Schenectady S-56 


S-43b-4, picture 


Syracuse S-487 
Troy T-193 
Utica U-420 
Tonkers Y-341 
climate N-197 
communication N-197 
counties, map index N-202 
ediK-afion N-214. 200. pictures 

N-224: early provisions E-257-8 
elevation N-197 
extent N-197 

Fact Summary N-197-202 
flags F-130a-b, color picture F-127: 
historic F-130c, color picture 
F-128 

flower, state N-197, color picture 
S-384a 

forests, state N-199 
geographic region in which situated, 
maps U-250, 265: Middle Atlantic 
Region U-264-71 
government N-197 
history N-196, 212-14, 200-2, N-225-6 
Hudson’s voyage H-437 
Long Island explored and settled 
L-311 

Albany settled A-139 
Stuj-vesant governor S-434 
English acquire N-213 
Albany Congress A-139 
Penn.svlvania ’and ci.nim P-139 
Vermont dispute V-4G1, N-154 
Revolutionary War R-128a, B-357: 
battle of Long Island L-3li; 
battle of Saratoga S-44 
ratification of Constitution U-344 
Erie Canal opened (1825) C-108b 
Jlormonism founded Jt-392 
Tammany influence T-9 
Grover (Cleveland, governor C-344 
T. Roosevelt, governor Pl -220 
Charles Evans Hughes, governor 
H-439 

F. D. Roosevelt, governor R-202 
hydroelectric power N-212, N-230, 
T-212, picture N-211 
industries N-211, 212, 198, picture 
N-209: buttons E-370; clothing 
G-23; collars T-193; electrical 
machinery .S-56: gloves G-12C; 
locomotives S-66 
lakes N-197, 208, 210 
land use N-197 
Long Island L-311 
minerals N-212, 198: salt S-487, G-59 
motto N-197 

mountains N-208: Adirondack A-21 
name, origin of, and nickname N-195, 
197 

natural features N-196, 208, 210, 
197: Adirondack Mts. A-21: Hud- 
son River 11-437; Nlair.ar.a Falls 
N-229-30, picture N-229, picture- 
map N-231 

natural-gas pipelines G-33 
natural resources N-196, 208, 210, 
212, 197 

occupations N-197 

paries, mnnuments, and other arc-aa 
N-20, X-199, maps N-199, N-18 
Castle Clinton N.M. N-32 
Jones Bench, pirtir c L-311 
Montaiik Point Lighthouse, picture 
N-208 

Saratoga N.H.P. N-38b 
Statue of Liberty L-179, pictures 
L-179 

people N-195— 6 

places of Intere.st N-1D8. map N-109 
population N-197 
product.^ N-211. 212, 198 
rivers N-19C, 208, 197 
.seal N-197 

trade N-210. 211, 212: Albany A-139; 
Euflaio B-341: canal era C-108b- 
9; New York City N-225. 220; 
wholesale .and ret.ail N-198 
transoortation N-196, 210-11, 197, 
B-341. N-923. 224: c,anal.a C-108t>- 
9, N-210-11 

Nnv Tori:. Collrcr of the City of N-223 
New York, .‘elate t*nivcr«Ity of, cstab- 
lirhcxl 1945 as part of The L’nlvcr- 


(a In mure) :z: = Gennan guttural ck 


460 


NIAGARA 


NEW YORK 


sity of the State of New York; com- 
prised of 11 state teachers colleges, 
4 state contract colleges at Cornell 
University, the college of ceramics 
at Alfred University, the college of 
Forestry at Syracuse University, 
the state maritime college, 6 state 
agricultural and technical ihsti- 
tutes, 5 state institutes of applied 
arts and sciences. 2 liberal arts col- 
leges, and 2 medical colleges. 

New York, The University of the State 
of, actually department of education 
of New York State; headquarters, 
Albany; supervises public schools; 
licenses members of professions for 
practice in state ; governed by board 
of regents, which appoints commis- 
sioner of education for state of New 
York. 

New York aster A-246 
New Y'ork Botanical Garden, in i^ew 
York City; established 1896; di- 
rected by a private corporation and 
the city; 235 acres: B-261 
New Y'ork City, N. Y., 2d largest city 
of world; pop. 7,891,957; N-215-26, 
mans N-222, U-253. A-531, inset 
N-204, pictures N-215— 26 
airline distances from, fable A-537 
airports N-224: La Guardia, picture 
A-633 

area, table N-215 

bridges N-224. B-306, 308, pictures 
N-219, 221, B-308. See also in In- 
dex Bridge, table 
Brooklyn B-329 

Brooklyn Botanic Garden B-262 
cities, world's largest. See in Index 
City, table 

Cleopatra’s Needle A-150, picture 
N-218 

climate N-215 
communication, table N-215 
Coney Island C-432, picture C-432 
diamond-cutting industry D-78 
educational institutions N-223, pic- 
tures N-224 

Ellis Island 1-48, map N-222, pic- 
tures N-216, 1-48 

Federal Reserve Bank (2d) and 
district, map F-49 

financial and commercial supremacy 
N-225, 226 
fires, cost of P-89 
fur market P-326 
furniture market P-319a 
government N-226 
Greater New York boroughs N-226 
Great White Way, or Broadway 
E-314, N-218— 19, picture N-220 
Hall of Fame, New York University 
H-249— 50, picture N-224 
harbor and islands N-215-16, N-208, 
pictures N-221, U-264, S-149: Am- 
brose Channel H-265; Brooklyn, 
pictures H-264, U-264; car floats, 
picture T-170d; spring tide T-130 
history N-225-6 

New Amsterdam, life in A-198-202, 
pictures A-198-202 
under Dutch rule S-434 
colonial trading center A-197 
Federal Hall (1790), picture U-372 
early I9th century U-377, pictures 
U-376 

Erie Canal C-108b, N-210 
fire of 1835 N-226 
draft riots. Civil War 5^-226 
Fifth Avenue in tlie 1880’s, picture 
A-392 

T. Roosevelt as police commissioner 
R-220 

Lever House, picture A-324 
libraries L-187,, N-219, pictures 

L-180, N-217, 224 

manufactures N-226: clothing G-23 
memorials and monuments N-216, 
218-22: aquarium N-21'7; Castle 
Clinton N.M. N-32, map N-18; 
Cleopatra's Needle A-150, picture 
N-218; Grant's tomb G-lb3, pic- 
ture N-220; Lafayette B-61; Na- 


than Hale, picture H-247; Statue 
of Liberty L-179, pictures L-179 
museums and art galleries N-224-5. 

See also in Index Museums, table 
musical organizations N-225 
natural-gas pipelines G-33 
New York Botanical Garden B-361 
Parkchester, picture C-323b 
parks N-223: Central Park N-223, 
P-86a, map N-222, picture N-220, 
color picture P-36 
police force, city, first P-356 
population, table N-215: density 
N-217; foreign peoples N-223; 
growth, charts G-165 
Port of New York, table N-216 
presidential convention. See in In- 
dex Convention, table 
railroad stations N-219, pictures 
N-225, R-S9 
rivers N-215-16, H-437 
Rockefeller Center, pictures A-321, 
C-294a 

skyscrapers N-217, pictures N-215, 
217, 220, 221, A-320, 321, C-29^a 
Stock Exchange and American Stock 
Exchange S-398&, picture S-398a 
streets and buildings N-217-22 
subways and tunnels T-209, 210, 
N-223, 224, pictures N-223, 226, 
C-323a, T-208-10 
Tammany Hall T-9 
transportation C-323a, N-223-4, table 
N-215: elevated railway (1890), 
picture H-275 

United Nations headquarters U-240b, 
242 

water supply W-73, pictures W-71, 
N-210: aqueducts A-28S 
World’s Pair N-226, picture P-12 
zoo Z-360, 354-5, 357, N-223, 2)ic- 
tures Z-354, 355 
New York clearinghouse B-50 
New York Philharmonic Orchestra 
M-466 

New York Public Library L-187, 
N-219, pictures L-180, N-217 
begun by Tilden bequest N-214 
main reading room, picture R-88c 
reference department R-88b 
New Y'ork State Barge Canal N-210— 11, 
map G-179, pictures H-264 
Erie Canal link N-210-11, C-108b, 
N-208 

New York Stock Exchange, in New 
York City S-398b, picture S-398n 
periodic investment plan S-398b 
‘New York Tribune’, started by Horace 
Greeley G-212 

New Y’ork University, at New York. 
N. Y.; established 1831; arts and 
sciences, commerce, education, en- 
gineering, fine arts, law, retailing, 
medicine, dentistry 
Hall of Fame H-249-50, picture 
N-224 

New Y'ork YVorld's Fair (1939 and 
1940) N-226, picture P-12 
New Zealand, Dominion of, group of 
British islands in South Pacific 
Ocean; area 105.416 sq. mi.; pop. 
1,939,472; cap. Wellington: N-227- 
8b, maps P-16-17, N-228, inset 
A-489, pictures N-227, 228a-b, Ref- 
erence-OutUne A-492 
agriculture N-228— 228o, jjfcture 

N-228b 

animals N-228: kea P-93; tuatara 
R-111, picture R-110 
Antarctic dependency A-261 
bibliography A-492 
cable connections C-5, 8 
cities N-228, list N-227 
climate N-227 

commerce N-228a. See also in Index 
Trade, table 

Cook’s explorations C-462 

earthquake E-196 

education N-228, picture N-228b 

flag F-137, color picture P-135 

Franz Joseph Glacier, picture G-115 

government N-228a 

history N-228b.' defense alliances 


U-S94b-5 
illiteracy P-374 

industries and trade N-228-228o, 
Reference-Outline A-492 
kauri gum G-232 
labor N-227, 228o, L-75 
minerals N-228a 
national parks N-39 
natural features N-227, Reference- 
Outline A-492 

people N-227, 228, pictures N-228b; 
children, pictures N-228 b,' Maoris 
N-228, pictures N-228a, T-23 
plants N-227-8, map A-477 
products N-2280, list N-227 
relationships to continent, maps 
A-477-S 
shelter N-228 
territories, list N-227 
Nexo (n^ks-ii'), Martin Andersen 
(born 1869), Danish novelist (‘Pelle 
the Conqueror’; ‘Ditte’, 5 vols.; ‘In 
God’s Land’) S-55 

Ney (7ia), Michel (1769-1815), 
French marshal N-228b-9 
at Quatre-Bras W-66 
retreat from Moscow, picture N-10 
Nez Perefi (7id per-S(V) (French for 
“pierced nose”), Indian tribe, for- 
merly lived in Idaho, Washington, 
Oregon, map 1-106/, table 1-107 
Appaloosa, horse H-428k, picture 
H-428fl, table H-428e 
NFA. Se6 in Index New Farmers of 
America, 

Ngaini (’np-ffa'me), lake in Bechu- 
analand Protectorate, Africa; rem- 
nant of inland sea; now marshland: 
map A-47 

Nganh7vei, province of China. See 
in Index Anhwei 


Ngawnn, Burma. See in Index Bassein 

NH.Y. See in Index New Homemakers 
of America 

Niacin. See in Index Nicotinic acid 

‘Niagara’, American wai'ship in battle 
of Lake Erie P-153 
preserved as memorial E-392 

‘Niagara’, ship used in laying early 
cable C-7-8 

Niagara Falls, N, Y., resort and in- 
dustrial city on Niagara River, 20 
mi. n.w. of Buffalo; pop. 90,872; 
Niagara TJnlversity: N-230, 231-2, 
maps N-204, U-263, picture-map 
N-231 

graphite made artificially G-156 
power station, picture N-211 
Rainbow Bridge. See in Index 
Bridge, table 

Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, city 
opposite Niagara Fails, N. Y., in 
agrlcultqt-al and fruit-growing re- 
gion; pop. 22,874; enormous hydro- 
electric plants; cereals, batteries, 
carborundum, hats, silverware ; 
railway center: N-232, maps C-69, 
72, pictuve-map N-231 
Rainbow Bridge. See in Index 
Bridge, table 

Niagara Falls, one of greatest falls m 
world N-229-30, map U-265, picture 
N-229, picture-map N-231 
Horseshoe Fall N-230, picture 
N-229, picture-map N-231 
how formed, tiiap7'a7n B-182 
hydroelectric power N-230, N'212, 
picUires. N-211, N-231: Buffalo 

B-341; London, Ontario L-307 
name, meaning N-230 
size compared with man-made struc- 
tures, diagram D-llb 
Welland Ship Canal YV-90 
Whirlpool N-230, W-121, picture-map 
N-231 

Niagara Gorge N-230 

Niagara of the YVest, name given to 
Shoshone Falls in Idaho. . 

Niagara Klver, outlet of Lake Erie 
flowing n. to Lake Ontario, 33 ml.. 
N-229-30, Tnap N-196, picture-map 


Key: cape, dt, for, fast, whqt, fqll; me, yet, fern, there; ice, bit; row, won, fdr, ndt, dff; ctlre, but, rgde, ft<ll, bum; out. 



NIAGARA 


=1 461 


NICOLLE 


Xlaeura Cniversitr, at Niagara Falls, 
N. Y. ; Roman Catholic; for men; 
founded 1856; arts, sciences, phil- 
osophy, business administration. 
Xlagara AVhirlpool W-121, N-230, 

picture-maj} N-231 

Xiam-Xiam {nyam-nydm') , Azandeli, 
or Zandeli, an important group of 
tribes of mixed negroid descent in 
n.e. Belgian Congo and s.w. Sudan ; 
expert agriculturists; formerly a 
warlike people, skilled in knife 
throwing; Niam-Niam means “eat- 
ers”; they were so called because 
many were addicted to cannibalism. 
XIanfic, or X'ehantic, the name of two 
distinct Algonqulan tribes, one 
formerly occupying the coast of 
Rhode Island from Narragansett 
Bay to about the Connecticut state 
line, the other the Connecticut 
coast from Nlantic Bay to Con- 
necticut River; former became a 
part of the Narraganset and latter 
were absorbed by the Mohegan 
after the Pequot War of 1637. 

XIas (ue'd's), island in Indonesia, w. 
of Sumatra; area 1569 sq. mi.; pop. 
187,199: maps E-202, A-407, pic- 
ture E-201 

"apartment houses,” pictures E-205 
‘Xibelungs ine'be-lungs) , Song of the’, 
or ‘Xibelungenlied’, German epic of 
13th century N-232, G-83 
Siegfried legend S-176-7, S-411 
Volsungs. See in Index Volsunga 
Saga; Volsungs 

Wagner’s operas W-2: stories of 

0- 392-3; musical themes M-464 
Xlb'llck, an iron golf club, picture 

G-138 

Xicaea (nT-se'ci), or Nice (ills) (mod- 
ern Isnik, Turkey), important an- 
cient city of Bithynia, Asia Minor, 
on Lake Ascania 60 ml. s.e. of Con- 
stantinople; declined under Turkish 
rule (14th century) : map M-7 
council of (A.D. 325) C-302, C-456, 
E-200 

Xlcandra (.ni-kan’drcp), an annual 
plant (N. pliysalodes) of the night- 
shade family, native to Peru ; 
grows to 4 ft. ; leaves oval, toothed ; 
flowers blue, l in. across, wheel- 
shaped, solitary; escaped from cul- 
tivation in TJ.S.; also called apple 
of Peru, 

Xlcaragna (ni7;-fi-rd'pio<i) , one of the 
larger Central American republics: 
area 57,145 sq. mi.; pop. 1.057,023; 
cap. Managua: N-232-3, maps 
C-172, N-261. See also in Index Cen- 
tral America 

flag P-138, color picture F-136 
history N-233, C-177 
literature L-128, 124 
location, picture N-232 
ilount Cosequina, picture C-173 
products N-233 

relationships in continent, maps 
,,•'^-245-6, 248, 250-1, 258 
ointed States intervention N-233: 

Coolidge sends Marines C-468 
"Baer's filibustering expedition 
1 -252 

^*^800’ Lake, largest lake in 
central America, in s.w. Nicaragua; 
drained by San Juan River: N-232, 
naps C-172, N-251 
A 3*9^'^*' Canal, project N-233, 

JtlMmgtian Canal Treaty (1884) 
tab> Index Treaties, 

Nlccolo de’ (1363- 
Italian humanist R-104 
rr,'*'’' Pisano. See in Index Pisano, 
XIccolo 

■ ancient city in Asia Minor. See 
Index Nicaea 

re inCs), Prance, resort on Riviera: 
pop. 200.750: N-233, maps F-259. 

1- 416, 425. Jiicfiire F-265 


with 


ceded to Prance V-468 
Ni'ceno Creed C-302, C-456 
Nicholas {nVc’o-Uis), Saint (4th cen- 
tury), bishop of Myra, Asia Minor; 
in many legends, bountiful patron 
of children; his feast day (Decem- 
ber 6) is near Christmas; hence he 
comes to be the Christmas gift- 
bringer, “St. Nick” or “Santa 
Claus”: C-2946, S-i3a, picture C-294 
Nicholas I, pope 858-867 ; sometimes 
called “the Great,” one of the most 
vigorous of the early popes, uncom- 
promising in upholding his claims 
to universal jurisdiction. 

X’icholas II, pope 1059-61; restricted 
election of popes to College of 
Cardinals; greatly influenced by 
Hildebrand (later Gregory VII). 
Nicholas III (12167-80), pope 1277- 
80; materially strengthened tem- 
poral power of the church; man of 
strict morals and great learning; 
belonged to house of Orsini. 
Nicholas IV, pope 1288-92, first 
Franciscan monk to become pope; 
encouraged Crusades and sent mis- 
sionaries to the East. 

Nicholas V (1397-1455), pope 1447- 
55; founded valuable library and 
manuscript collection; extended 
wide patronage to classical scholars 
of Renaissance. 

Nicholas I (1796-1855), emperor of 
Russia N-233-4, R-286 
Nicholas II (1868-1918), emperor of 
Russia N-234, R-287-8, 289, picture 
N-234 

limitation of armaments P-102 
William II, correspondence 
W-136 ^ ^ 

Nicholas, or Nikita (1841-1921), he- 
reditary prince of Montenegro ; suc- 
ceeded 1860: assumed title of king 
1910' driven into exile by Germans 
during World War I; deposed 1918 
w:hen Montenegro became merged 
into Yugoslavia: resisted this dep- 
osition until his death. 

Nicholas, Grand Duke (1856-19-9), 
grandson of Czar Nicholas 1: ap- 
pointed commander m chief of Rus- 
sian army 1914; later command^ 
in chief in Caucasus; remo\ed from 
command after Czar’s abdication; 
died in Paris. 

Nicholas, Samuel 

Marine Corps officer M-97 
Nicholas II Land, Russia. 

Index Severnaya Zemlya 
<'vsr«TininH NIckleby , novel by Charles 
^DickeL in UicVthe evils of cheap 
schools are disclosed; the hero be- 
gan his career at Squeers s school. 
Nicholas of Pisa. See in Index Pisano. 

NiSiols. Robert Malisc Bowyer ^ I®23- 
1944). English poet; wounded n 
World War I (poetiy-: Under the 
?ew’ ’Aurelia’ ; drama : ’Wings over 
Europe’, witii 

x-ifliols Roy Franklin (born 1896), 
"'historian and educator, born -New- 
nrk NJ.; professor of historj 
Univers tv of Pennsylvania, since 
1930 - won 1949 Pulitzer prize for 
■The ' Disruption of American De- 

NlSofs Pfeid. former U 

field on Luzon Island, F. 1., o mi. 
from Manila: attacked by Japanese 

December 1941: map P-195 _ 

TCJ/Tiinl^ion. sir Francis (16oo-172B;, 

* English colonial official, born near 

Pac^hmonl England: Heu enant 

governor or govermm of Mrginia. 
Maryland. South ^_(^,rohnm^ and 


U.S. 


See in 


Nova Scotia. Ganada 

"'■'''ovehst and'^sayist. Sm^"n^C^aw: 
no%eliEt . g mlni.ster to 

fordsMlIe I""’- Venezuela 

r>iir;iguay I'.'JJ---*. ^ 


1935-38, to Nicaragua after 1938 
(‘The House of a Thousand Can- 
dles': ‘The Port of Missing Jlen’; 
‘A Hoosier Chronicle’). 

XTcholson, IVilliam (1753-1815), Eng- 
lish writer and lecturer: edited 
Journal of Natural Philosophy, 
Chemistry, and the Arts, earliest 
work of the kind in England ; wrote 
‘An Introduction to Natural Phi- 
losophy’; invented an aerometer 
and discovered a way of decom- 
posing water by electric current. 
Nichrome, an alloy, table A-174 
X’icias (uls7i'i-ds) (died 413 B.C.), 
Athenian statesman and general in 
Peloponnesian War; became leader 
of aristocrats on death of Pericles; 
arranged Peace of Nicias (421 b.c.) 
between Athens and Sparta, which 
terminated first decade of Pelopon- 
nesian War. 

Nickel, a five-cent piece, a coin 
of the U.S., valued at the twentieth 
part of a dollar; 75 per cent copper 
and 25 per cent nickel 
Jefferson’s portrait on J-332b 
types collected M-340 
Nickel, a metallic element N-234-5, 
picture N-235, tables M-176, P-161, 
C-214 

alloys A-172, 173, 174, 175, N-234-5: 
electric lamp N-234, E-310; Ger- 
man silver C-475, N-234; monel 
metal C-475, N-235 
earth’s core, diagram C-215 
electrochemical activity E-315 
electroplating E-321 
electrotyping E-321 
magnetic nature explained E-304 
meteorites contain M-180, 182 
plating N-234: replaced by chromium 
C-300 

producing regions N-235, picture 
N-235 

silver N-234 
steel N-234, A-172 

NIckelo'dcon, in history of motion pic- 
ture.?, place where "nickel shows” 
were given ; now’ sometimes applied 
to automatic pianos and phono- 
graphs in public places: M-432 
X'ickimmes N-235 
origin of "Yankee” Y-334 
states of U.S. See Fact Summary 
with each state article; see also in 
Index name of state, subhead 
name, origin of, and nickname 
X'icobar Islands, In Bay of Bengal. 
See in Index Andaman and Nico- 
bar Islands 

Nicodo’mus, In New Testament, a 
prominent Pharisee, who visited 
Jesus by night as an inquirer (John 
iii) : helped to bury Jesus. 

X'icolay (ni7;'6-7d), Helen (1866-1954), 
American author, bom Paris, 
France, daughter of John George 
Nicolay (’The Boy’s Life of Uly.s- 
ses S. Grant’: ‘The Book of Amer- 
ican Wars'; 'The Boy.s’ Life of 
Lincoln’). 

Nicolay, John George (1832-1901), 
American author, secretary to Lin- 
coln; bom Bavaria: joint .author 
with John Hay of ‘Abraham Lin- 
coln : A History’. 

NIcolct (nt-7;(5-7e’). Jean (1508—1642), 
early French explorer in America 
(1634-35) W-164, 178, A-191 
Upper Peninsula. Mich. M-220, 229 
Nlc’oll. Sir IVllIlara Robertson (1851— 
1923), English man of letters, 
known as authority on the Bronte- 
family (‘Literary Anecdotes of the 
Nineteenth Century’; ’Life of Ian 
Maclaren’: 'Life of the Brontes’). 
X’IcolIe (nC-l:6l") '. Charles .Jean Henri 
(18CG-193G). French phy.slcian and 
bacterlologi.st, bom Rouen; France; 
discovered body louse iransmlt.s 
typhus: won 192’; Nobel prize in 
liiedielne .and physi’dogy. 


C^K^ch ,1, German « ; ijem. tyo ; = = 



NICOLLET 

Nicollet, Joseph Nicholas (1786—1843), 
French explorer and mathemati- 
cian; came to XT, S. 1832; offlcial 
surveyor of upper Mississippi and 
Missouri rivers (1836-3y); made 
valuable maps and reports. 

Nicolls. Sir Richard (1624-72), first 
Engrlish colonial governor of New 
York; sent to America to organize 
attack on New Netherland; firm 
conciliatory executive; won respect 
of both Dutch and English. 

Nicolsou, Harold (George) (born 
1886), English biographer and 
diplomat, born Tehran, Iran ; hus- 
band of Victoria Saokville-West; 
member of diplomatic service 
1909-29 ; member of Parliament 
1935-45; wrote biographies of 
Tennyson, Byron, Swinburne, and 
Constant de Rebecque. 

Nicomedia (nlk-o-me’ di-a) , wealthy 
ancient city on e. arm of Sea of 
Marmara; capital of Bilhynia; 
Hannibal committed suicide nearby 
(183 B.c.) ; Constantine the Great 
died here (a.d. 337) ; modern Izmit 
(also Ismid or Kocaeli) in Turkey; 
busy seaport; pop. 35,564. 

Nicop'olis, also Nikopol, Bulgaria, 
town in n. on Danube River at 
junction with the Osam; pop. 5409. 

Nicopolis, or Actia Nicopolis, ancient 
city of Epirus, in Greece near n.w. 
coast; now in ruins; founded 31 
B.c, by Augustus to commemorate 
victory over Mark Antony at 
Actium. 

Nicosia (nt-fco-sd'o) , capital of island 
of Cyprus; pop. 34,485; silk, leather, 
woolens: mavs T-ai5, E-417 

NIcot (TCe-fco'), Jean (1530—1600), 
French diplomat; scientific name of 
tobacco given in his honor: T-143 

Nlootlu'na, tobacco plant genus T-143 

Nic'otliie, poisonous alkaloid in tobac- 
co T-144 

Nicotinic acid, or niacin, a vitamin 
V-495-6, 498 
cooking, effect of V-496 
in bread B-298 

Ntctheroy, Brazil. See in Index Niterol 

Nidaros, Norway. See in Index Trond- 
heim 

Niebuhr (ne’hgr), Bartliold Georg 
(1776—1831), German historian and 
classical scholar, pioneer in mod- 
ern historical methods; his ‘Roman 
History’ regarded as epoch-making. 

Nicbuiir, Reinhoid (born 1892), theo- 
logian, born Wright City, Mo.; 
widely known for forceful expres- 
sion of neo-orthodox Protestant 
views and for his liberal social 
thought; professor. Union Theologi- 
cal Seminary, New York City 1930—, 
dean of faculty 1950-55; vice- 
president after 1955 (‘Faith and 
History’ ; ‘The Irony of American 
History’ ; ‘Christian Realism and 
Political Problems’). 

Nlcdersnchscn, Germany. See in Index 
Lower Saxony 

Niehaus (uc’ho?ts), Charles Henry 
(1855-1935), sculptor, born Cincin- 
nati, Ohio; work outstanding for 
simplicity, excellent composition 
and classical lino; did many public 
memorials (statues of Garfield, 
McKinley, Dr. Hahnemann, John 
Paul Jones, Lincoln). 

Niello (ne-vl’I6) , or l)I,'ick work, in 
decorating metals E-38e 

NIel’sen, Alice (1876—1943)), dramatic 
soprano, born Nashville, Tenn.; 
won first success in comic opera; 
famous for Mozart roles. 

Nielsen, Kay (born 1886). artist and 
illustrator, born Copenhagen, Den- 
mark; moved to America; work re- 
veals rare imagination; illustrated 
‘Fairy Tales’, by Hans Christian 
Andersen, and ‘East of the Sun and 


— 462 

West of the Moon', by Edgar Parin 
d’Aulaire. 

Nlemen River, in White Russian 
S.S.R. and Lithuania. See in Index 
Neman River 

Niepce (ne-eps’) , Joseph Nicephore 
(1765-1833), French physicist, one 
of inventors of photography P-225 
Nierembergia (iie-rein-ber'pt-q), or 
cupflower, a genus of dainty 
perennial plants with many beii- 
shaped flowers, violet or white. 
Native to tropical America; also 
called bluecup and whitecup. 
Nietzsciie (ne'clie), Friedrich Wilhelm 
(1844—1900), German philosopher; 
exalted self-assertion, the “will to 
power,” as the final self-justifying 
good in life; denounced Christian 
virtues of pity and humility as 
“slave morality”; died insane (‘Be- 
yond Good and Evil’; ‘The Will to 
Power’; ‘Thus Spake Zara- 
thustra’ ) : G-85, picture G-84 
Nieuwland (nn'Jdnd), Julius Arthur 
(1878-1936), American chemist, 
Roman Catholic priest, and educa- 
tor, born Belgium; professor at Uni- 
versity of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, 
Ind. 

discoveries in chemistry of rubber 
R-244 

Nieuwveld (Mi/Jf'udlt) Mountains, divi- 
sion of main range in province of 
Cape of Good Hope, Union of South 
Africa. 

“Nife" zone, in geology G-53 
Nlllheim (nifl-Uim), in Norse myth, 
land of eternal fog and mist M-476c 
Nlgella (ni-geVq.) , or fennelflower, a 
genus of annua! plants of the but- 
tercup family, native to Mediter- 
ranean and Turkestan. Grows 1 
to 2 ft.; leaves threadlike; flowers 
with 5 petais, white, blue, or yellow 
surrounded by collar of leaves; 
seed capsule a balloon enclosed in 
net of fine leaves; one species, love- 
in-a-mist (N, aamaacena), also 
called devil-in-a-bush. 

Niger (nVger, French nS-zher’), terri- 
tory in French West Africa, n. of 
Nigeria; includes part of Sahara; 
acquired by France 1912; ap- 
proximately 458,000 sq. mi.; pop. 
2,041,000; cap. Niamey; livestock; 
millet, beans, manioc, rice, cotton; 
map A-46 

Nigeria (ni-ger'i-g.) , region in w, Af- 
rica on Gulf of Guinea, under Brit- 
ish control; area 372,674 sq. mi.; 
pop. 31,500,000; cap. Lagos; N-235- 
60, map A-46, pictures K-236-236a 
government N-235, 2360 
location, picture N-235 
natural features N-236 
people N-236 

relationships in continent, maps 
A-46-7, 41-2, 39, 51 
Niger (nVger) River, 3d largest river 
of Africa (2600 mi.) N-23Ba— b, 
maps A-46, 41—2 

length, comparative. See in Index 
Rivers, table 
location, picture N-2360 
Niggertoe, or Brazil nut N-S16 
Nlgiit. See in Index Day and night 
Night iilindncss E-460 
Night-blooming cereus, a cactus C-10, 
picture H-288a 
“Night eye” E-460 
Nlglitimwk, a bird of the goatsucker 
family N-236b, picture N-2366, color 
picture B-182 
food habits B-158, N-2365 
Nlgiit heron H-3G1, picture H-350 
Nightingale, Florence (1820—1910), 
English war nurse N-236b— 7, pio- 
ture N-236b 
Crimean War C-614 


NIKKO 

Nightingale, a Songbird N-237 
Nightjar, various large-mouthed in- 
sect-eating birds, including night- 
hawks N-236b 
foot, picture B-175 
Night phlox. See in Index Zaluzian- 
skya 

Night school, for adults E-255 
Nightshade, a plant N-237 
bittersweet nightshade B-201, pic- 
ture P-339 

Nightshade, deadly, or belladonna 
n-237, P-341 

Nightshade family, or Solanaceae (sdi- 
g~nd'sc-e), a large group of herbs, 
rarely shrubs, with small flowers, 
and alternate leaves; fruit, a cap- 
sule or berry; includes potato, to- 
mato, tobacco, eggplant, petunia, 
as well as many poisonous species. 
See also in Index Nightshade, a 
plant 

‘Nigirt Watch’, by Rembrandt R-103 
Nihilists (ni'hil-ists), Russian revo- 
lutionists T-213 

Alexander H assassinated by A-147 
Nlhon-bashi (Bridge of Japan), 
Tokyo T-145 

Niihau Ine-e-hii'o) . an island of the 
Hawaiian group; 72 sq. mi.; pop. 
222; sheep: H-288aj maps H-28G, 
P-17 

Niitaka,vnmn, Formosa. See in Index 
Morrison, Mount 

Ni.tinska, Broiitislava (born 189t), 
Russian ballet dancer and chore- 
ographer, born Warsaw, Russia; 
sister of Vasiav Nijinsky; dancer 
with Imperial Russian Ballet and 
Diaghilev’s ballet; composed over 
200 ballets ('Gypsy Dances’; ‘Hun- 
dred Kisses’); came to U. S. 1940. 
Nijinsky (ne-gin'slci) , Vaslav (1890- 
1950), brilliant Russian ballet 
dancer, born Kiev; trained in Rus- 
sian Imperial Ballet School; made 
debut 1907 ; with Diaghilev’s Rus- 
sian Ballet 1909-18; American 
tour 1916-17; mental breakdown 
ended career late in 1917 ; most 
famous creations ‘Specter of the 
Rose’ ; ‘Les Sylphides’ ; ‘Afternoon 
of a Faun’ ; picture D-14t 
Nijmegen tni'mCi-gen) , also Nimwegen 
(nhn'vd-gcn) , Netherlands, indus- 
trial center on Waal River; pop. 
106,523; ancient Roman camp; 
maps B-111, B-424 
Nijmegen, Peace of (1678—79). See 
in Index Treaties, table 
Nijni Novgorod, Russia. See in Index 
Gorki 

Nlkariii, ancient Icaria, Greek island 
in Aegean Sea 130 mi. s.e. of 
Athens: taken from Turkey after 
Balkan Wars 1912-13; 83 sq. mi.: 
produces charcoal, sponges: map 
G-189 

Nike (ni'ke), in Greek mythology, 
goddess of victory. 

Nike Apteros. See in Index Wingless 
Victory, Temple of 

Nike of Samothrace. Bee in Index 
Winged Victory 

Nikisch (.ne'lcesli) , Arthur (1855- 
1922), Hungarian orchestral con- 
ductor; noted for interpretations of 
Wagner; conductor of Boston Sym- 
phony Orchestra 1889—93: conduc- 
tor of famous Leipzig Gewandhaus 
concerts from 1895 to his death. 
Nikita, king of Montenegro. See Jn 
Index Nicholas 

Nlklto (nik'fco), mountainous region, 
containing town, Nikko, on island 
of Honshu, Japan, about 75 mi. n. 
of Tokyo; religious and tourist 
center; temples, tombs, sanctuaries, 
and a sacred bridge 


Key: cape, dt, far, fast, whqt, fnll; me, yet, fern, thdre; ice, bit; row, won, fdr, ndt, dp; ciire, but, rijde, f(ill, burn; out; 


NIKOLAEV 


463 


NITROGEN 


national park N-39 
three wise monkeys, picture M-353 
Toshogu Shrine, picture J-313 
Nikolaev (ne-kO-lii’pif) , Russia, grain 
port on Bug River near Black Sea, 
70 mi. n.e. of Odessa; pop. 200,000: 
maps R-267, E-204:, E-417 
Nlko'.aevsk tne-k6-la'pefsl:) , seaport 
in e. Siberia at mouth of the Amur 
River on Sea of Okhotsk; improved 
harbor is kept open all year; pop. 
about 50,000: map A-406 
Nikopol, Bulgaria. See in Index 
Nicopolis 

Nikopol (ne-ko-pOV) , Russia, town 
in s. Ukraine on Dnieper PLiver 
about 45 mi. s.w'. of Zaporozhe ; pop. 
57,841; manganese: U-233, map 
R-267 

Nile, battle of (1798) N-109 
Nile River, longest river of Africa 
(3473 mi.) N-237-8, maps E-271, 
P-156, A-41-2, 46, picture Is-238 
archaeology A-302: Philae ruins, 
picture E-283 

Aswan Dam E-272, picture E-278. 

See also in Index Dam, table 
canal to Red Sea C-108-108a 
crocodiles C-515 
delta E-270, 272 
exotic river D-73a 
flood N-238, F-146 
in Egypt N-238 

irrigation E-272, picture E-278 
length, comparative. See in Index 
Rivers, table 

Ripon Palls, picture N-238 
source discovered N-238, V-471 
water power, first use of W-67 
Mies, Mich., city on St. Joseph River 
47 mi. S.W'. of Kaiamazoo in rich 
farm and fruit country; pop. 13,- 
irJ metalwork, paper mills: map 
_ M-227 

Ohio, manufacturing center on 
Mahoning River 50 mi. s.e. of 
Ueyeland; pop. 16,773: map 0-356 
ongai (iiii'pi), an ' Indian antelope 
commonly called “blue bull” ; slate 
brow'n markings on face. 
AiiBirl (niVjji-re) Hills, plateau in 
s. India in Madras region; some 
_ peaks over 8000 ft, 

^’lls. The IVonderful Adventures of', 
story by Selma Lagerlof L-87, S-412 
Fredrik (1840-99), 
^nedish chemist, discoverer of 
scandium. 

hy, name for certain long- 
bristly flies of family Tach- 
*'emarkable for rapid move- 
ments; larvae inhabit and kill 
Vi„,“'T’>'lars. beetles, snails: P-189 
^ minis, a cloud C-359 

' lli"®’ m art, the halo or disk of 
gnt surrounding head of a sacred 
personage. 

mp (nem), city in s. Prance 60 
cf Marseilles; pop. 75,398; 
tcade and manufactures: wine 
g^^ghrandy market: maps P-269, 

aqueduct A-283 

P-264, picture P-271 
Mmltz, Che,stcr IV. (born 1885), U.S. 
R-2Y3 ^'238, pictures N-238, 

Genesis x, 8-9, a mighty 
Inn^i!.'' founder of the Baby- 

3.nd AR-CJATinn 


and Assyrian empires. 
Nlm»r‘“’ See in Index Kalah 

Netherlands. See in Index 


Nijmegen 

* «h?r„. one of the three 

PS of r;oli,rr,V.„c on liis first 


Vovnr. T GolumbuS un Ilia 
“ -Amierica C-418, 4185 
' P/M,?’'- ®^™hs (Upulastcr or 

■n.j.'i ?®?nuis) of the rose family 
trhif heart-shaped leaves and 

’■csemb'"^ P'uk flower clusters which 


loose'at^' ^.P'eea= bark becomes 


arating into many thin layers; 
fruit, red pods; often cultivated. 
Ninepins, game B-266 
Nine-Rower Treaty J-321, H-267 
Ninety-five theses, of Luther L-353 
Nineveh (nin’e-ve), capital of ancient 
Assyria on the Tigris River N-239, 
B-9, maps B-6, A-285 
library L-181 

Nine AVortliies, The, heroes popular 
in medieval art and stories: three 
Christians — King Arthur, Charle- 
magne, Godfrey of Bouillon; three 
Jews — Joshua, David. Judas Mac- 
cabaeus; three paynims (or pa- 
gans) — Hector of Troy, Alexander 
the Great, Julius Caesar. 

Ningpo tning-p6’), China, city 60 mi. 
s. of Shanghai on Ningpo River; 
pop. 249,633; commerce in tea, silk, 
cotton, carpets, fish; became treaty 
port 1842: maps C-260, A-406 
Ningsia (nmg’sUi-ii') , province of w. 
Inner ilongolia, now included in 
Northwest Administrative Area of 
Chinese People’s Republic; cap. 
Yinehw'an (Ningsia): grasslands 
of extensive dry areas are used for 
nomadic grazing; kaoliang, wheat, 
beans, vegetables, and fruit are 
grown in irrigated districts along 
Hw'ang Ho (Yellow' River) : M-342 
Ninon tne-noh'), sometimes called 
triple voile, a sheer, closely woven 
voile made of rayon or silk; used 
for dresses and glass curtains. 

Ninus (ni'niis), legendary founder of 
ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh. 
Nio (nt-d'), modern name of ancient 
los, Greek island, one of Cyclades 
in Aegean .Sea, 13 mi. s. of Naxos; 
about 45 sq. mi.; according to tradi- 
tion Homer is buried there. 

Nioho (nVd-be), in mythology N-239 
Nio'biuni, formerly colum'hium, a 
rare metallic element of silvery 
color, high melting point, and high 
resistance to acids; somew'hat 
similar to tantalum: vital ermpo- 
nent in stainless steel and other 
alloy steels: tables P-151, C-214 
nitride, strips in bolometer 1-149 
Nlohrar'a River, Neb., rises in s.e. 
part of Wyoming and flows east 
through n. Nebraska for 450 mi, 
into Missouri River: maps N-95, 
102-3, U-286 
canyons N-95 

Niort (we-dr'). Prance, town 32 mi. 
n.e. of La Rochelle; pop. 29.068; 
tanning, glovemaking: map E-425 
Nipu tne’pii) palm, native of East 
Indies and Australia: fruit edib.e; 
sugar and alcohol from juice; in- 
troduced into s. Florida 
Philippine Islands P-196-7 
Nip'igon, Lake, in Ontario, Canada. 
70 mi longr; discharges by 
River into Lake Superior: 

C-69, 72 

archaeological finds 0-387 
Nip’issIiiB, Lake, in Ontario, Canada, 
between Georgian Bay and Ottawa 
River: 55 mi. long; link in proposed 
Georsrian Bay Canal i viop C- •- 
NipkoiY Rani «. (1?60-I?40) Germ.an 
scientist; television pioneer: T-54d 
NIpmne (nip’miik), the Algonqulan 
Indian tribes of central 
setts and extending into Connect! 
cut and Rhode Island. .They joined 
in King Philips Mar in 16ia and 
at its close most of them ^ed ‘o 
Canada or joined the can and 

other tribes on Hudson Ri' cr 
vim'iioii native name for Ja 
^‘'mean's “land of the rising sun 

Dai NiPP?"-„.,5f‘n.^cient city of 


Japan ; 


and shr edded when old, sep 
—French ti. German it;/) 


Nippur tnip-pnr i. Vfabv- 

Mesopotamia. oO ml. ^.e. ' - 


Ion; flourished 4000 B.c. ; 1952 ex- 
cavations by universities of Chi- 
cago and Pennsylvania found a 
temple and hundreds of Sumerian 
tablets: maps 1-224, B-6 
NIKA (National Industrial Recoverv 
Act), U. S. R-206-7, M-360 
Nirvana (nir-vd'ng') B-339 
Nis tncsli) , also Nish, Yugoslavia, 
Serbian town 130 mi. .s.e. of Bel- 
grade; pop. 00,677; ancient Nais- 
sus, birthplace of Constantine the 
Great: he'd by Turks 1456-1878: 
maps B-23, E-417 
in World W^ar I M’'-230 
Nisei (nts'd'D, persons of Japanese 
ancestry w'ho are citizens of another 
country. Sec also in Index Issei 
Nlsliapur (ne-sha-pnr"), ancient tow'll 
in n.e. Iran; pop. 24,270; birthplace 
of poet Omar Khayyam: map 1-224 
Niskn, a Chimmesyan Indian tribe 
living on Nass River and its tribu- 
taries and on Nass Bay, British 
Columbia, Canada. 

Nisntiallj- Glacier, In Mount Rainier 
National Park N-37 
Niter. See in Index Saltpeter 
NltcrOl, formerly Nictlieroy (iie-tc- 
roi'), Brazil, capital of state of Rio 
de Janeiro, across the bay from city 
of Rio de Janeiro; elegant suburban 
homes, fine bathing beaches; manu- 
factures include textiles, tobacco, 
soap; pop. 174,535: map B-288 
Niton. Sec in Index Radon 
N'i'trnte, a salt of nitric acid contain- 
ing nitrate radical (NOs) N-239, 
N-240 

ammonium nitrate A-236, N-241: in 
dynamite D-166 

bacterial formation P-297, N-240-1, 
A-151, pictures C-360, A-151 
calcium S-32 

collnlose, or nitrocelluIo.se C-163, 
table C-162. See also in Index 
Nitrocellulose 

Chile S-32, C-251, picture C-253 
cobalt, in invisible ink I-lDl 
fertilizers P-55, N-241 
ion, table C-216 
plants require P-297 
potassium .S-32: in gunpowder 
0-232-3; mineral form jl-265 
saltpeters S-32 

silver. Sec in Index Silver nitr.ate 
sodium S-32. M-2G5.' fertilizer F-65, 
N-241 

Nitrate radical N-239 
Nitric acid N-240. See also in Index 
Nitrate 
antidote F'96 
aqua regi.a contain.s 0-134 
etching employs E-387 
nickel di.s.solved Iiy N-235 
Nitric dioxide, or nitrogen peroxide, 
a reddi.sb-lirown ga.seous compound 
(NO:) N-240 

Nitric oxide, compound of nitrogen 
and oxygen (.VO), a colorless, 
poisonous g.-is, discovered (1772) 
by Joseph Priestley; Important In 
nitrogen fixation: F-317, N-240 
Nitrlde.s N-241 

Nitriding process, In case hardening 
of steel 1-245 
Nitrifying bacterln N-241 
Nitriles (ni'tril:), in cheml.strj', 
cyanogen compounds with organic 
radicals: characterized by univalent 
group CN : u.sually liquid com- 
pounds with ethereal odor. 

Nitriles, salts of nitrous acid (HNOi) 
N-239, N-241 

Nilroeeriolosr, Or cellulose nitrate 
C-163, tabic C-1C2 
collodion C-384 
explosive.' E-45S 
pyro.xylin prndu"t.s L-81, 82 
ra.vnn, malting R-El 
Ni'frngrn. .'I g.'i--eou.' eiem'nt N-240-1, 
tables P-161, C-214. See nlso in In^ 


:/)eni, go; thin, then 


; i, = French nasal (Jean ) : =7i -Prtncli ; 


(z in azu.’-cl ; g = Gerni:in guttural ch 



NITROGEN 


464 


NOGALES 


NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS— UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

(For biographical informa'ion, see in Index names below) 


Physics — Albert A. Micbelson, 1907; 
Robert A. Millikan, 1923; Arthur H. Comp- 
ton (co-winner with Charles T. 11. Wilson, 
England), 1927; Carl D. Anderson (with 
Victor F. Hess, Austria), 1936; Clinton J. 
Davisson (with Sir George P- Thomson, 
England), 1937; Ernest O, Lawrence, 1939; 
Otto Stern, 1943; Isidor Isaac Rabi, 1944; 
Percy W. Bridgman, 1946; Edward Mills 
Purcell and Felix Block, co-winners, 1952. 

Chemistry — Theodore W. Richards, 
1914; Irving Langmuir, 1932; Harold C, 
Urey, 1934; James B. Sumner, John H. 
Northrop, and Wendell M. Stanley, co- 
winners, 1946; William F. Giauque, 1949; 
Edwin Mattison McMillan and Glenn T. 
Seaborg, co-winners, 1951; Archer J. P. 
Martin, Canada (with Richard L. ^M. 
Synge. England), co-winners. 1952; Linus 
C. Pauling, 1954. 


Medicine and Physiology — Alexis 
Carrel, 1912; Sir Frederick G. Banting and 
John J. R. MacLeod (both of Canada), eo- 
winnere, 1923; Karl Landsteiner, 1930; 
Thomas H. Morgan, 1933; George R. 
Minot, William P- Murphy, and George H. 
Whipple, co-winners, 1934; Edward A. 
Doisy (with Henrik Dam, Denmark), 1943; 
Joseph Erlanger and Herbert S. Gasser, co- 
winners, 1944; Hermann J. Muller, 1946; 
Carl F. and Gerly T- Cori (with Rernar- 
do A. Houssay, Argentina), 1947; Philip S. 
Hench and Edward C. Kendall (with 
Tadeusz Reichstein of Switzerland), 1950; 
Max Thciler, 1951 (resident of ' United 
Slates, but citizen of Sonth Africa); Selman 
A. Waksman, 1952; Fritz A. Lipmann (wi h 
Hans A. Krebs of Eneland), 1953; Joan F. 
Ender>, Thomas H. Welle'*, and Frederick 
C. Robhins, co-winners, 1954. 


Literature — Sinclair Lewis, 1930; Eu- 
gene O’Neill, 1936; Pearl Buck, 1938; 
William Faulkner, 1949; Ernest Heming- 
way. 1954. 


Peace — Tb eodore Roosevelt, 1906; Elihu 
Root, 1912; Woodrow W ilson, 1919; Charles 
G. Dawes (with Sir [Joseph] Austen Cham- 
berlain, England), 1925; Frank B. Kellogg, 
1929; Jane Addams and Nicholas Murray 
Butler, co-winners, 1931; Cordell Hull 
1945; Emily Greene Balch and John R 
Mott, co-winners, 1946; American Friends 
Service Committee, Philadelphia (with 
Friends Service Council, London, Eng- 
land), 1947; Ralph Bunche, 1950; George 
C. Marshall, 1953. 


Note. — Unless indicated otherwise^ all winners shoun above uere citizens of the United States at the lime cj the auard. Not listed above 
are Albert Einstein (physics, 1921) and 7 homos Mann (literature, 1929), who uere citizens of Germany at the time of tl.eir auards but later 
became citizens of the United States — Einstein in 1940 and Mann in 1944. T. S. lliot, American-born poet (literature, 1948), is omitted 
from the list because he was a British subject when he received his award. 


(lex Nitrate; also headings begin- 
ning with Nitric and Nitro 
air contains A-73, chart A-73 
amino acids B-145 
ammonia A-236: one of chief nitro- 
gen compounds N-240-1 
ammonium A-236, A-168 
animals need N-240 
cycle P-295, N-241 
electric lamp filled with E-310 
electronic structure, diagrams A-468, 
C-213 

explosive compounds E-457-8 
fertilizers F-65, N-241 
fixation N-240-1 

bacterial action N-240, P-297. 

B-13, S-228-9, picture B-14: al- 
falfa A-161, picture A-151; clover 
C-359, picture C-360 
cyanamide process N-241 
electric arc process N-241, F-317 
Haber-Bosch process N-241 
isotopes, table C-215 
liquefied L-265: used for malting ex- 
tra hard stainless steel 1-248 
plants need P-295, 297, N-240: fer- 
tilizers F-55 

proteins contain P-422, B-145 
protoplasm contains B-145 
pyroxylin products, use in D-81, 82 
steel, case hardening requires 1-245 
Nitrogen cycle, in plant and animal 
life P-295, N-241 

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria N-240— 1, 
P-297, S-228-9 
alfalfa A-151, picture A-151 
azotobacter B-13 
clover C-359, picture C-360 
rhizobia, effect of, picture B-14 
Nitrogen peroxide. See in Index 
Nitric dioxide 

Nitroglyc’erin, an explosive D-166, 
E-467, 458 

Nitrous oxide. See in Index Laughing 
gas 

Nltti (uet'te), Francesco Saverlo 
(1868-1953), Italian statesman and 
author; professor economics, Uni- 
versity of Naples; minister of agri- 
culture, industry, trade, treasury; 
as premier distinguished himself In 
finance ; opposed Fascism ; left Italy 
1924 as exile, returned after World 
War II (‘They Make a Desert’). 
Nine (iie-o'd) Island, or Savage Is- 
land, dependency of New Zealand 
since 1901 ; in Pacific e. of Tonga 
Islands; 100 sq. ml.; pop. 4253; 
chief town Alofl; copra; map P-17 
NIvelle,' Robert Georges (1856— 1924), 
French World War I general, born 


Tulle, France; commander in chief 
of French armies 1916—17 
Chemln des Dames W-227, A-111 
Niven (niv'en), Frederick John 
(1878-1944), novelist, born Val- 
paraiso, Chile, of Scottish parents; 
educated Scotland ; lived in Canada 
after World War I (‘Mrs. Barry’ ; 
‘Mine Inheritance’). 

Nlvernals (ne-ver-nd). Prance, his- 
toric province, map P-270 
Nix'ies, water fairies P-11 
Nixon, Richard Mfilhous) (born 1913), 
political leader, born Yorba Linda, 
Calif.; U.S. Navy officer 1942-46; 
U.S. congressman from California 
1947-51; U.S. senator 1951-53; in 
House and Senate sponsored meas- 
ures to combat subversive activity; 
elected vice-president of U.S. under 
Dwight D. Eisenhower 1952; 
E-287i), pictures E-287b, d-e 
Niza, Marcos de. See in Index 
Marcos 

Nizam (nt-zdm’), former princely 
ruler of Hyderabad, India H-456 
Nizam, famous diamond, picture D-79 
Nizliiii Novgorod, Russia. See in In- 
dex Gorki 

Nizhni 'Tagil (nyish’nye td-ffeV), in- 
dustrial city in w.-central Siberia 
on e. slope of Ural Mts, ; gold, 
platinum, copper, iron; pop. 250,- 
000: map R-266, A-406 
NIvVD, Russian secret police; name 
made from initials of words mean- 
ing People’s Commissariat of In- 
ternal Affairs: R-282 
NLRB (National Labor Relations 
Board), U. S. L-72, 73 
NMKI 448, insecticide 1-164 
No. See jn Index No drama 
Noah (no'o), in Genesis vi-ix, builder 
of the Ark, in which he and his 
family and one pair of every kind 
of animal were saved from the 
Deluge: ancestor of various races 
through sons, Shem, Ham, Japheth 
Mount Ararat A-418 
Sumerian legend B-7 
Noailles (no-Vyn), Anna-Elisabeth, 
Comtesse Mathieu de (1876-1933), 
French poet, novelist F-289, 290 
Nobel (nd-heV), Alfred Bernhard 
(1833—96), Swedish chemist, in- 
ventor, philanthropist N-242, pic- 
ture N-242 

founds Nobel prizes N-242 
Nobel prizes N-242, L-267. For 

names of Nobel prize winners in 
U. S. and Canada, see table on 
this page 


Nobile (nd'be-la) , Umberto (born 
1885), Italian airship designer, avi- 
ator, and Arctic explorer; designed 
dirigibles Norge and Italia; dean 
aeronautics, Lewis Holy Name 
School of Aeronautics, Lockport, 
III. 1939-42: P-350a 
Amundsen and A-238-9, map P-S46 
Nobility, titles of. See in Index Titles 
of nobility 

Noble fir, evergreen tree (Abies 
nobilis) of pine family, native from 
Washington to California. Grows 
60 ft. to 200 ft. high; has rough 
red-brown bark, rounded crown. 
Leaves rounded, gray-green, to IW 
in. long, with white lines on both 
sides; cones to 10 In. long. Wood has 
reddish streaks; sometimes mar- 
keted as "white fir” and "larch.” 
Noble gases, or inert gases C-213, 
A-460, table P -161 
electronic structure, diagram C-213 
Noble metals, term sometimes applied 
to gold and platinum because of 
their slight tendency to combine 
with other elements; also to sil- 
ver, palladium, rhodium, mercury, 
aluminum, and even copper. 

Nocera (no-chtVrd) Inferiore, Italy, 
city 20 mi. s.e. of Naples; pop. 23,- 
289 ; linen and W'oolen goods. 

Noebe Buena (no'chd buitVnd). Span- 
ish Christmas Eve festival (1-295 
Nocturne, in music. See in Index 
Music, table of musical term.s and 
forms 

Noddack, Walter (born 1893) and Ida 
(born 1896), German chemists: 
with O. Berg, codiscoverers of 
masurium and rhenium. 

Nodding lily. Sec in Index Yellow 
lily, wild 

Noddy tern, bird G-231 
Node, in astronomy, the two points 
where the orbit of a planet inter- 
sects the plane of the earth’s eclip- 
tic; one is the ascending, the other 
the descending node 
regression of the nodes M-388 
No drama, also Noli drama, Japanese 
theatrical performance dating 
14th century; of slow tempo: J-313, 
D-14/ 

Noel (nd-eV), French name for 
Christmas C-299 
Bonhomme Noel C-294b 
carols, or noels C-294 
Nolretete (nOf-re-tS'te) , or Nefrctefe, 
Egyptian queen S-76, pictures 
A-298, F-319C. color picture S-72_ ^ 
Nogales (nu-ffdl'es, Spanish nd-pa - 


Key: cope, dt, fe'ir, fust, whtit, ffill; me, yet, fern, there; ice, bit; row, won, fOr, not, dp; ctlre, but. rfide, fitll, burn; out; 




NOGI 


465 


NORFOLK 


lus), Arlz., city on Mexican border 
(pop. G153), .separated by a street 
from Nogales, Mexico (pop. 24,- 
480) ; port of entry for w. coast of 
Mexico; export and import trade; 
silver, copper, lead, and molyb- 
denum in vicinity, also cattle rais- 
ing: maps, A-3B3, M-189, 194, U-252 
N'ogi (no'yS), Ki-Ten Marosuke, 
Count (1849-1912), Japanese gen- 
eral, victor of Port Arthur in 
Russo-Japanese War R-296 
Xoguchi {no-ijo'clie) , Isamn (born 
1904), abstract sculptor, designer 
of stage sets and modern functional 
furniture, born Los Angeles, Calif.; 
son of American mother and famed 
Japanese poet; Tone Noguchi; con- 
tributed bridge designs to Peace 
Park at Hiroshima 
Noguchi table, picture F-319 
Xoh, Japanese drama. See in Index 
No drama 

Noise, loud or confused sound 
devices for broadcasting R-48, pic- 
ture R-49 .. 

distinguished from music S-239 
efficiency, effect on W-200 
Noko'mU, in Henry Wadsworth Long- 
fellow's poem ‘Hiawatha’, Hia- 
watha’s grandmother, who taught 
him the legends of his race. 

Kola (nd’ld), Italy, city 16 mi. n.e. of 
Naples; pop. 10,733; prominent in 
Roman times; Augustus died there 
a.d. 14. 

Nolan, Jeannette Covert (born 1896), 
author of books for adults and chil- 
dren, born Evansville, Ind,; books 
for children: ‘The Young Douglas', 
‘Florence Nightingale’, ‘Story of 
Clara Barton’, ‘John Brown’, 

Nolan, Philip (died 1801), American 
filibuster; led unsuccessful expe- 
dition into Spanish Texas with Col. 
Ellis P. Bean in 1800; killed by 
Spaniards. 

Nolan, Philip, hero of E. E. Hale’s 
‘Man Without a Country’ H-247 
Nolana (no-la'no), a genus of peren- 
nial plants of the nolana family, 
native to Chile and Peru. Low 
growing, creeping stems with long- 
stemmed, fleshy oval leaves ; flowers 
blue, or pu;Tile, bell-shaped, similar 
to morning-glory ; also called 
Chilean bellflower. 

NollChncky (nol'i-chuk-i) , Jack, nick- 
name of John Sevier S-108 
Nollchucky River, about 150 mi. long, 
rises in w. North Carolina, flows 
n.w. Into French Broad River, e. 
Tennessee (Douglas Reservoir) : 
nap T-67 

Nomads N-242-242h, D-73b, F-18&, 
M-69, S-144, pictures N-242a— 

A-402 

Afghanistan A-32 
Africa A-40 
Arabs A-286-7, 290, 

Pictures A-284, 286, 

N-242a, 1) 

Bedouins A-286-7, 290, 
pictures A-284, 286, 

N-242a, b 
mackfellows, Australia A-480, pfe- 
Ipres A-4S1, B-249 
Ethiopia E-401 

Eskimos E-393-7, pictures E-393-7 
p’Psles G-235-6 
Iran 1-222 

E^apps L-1 oi_ 2, A-330 
migrations caused bv drought D-153 
m^ern nomads F-18b, pictures 
I- -18b, H-432cJ, S-144d 
Alongols M-345-G, 342-4, pictures 

M-341-2, 344 
Nnvajos I-104C 
ifmstan P-42a 

1 90 1-103, 104, pictures 

Sahara S-IG. pictures S-15 


N-242-242b, 
287, A-403, 


N-242-242b, 
287, A-403, 


Seed Gatherer Indians I-106a-b 
Semitic tribes J-352 
shelter. See in Index Shelter, sub- 
head nomadic 

No Man’s Land, unclaimed or disputed 
territory, particularly various bor- 
derlands; during World War I ap- 
plied to land between front-line 
trenches of opposing forces. 

Nom de plume (Mom de plum, French 
;idn de pliitn), a fictitious name, 
especially one used by writers ; also 
called pen name, or pseudonym. 
Nome (nom), Alaska, gold-mining 
town and seaport in center of w. 
coast on Seward peninsula; pop. 
1876 (was over 10,000 during gold 
rush of 1899-1900); maps A-136, 
A-531, N-250 

No’menclature, names or language 
used in any art or science. 
Nominations, in politics 
Russia R-281 

United States P-357-8, pictures 
P-358, 359 

Nominative case, in grammar N-306 
pronouns P-41T, 418 
Nonane, in chemistry. See in Index 
Paraffin series 

Nonclastic rocks R-169. See also xn 
Index Limestone 

Noncombatants, status and rights in 
war time 1-190 

Noncommissioned otTicers 

grades and pay in U.S. Air Force, 
Army, Marines, and Navy com- 
pared, table A-384 
U. S. Air Force A-81, table A-384. 

‘insignia, pictures V-23B 
U. S. Army A-383, 384, (obZe A-384: 
infantry units commanded by. 
table A-380; insignia L-235, 239, 
pictures U-238 

U. S. Marine Corps M-97, table 
A-384: Insignia U-235, pictures 

U-236, 238 , OQ 

U S Navy (petty officers) N-89, 
table A-384: Insignia U-239, pic- 

Nonconductors, electric E-294, 297, 

nno 

Nonconform'ists, in 

tants outside the established church 
E-356. see also in Index Dissenters 
Nones (.nonz), in ancient Roman caU 
^ endar the 9th day before the ide^ 
failing in March. May, do')’ 
betober on the 7th of/he month 
in other months on the 5th C 22 

Non-Euclid'ean geometries G-65-6 

Nonferrons nWoys table 

Non-Importatlon Act (1606). U. S. 

Nonimportation agreements, in Amer- 
ican Colonies S-368 
Non-Intercourse Act (IBOJ;. 

NoSals, in chemistry C-213, table 

River. Manchuria: 

ni;;. kU.. ^ 

flows 660 mi. to Sungari i.iver. 
M-72 map M-72 

yLbJectlre art P-23, 38, picture P-23 
Nonometer. pnlnted 

nrtlnL bird rnneh family B-353 

Nonpareil type 'r--28 ^ p^j^ary- or 

election 

fanSt bears no party designation 
for any candidate. 

Sng^. ^atueVn IL84-84a^ 

mbz‘e"o7muslcal terms and forms 
doodles M-l , per days, a lin, 
^ dwwm on the fl^or of a cabin, mark 


ing one edge of the patch of light 
that came through an open door 
or window when the sun was due 
south, it told the noon hour, and 
clocks were set by it. 

Noot'ka, a group of Indian tribes 
that lives in British Columbia, 
Canada, map 1-106/, picture I-106c, 
table 1-108 

No'pal, a genus of the cactus family; 
resembles the prickly pear; grown 
as food for cochineal insects: C-373 
Noranda, town in w. Quebec, Canada, 
about 150 mi. n. of North Bay, 
Ontario; pop. 9672; copper, gold, 
and zinc mining: smelting plants; 
lumbering: map C-72 
Nor'bert, .Saint (died 1134), German 
ecclesiastic, archbishop of Magde- 
burg M-366 

Nordau (.nor'dou), Max (1849-1923), 
Jewish author and philosopher, 
born Hungary; leader in European 
Zionist movement (‘Degeneration’, 
criticism of modern civilization). 
Nordenskjold (nor'den-shuld) , Nils 
Adolf Erik, Baron (1832-1901), 
Swedish Arctic explorer, first to ac- 
complish (1878-79) the Northeast 
Passage from Atlantic to Pacific 
Northeast Passage P-350, map P-346 
Nordenskjold, Nils Otto Gustaf (1869— 
1928), Swedish explorer, nephew of 
N.A.E. Nordenskjold; after explora- 
tions in Patagonia. Alaska, and 
Greenland, led expedition to South 
Polar regions (1901-4); was res- 
cued off coast of Graham Land by 
Argentine gunboat after own ship 
sank. 

NordlioIT, Charles Bernard (1887- 
1947), author, born of American 
parents in London, England ; mar- 
ried Pep6 Tearal of Tahiti where he 
lived for several years: in collabora- 
tion with James N. Hall wrote ‘La- 
favette Flying Corps’, ’Mutiny on 
the Bounty’, ‘Men Against the Sea’, 
'Pitcairn’s Island’, 'The Hurricane’. 
Nor'diea, Elllinn (1859-1914), oper- 
atic soprano, born Farmington. Me.: 
most famous for Wagnerian roles; 
died in Java after exposure from 
shipwreck. 

Nordic snbrnce, of the Caucasoid race 
R-22-3, chart R-22 
Nordkapp, or North Cape, Arctic Is- 
land on n. coast of Norway: from 
here tourists view the midnight sun; 
generallv known as the northern- 
most point of Europe, although 
Knlvskjaeroddcn, an Island about 
47 mi. to the n.w.. Is actually farther 
north: xnaps N-301, E-417 
Nordkyn, Cape, northernmost point on 
mainland of Europe. 

Nordlingen (nfirt’(inp-dn). town In 
Bavaria, .s. Germany. 70 mi. n.w. 
of Munich; In Thirty Years' War, 
scene of Imperialist victory over 
Swedes (1634) and defeat by 
French (1645). 

NordrbcIn-lVestfalcn, state. Germany. 
See in Index North Rhlne-We.st- 
phalla 

Nor'folk. county In e. England bounded 
n and c. by North Sea; 2055 sq. ml.; 
pop. 546,550; cap. Norwich; farm- 
ing, textiles; map E-347 
Norfolk, Neb., commercial center for 
agricultural district; pop. 11,335; 
on Elkhom River, 95 mi. n.w. of 
Omaha; railroad shops, bridge 
work.i, canning plants: maps N-103, 
U-253 

Norfolk. Va.. seaport on Hampton 
Roads, opposite Port.smouth; pop. 
213.513: .N-2425-3, C-2235, 224, 

maps V-4B7, U-253 
Tidewater Terminal."', picture V-479 
Norfolk Island. I.'-oIatod i.'l.'ihd 800 
ml. c. of Australia, which governs 


M. German « :x7em.po; ^ = 


rftrrFrench/ (da azure) :X = Gcrmaii guttural ch 



NORFOLK 

it; 13 sq. mi.; pop. 938; British 
cable station: map P-16 
Pitcairn settlers removed to P-11 
Norfolk Naval Shipyard, at Ports- 
mouth, Va., on Elizabeth River; 
builds and repairs all classes of 
naval vessels. See also in Index 
Portsmouth, Va. 

Norfork Dam, in Arkansas, on North 
Pork River A-359 

Noria. See in Index Persian water 
wheel 

No-rinse laundry defersent S-214 
Norkay, Tensing. See in Index Ten- 
sing Norkay 

Norm, or mode, a measure of average 
S-385e 

Normal curve, in statistics S-385e 
Normal salt, in chemistry A-10 
Normal school. See in Index Teachers, 
training of 

Normal solutions, in chemistry S-234— 5 
Norman, Montagu Collet (Baron Nor- 
man of St. Clere in the County of 
Kent) (1871-1950), British finan- 
cier; governor of the Bank of Eng- 
land 1920-44. 

Norman, Okla., university city in 
livestock-raising and oil area, 18 
mi. s. of Oklahoma City; pop. 27,- 
006 ; state mental hospital; Naval 
Air Technical Training Center: map 
0-371 

high-school gymnasium, picture 
E-252 

University of Oklahoma 0-375, pio- 
ture 0-374 

Norman, draft horse. See in Index 
Percheron 

Norman architecture A-312 
house, picture A-322 
Ludlow castle, picture E-351 
Norman Conquest (of England) 
W-137, E-359-61 
battle of Hastings H-280 
effect on English language B-374, 
376; origin of name “county” 
C-4D8 

Nor'mandy, old province of Prance on 
English Channel N-243, tnaps 
P-270, E-425, picture N-243 
battle (1944) ■W-269-70, 280 
Channel Islands once part of C-185 
cheese making C-207 
history N-243; William the Con- 
queror W-137 
Normans N-243 

Norns, in Norse mythology, the three 
giant goddesses who preside over 
the fates of both men and gods 
(Urd, personifying the past; Ver- 
dandi, the present: Skuld, the fu- 
ture) : Asgard was their home. 
Norridgewocit, division of the Abnaki 
group, of Algonquiari stock; lived 
in Canada and Maine. 

Norris, Cliaries Gilman (1881—1945), 
novelist, born Chicago, III.; husband 
of Kathleen Norris and brother of 
Prank; journalistic work in New 
York; novels deal with problems of 
modern life (‘Salt’ ; 'Brass’ ; ’Bread’). 
Norris, Frank (1870-1902), novelist, 
born Chicago, 111., brother of 
Charles Gilman Norris (‘The Octo- 
pus' and ‘The Pit’, first and second 
parts of an unfinished trilogy, ‘The 
Epic of Wheat’) A-2305 
Norris, George William (1861—1944), 
legislator, born Sandusky County, 
Ohio; U. S. representative 1903-12, 
U.S. senator from Nebraska 1912- 
42; nominally Republican but inde- 
pendent of party ties ; for reform of 
House rules; voted against U. S. 
entrance Into World War I; de- 
nounced Versailles Treaty 
Tennessee Valley Authority R-207 
Norris, ICathlceu (bom IRROl, novelist, 
born San Francisco, Calif.: wife of 
Charles Gilman Norris (‘Mother’; 


466 

‘Noon’ ; ‘Barberry Bush’ ; ' ‘Mother 
and Son’). 

Norris Dam, in Tennessee, on Clinch 
River T-70, maps T-67, T-69, pic- 
tures T-60, 68. See also in Index 
Dam, table 

Norris-Doxey Cooperative Fai'm For- 
estry Act, U.S. P-239, 240 
Norristown, Pa., borough 14 mi. n.w. 
of Philadelphia on Schuylkill 
River; pop. 38,126; iron, marble, 
limestone, sandstone in vicinity; 
textile machinery, hosiery, steel, 
iron products, cigars: map P-133 
Norrkoping (ndr'chup-ing) , Sweden, 
seaport on s.e. coast 80 mi. s.w. 
of Stockholm; pop. 84.939; indus- 
trial center: maps N-301, E-424 
Norr’land, n. part of Sweden S-462 
Norse language. See in Index Scan- 
dinavian languages 
Norsemen. See in Index Northmen 
Norse mythology M-476C— d, Refer- 
ence-Oxttline M-479 

Edda S-55, M-477 

Norstad, Lauris (born 1907), U. S. 
Air Force officer (became 4-star 
general 1952), born Minneapolis, 
Minn.; U. S. Air Force deputy chief 
of staff for operations 1947-50 ; 
commander U. S. Air Forces in 
Europe 1950-53, of Allied air forces 
in central Europe 1951-53; SHAPE 
air deputy commander 1953—. 
Nortli, Ohristopher, pen name. See in 
Index Wilson. John 
North, Frederick, Baron (1732—92), 
later 2d carl of Guilford (better 
known as Lord North), British 
statesman; as king’s agent (dis- 
claimed title of prime minister) 
Introduced Boston Port Bill, 1774, 
and against own conviction, sup- 
ported George Ill’s policies which 
led to American Revolution : R-122, 
125, 128 

Offers peace R-129 

North, Sir Thomas (15357-1601?), 
English translator of Plutarch 
from the French version by Amyot 
(first edition 1579), vigorous style 
greatly influenced English prose: 
Shakespeare took whole speeches 
in ‘Julius Caesar’ and other plays 
directly from North’s ‘Plutarch’. 
North Adams, Mass., city on Hoosac 
River, 50 mi. n.w. of Springfield; 
in Berkshire Hills near w. end of 
famous Hoosac Tunnel; pop. 21,- 
567 ; textile printing, cotton and 
w'oolen mills, electrical soecialties, 
shoes; State Teachers College; site 
of old Ft. Massachusetts : 7/ia2J M-132 
North America, the 3d largest conti- 
nent; 9,400.000 sq. mi.; pop. 216.- 
000,000: N-244-66, maps N-245-6, 
248, 250-1, 256-8, 264-5, S-249, pic- 
tures N-244, 255, color pictures 
N-259-62, Reference-Outline N-265- 
6. See also in Index America, dis- 
covery and exploration; Canada; 
Central America; Mexico; United 
States; also natural features by 
name 

agriculture N-253, 254, 255, map 
N-267 : land use, graphs A-71, 
map A-71 

animals N-258, 263, G-169, color pic- 
tures N-259-62, map N-258, pic- 
ture-map A-248, Reference-Outline 
N-266 

Arctic regions N-253-4, A-326-30, 
pictures A-326-8, color picture 
A-329 

area compared with that of other 
continents. See in Index Conti- 
nents, table 

bibliography N-266 

climate C-349-50, N-248, 253, maps 
N-248, 258, Re/ereiice-OufZine 

N-265: rainfall N-248, 253, maps 
N-246, R-71 

coastal plain, map N-245 


NORTH 

coast line and harbors N-247, Refer- 
ence-Outline N-265 
compared with other continents 
N-247: South America S-248-9 
continental shelf, diagrams E-178 
depths, map N-245 
deserts, maps N-245-6, D-73a 
elevation, map N-245 
extent N-247, list N-244 
forests, map N-246, Reference-Out- 
line N-266 

geographic influences on settlement 
N-244: United States U-261, 255, 
A-276; Virginia V-477-8 
geologic history N-264-5, G-59, 

60: Ice Age 1-4-7, M-277, L-311 
hydroelectric power, table W-69 
illiteracy P-374 

life _ zones N-258-63, map N-258, 
Reference-Outline N-266 
minerals N-254, 255 
mountains N-247, 254, 255, list 

N-244, map N-245, Reference- 
Outline N-265 

natural features N-247, maps G-169, 
N-245 

people N-253, Reference-Outline 
N-266. See also in Index Indians, 
North American 

political divisions, list N-244, Refer- 
ence-Outline N-266 
population N-253: density P-373, 
maps N-245, P-371 
products and resources N-254-5, 263, 
maps N-266-7 

rivers and lakes N-247, list N-244, 
Rejerence-Outline N-265 
vegetation N-258, 263, maps N-258, 
246, Reference-Outline N-266: 
native food plants, color picture 
1-88 

North American Interim Regional 
Broadcasting Agreement R-42 
Northampton inbrfh-amp'tdn), or 
Northamptonshire, an e. midland 
county of England; 914 sq. ml.; pop. 
359,550; cap. Northampton; cattle: 
map E-347 

Northampton, England, city, capital 
of Northampton County, 60 mi. n.w. 
of London on Nene River; pop. 104,- 
429; shoes; site of battle in 1460 in 
which Yorkists captured Henry VI: 
map B-325 

Henry Moore’s ‘Madonna and Child’, 
picture S-73 

Northampton, Mass., city 18 mi. n. 
of Springfield on Connecticut River; 
pop. 29,063; Smith College; silk, 
hosiery, brushes, cutlery; settled 
1654: map M-132 

New Haven and Northampton Canal, 
mail C-108 

‘Northampton’, U.S. Navy cruiser 
N-86 

North Anna, stream n. of Richmond, 
Va. : reconnoitering engagements 
May 23-25, 1864, between Grant 
and Lee, followed by Federal out- 
flanking maneuver toward Cold 
Harbor: map V-487 
Nortli Arlington, N.J,, borough 4 mi. 
n.e. of Newark; pop. 15,970: map, 
inset N-164 

North Atlantic Connell, principal 
body of the North Atlantic Treaty 
Organization ; composed of foreign 
ministers of member countries. 
North Atlantic Current A-452, G-2286, 
0-335, map 0-335 
affects Norway climate N-S02 
affects Scotland climate S-63 
Nortli Atlantic Treat.v Organization 
(NATO), a defense alliance created 
by the North Atlantic Trea^, 
signed in Washington, D. C., 
April 4, 1949, by the United States, 
Canada, Great Britain, 
Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg, 
Denmark, Norway, Italy, Portugal, 
and Iceland ; members pledge to act 
together if any one of them is at- 


Key: cape, at, feir, fast, whqt, fffll; me, yet, fern, there; tee, bit; row, wdn, fdr, nSt, dp; cure, but, rjfde, full, bdm; out. 



NORTH 


—* 467 


NORTHERN 


tacked ; Greece and Turkey ad- 
mitted 1952, "West Germany 1955; 
goal is a defense structure strong 
enough to deter Russian aggres- 
sion: B-438 

flag P-137, color picture F-134: 
high lights in its history U-394o 
member nations, map U-394b 
U. S. forces T-200a-b 
North Attleboro, Mass., town 29 
mi. s.w. of Boston ; pop. of township, 
12,146; silverware, tennis rackets, 
jewelrj', optical goods. Iron cast- 
ings: map M-133 

North Australia, division of Australia 
from 1926 to 1931 when it was re- 
united with Central Australia to 
form Northern Territory. 

North Battleford, Saskatchewan, Can- 
ada, city 222 ml. n.w. of Regina at 
junction of Saskatchewan and Bat- 
tle rivers; pop. 7473; grain eleva- 
tors, creameries; maps C-68, 81 
North Bas', Ontario, Canada, town 
about 200 mi. n.w. of Ottawa on 
Lake Nipissing; pop. 17,944; plan- 
ing mills and saw'mills, car repair 
and machine shops: maps C-69, 72 
North Borneo, British colony in n. 
Borneo; includes island of Labuan; 
total area 31,000 sq. mi.; pop. 
334,141: B-255, maps A-407, E-202 
North Braddock, Pa., suburb 8 mi. 
s.e. of Pittsburgh; pop. 14,724; ex- 
tensive steel rail works. 

Northbridge, Mass., town 12 mi. S.e. 
of Worcester on Mumford River; 
pop. of township, 10,476; textiles, 
textile machinery, embossed paper, 
silk: map M-132-3 

North Cape, See in Index Nordkapp 
North Carolina, a s. Atlantic state of 
U. S.; 62,712 sq. mi.; pop. 4,061,- 
929; cap. Raleigh: N-267-80, maps 
N-274-5, 268, 271, U-253, 275, pic- 
tures N-267-8, 277-80 
apiculture N-277, 268, 270 
Wrd, state N-269 
Capitol, State, picture N-280 
cities N-277-8, 271, map index N-273, 
276. See also in Index names of 
cities 

Charlotte C-197 
Raleigh R-74 
climate N-267, 268 , 269 
communication N-269 
counties, map index N-272 
dams D- 116 ^ N -277 
education N- 280 , 270 
elevation N-269 
extent N -269 

Fact Summary N-2 69-72 
nshenes N-268, 270 
nag P-lsob, color picture F-127 
uower, state N-269, color picture 
«-384a 

forests, national and state N-271, 
map N-271 

Geographic region in which situated, 
maps TJ-260, 275: The South 

U-272-83 

government N-269 
iMtory N-278-80, 272 
^evolutionary War R-128b, 129, 
N-279-ao 

Mecklenburg Declaration of Inde- 
Pendence N-279 

declaration of Independence D-33, 
N-279 

Tennessee region N- 280 , S- 108 , T-59 
i^?''°clectric power N-277 
industries N-277-8, 270: cellulose 
,.‘^°tory, picture U-281 
and use N-268 
lumber N-277, 270 
Jninorals N -277 270 
wotto N-269 ’ 

"tains N-267, 268: Appalachian 
“iGhlands A-276-7: Great Smoky 
-Mountains G -168 

^fiGin of, and nickname N-269 
- atural features N-267-8, 269 


natural resources N-267, 268, 277, 
269 

occupations N-269 
parks and other areas N-270-1, N-20, 
maps N-271, N-18 
Cape Hatteras National Seashore 
R. A. Project N-SSd 
Great Smoky Mountains N. P. 

G-186-7, pictures G-186 
Kill Devil Hill National Memorial 
N-38(Z, picture N-268 
places of interest N-270-1, map 
N-271 

population N-269 

presidents from N-280 

products N-267. 268, 277-8, 270; 

emeralds J-349: mica M-211 
rivers N-269 
seal N-269 
song, state N-269 
trade, w'holesale and retail N-270 
transportation N-269 

'North Carolina’, battleship, picture 
N-85 

North Carolina, University of, at 
Chapel Hill, N. C.; state control; 
chartered 1789; opened 1795; Slate 
College of Agriculture and En- 
gineering at Raleigh and Woman’s 
College at Greensboro consolidated 
with university 1931 ; arts and 
sciences, business administration, 
dentistry, journalism, library 
science, nursing, public health, so- 
cial work; graduate school: N-280, 
picture N-280 

North Carolina College at Durham, at 
Durham, N- C. ; state control; 
founded 1910; arts and sciences, 
law; graduate school. 

North Carolina pine, a common "hme 
sometimes applied to the loblolly 
and shortleaf pines. See in Index 
Shortieaf pine 

North Central Association of Colleges 
and Secondary Schools C-383 

North Central College, at Naperville, 
111.; Evangelical United Brethren; 
founded 1861; name changed 1926; 
arts and sciences, music. 

North Central Plains, in U.S. U-284- 
90 man U-286-7, Reference-Outline 
U-3366-8. See also in Index United 
States, subhead geographic regions; 

NoHhChinfcemraf Control Area, an 

^ admir:^s?rative division of Chinese 
Peonle’s Republic: includes part of 
Inner Mongolia: M-342, wap M-343 

Northclilfe, Alfred Harmsworth. first 
Viscount (1865^1922), English 
newspaper proprietor, one of the 
mcsf powerful figures i" 20th- 
century journalism; owner of Lon- 
don Times, Daily Maxi Evening 
News, founder of Ania gamated 
Press large periodical business 

-Vorthcote (nOrth'lcot), .lames (1(46- 
1831) English historical and por- 
trait painter and author; paintings: 
'MuXr of the Princes in thoTower’. 
‘Death of Wat Tyler’; wrote biog- 
raphies of Reynolds and Titian. 

Dakota, a plains state of n.w. 
North uajmi^u.^ . non. 619 , 636 ; 


'll S : 70,665 sq, mi.; pop. 

„ Dicjmarck- N-281-93, maps 
N 2885* 282, 2'85-6, U-252-3, 286, 

tiires Isj-281, 

Bad Lands ^-2SZ 
bird, state N-28.J 
Capitol. State. P.cfnre N-291 

^fties N-2^r 2 ? 4 “wapindcx N-287 
290. See also in Index names of 

cities „ 

Bismarck B-198 

communication N-283^^ 

dams*and5e5rVoir; -N-^SO. M-325a, 
map M-325a 


education N-291, 284 
elevation N-283 
extent N-28S 
Fact Summary N-283-6 
flag P-130i(, color picture F-127 
flower, state N-283, color picture 
S-384a 

Garrison Dam M-325a 
geographic regions in which situ- 
ated, maps U-250, 286, 296: Great 
Plains U-291-3; North Central 
Plains U-284-90 

government N-291, 283: social legis- 
lation N-291 

history N-291, 293, 285-6 
hydroelectric power N-282 
immigration N-291 
industries N-291, 284, picture N-281 
land use N-283 

Lewis and Clark Expedition L-176 
minerals N-282, 284: Williston oil 
basin P-181, map N-286, picture 
N-2 8 6 

motto N-283 

name, origin of, and nickname N-283 
natural features N-281-2, 283: 

Red River of the North R-88 
natural resources N-281, 282, 283 
Nonpartisan League N-291 
occupations N-283 

parks and other areas N-285, maps 
N-285, N-18: Verendrye N. M. 
N-38C 

people N-291 

places of interest N-284-S, map 
N-285 

population N-283 
products N-282, 291, 284 
rivers N-281, 283: Missouri M-325— 
6; Red River of the North R-88, 
R-281 
seal N-283 
song, state N-283 

trade, wholesale and retail N-284 
transportation N-283 
North Dakota. University of, at Grand 
Forks, N. D.; state control; founded 
1883; arts and sciences, commerce, 
education, engineering, law, medi- 
cine, military science, nursing; 
graduate division: picture N-292 
Nortii DaUotn Agricultural College, at 
Fargo, N. D.; state control; opened 
1891; agriculture, applied arts and 
sciences, chemical technology, en- 
gineering, home economics, pharm- 
acy; graduate studies. 

Northeast Administrative Area, a di- 
vision of Chinese People's Repub- 
lic: includes e. and s. Manchuria: 
M-72, map 

Northeastern State College, at Tahlo- 
quah, Okla. ; state control ; founded 
1846 as Cherokee National Female 
Seminary: state college 1909; arts 
and sciences, education; graduate 
study. 

Nortlieastern UniversUy, at Boston. 
Alass.: founded 1898; liberal arts, 
business administration, engineer- 
ing, law, technical institute; gradu- 
ate’ division. 

Northeast Jllssonrl State Tenebers Col- 
lege, at Kirksville. Mo.; .state con- 
trol- founded 1867; liberal arts, 
education, music, business; grad- 
uate study. 

Northeast I’assagc, a passage by sea 
* to the Orient around northern 
Europe and A.sia; attempted by ex- 
plorers from IGth centurj’ on; 
linallv acconipll.shed 1879 by Baron 
Nils " Norden.skjuld. The modem 
Northeast Pas.sago i-s the northern 
sea route betv.-een Archangel and 
Vladivostok: C-9. P-350, map P-340 
Norther, cold wind from north or 
northwest W-150 

Northern Cross. Sec in Index Cygnus 
Northern Crown, or Corona BorralU, 
a constcll.ation In the northern sky, 
charts B-377, 380 


u, German ti ; gem, <Jo ; 


468 


NORTHERN 

Northern Uvliia Klver, 455 mi. long, 
formed by union of Suithona and 
Yug rivers in n. Russia, flows n.w. 
into White Sea; icebound half the 
year; including the Sukhona, the 
Northern Dvina is about 800 mi. 
long: maps R-266, E-417, 419 
Northern fur seal S-90 
Northern Hemisphere, diagram E-176, 
map A-531 

Northern Ireland, a part of the United 
Kingdom with a separate parlia- 
ment; land area 5238 sq. mi.; pop. 
1,370,709; cap. Belfast: 1-2306-2, 
mops 1-227, B-321, 324-5, picUires 
1-231-2, Reference-Outline G-174-7 
agriculture 1-231 
Belleek ware P-399 
cities 1-231: Belfast B-108 
education B-108 
emigration 1-48 
government 1-231 

history 1-2306, 1-231-2. See also in 
Index Ireland, subhead history 
industry 1-231, B-108: lace L-77— 8, 
picture Ij-79 

literature. See in Index Irish litera- 
ture 

natural features 1-231 
people 1-2306, C-163 
relationships to continent, maps 
E-416-17, 419-20, 429 
religion 1-2306 

Northern land, U.S.S.R, See in Index 
Severnaya Zemlya 

Northern lights. See in Index Aurora 
borealis 

Northern Paciflo Railroad 
effect on Washington W-48 
Roosevelt breaks merger R-223 
Northern pike, a game fish P-256, 
color picture P-118 

Northern Rhodesia, s.-central Africa, 
British protectorate; 287,950 sq. 
mi,; pop. 2,114,518. See also in 
Index Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 
Federation of 

Northern scallop shell (Fecteil is- 
landicus'), color picture S-140 
Northern sea lion S-90 
Northern Securities Case, U. S. (1904) 
R-223, U-349 

Northern Sporades, Greek islands in 
Aegean. See in Index Sporades 
Northern State Teachers College, at 
Aberdeen, S.D.; state control; 
opened 1902; arts and sciences, 
education ; graduate study in 
education. 

Northern Territories, a British pro- 
tectorate, administrative division of 
Gold Coast in w. Africa; adminis- 
tration headquarters Tamale; 30,- 
486 sq. mi.; pop. 1,110,400: G-1346, 
map A-46 

Nortiiern Territory, the n.-central part 
of Australia; 523,600 sq. mi.; pop. 
10,868; cattle raising, gold and tin 
mining; map A-488 
Nortiiern War (1700—21), between 
Charles XII of Sweden and Den- 
mark, Russia, Poland C-195, P-167 
Northern white cedar, or American 
arborvltae, evergreen tree, leaves 
yellow-green, in flat sprays; cones 
% in. long, pale brown ; many vari- 
eties: oil distilled from leaves used 
in insecticides and liniments: also 
called arborvitae, white cedar, 
swamp cedar, or cedar: A-296 
used in hedges H-329 
North Georgia College, at Dahlonega, 
Ga. : state control; founded 1873; 
arts and sciences, military. 

North German Confederation G-97, 
B-198, W-1S6-6 

North Holland, a province of the 
Netherlands; cap. Haarlem; H-407 
North Island, 2d largest Island of New 
Zealand; 44,281 sq. mi.; pop. 1,313,- 
869: N-227, maps A-478, P-16, 

N-228, inset A-489 
earthquake E-196 


North Korea. See in Index Korea 
North Has Vegas, Nev., city adjoin- 
ing Las Vegas; pop. 3875; Nellis 
Air Force Base nearby: map N-133 
North I/lttle Rock,' Ark., city on n. 
bank of Arkansas River, opposite 
Little Rook; pop. 44,097; wood 
products; railroad shops; Camp 
Robinson nearby : map A-366 
North magnetic pole, of earth E-194, 
M-42 

Amundsen's observations A-238 
compass points to C-428 
North Manchuria Railway, formerly 
Chinese Eastern Railway C-282 
Northmen, Norsemen. . or vikings 
N-294-8, pictures N-235-6o, E-360, 
361 

America discovered C-95, E-391 
bibliography N-298 
clothing N-296a, pictures N-295-6a.‘ 
Leif Ericson, picture A-187 
England invaded by Danes E-359: 
Alfrqd the Great checks A-162; 
Canute C-117 

flag F-136a, color picture F-131 
Greenland discovered G-214, N-294, 
E-390 

Ireland invaded C-480, I-230a 
Italy invaded N-5 
literature S-55, N-297 
Normandy settled N-243 
origin of name “vikings” N-294 
rainbow, belief about R-70 
remains in Ontario, Canada 0-387 
Russia R-284 

Scotland Invaded T-120: Hebrides 
H-327: Orkneys 0-425; .Shetland 
Islands S-148 

ships N-294, S-ISO, pictures N-296, 
S-153, A-187, E-360 
North Miami, Fla., town 8 mi. from 
Miami; pop. 10,734: map F-169 
North Mountains, in Pennsylvania. 

See in Index Kittatinny Mountains 
North Pacific Current W-34, map 
0-336 

North Pacific Planning Project, Can- 
ada and United States C-90 
North Pacific region, U. S. U-S06-9, 
map U-307, Reference-Outline 
U-338-9. See also in Index United 
States, subhead geographic regions; 
also names of states 
logging L-344, pictures L-345, 346 
North Park, plateau in n. Colorado, 
map C-402 

North Plainfield, N. J.. residential sub- 
urb of New York City; pop, 12,766. 
Nortli Platte, Neb., city in s.w.-central 
part of state, at junction of N. and 
S. Platte rivers; pop. 15,433; rail- 
road terminal ; food products : maps 
N-102, U-252 

Nortli Platte River, rises in Rocky 
Mts.at junction of Grizzly and Little 
Grizzly creeks, Jackson County, 
Colo.; crosses Wyoming and unites 
with s. fork to form Platte River in 
Nebraska; 618 mi.; maps W-316, 
323, N-95, U-296 
irrigation project N-96, W-316 
North Pole, n. extremity of earth's 
axis L-132-3, maps P-346, A-238. 
See also in Index Arctic regions: 
Polar explorations 
discovery P-S50a, P-108 
magnetic A-238, M-42, E-194 
movement due to precession of equi- 
noxes, diagram A-441 
stars, relation to A-431, 436, chart 
S-374, diagrams A-430— 1 
North Rhine-Westphalla, German 
Nordrliein-Westfalen (wdrt'rin vest- 
fa'len), state in British zone, Ger- 
many; area 13,157 sq. ml.; pop. 
13,196,176; map G-88 
North Riding, administrative district 
in York County, England, map 
E-347 

Nortli River, lower course of Hudson 
River N-215 

Northrop, John Hownrij (born 1891), 


NORTH WEST 

biochemist, horn Yonkers, N. Y.; 
with Rockefeller Institute for Medi- 
cal Research since 1916; for pre- 
paring enzymes and virus proteins 
in pure form, he shared 1946 Npbel 
prize in chemistry with his colleague 
Wendell M. Stanley and with James 
Batoheller Sumner. 

Nortli Sea, the part of the Atlantic 
between Great Britain and Europe 
N-298, maps E-416, 419, 424. See 
also in Index Ocean, table 
fisheries N-298, E-4296 
mine barrage. World War I 0-425, 
R-200, T-157 

North Shields, England. See in Index 
Shields, North 

North Star, also polestaf, or Polaris, 
star nearest in line above North Pole 
S-372, charts S-373-4, 379-80 
distance from earth, diagram A-4S7, 
picture N-73 

latitude determined by N-73, A-436 
located by Big Dipper or Cassiopeia, 
diagram A-429 
motion, apparent A-438 
navigation by N-73 
north celestial pole located by A-437 
position A-431, diagrams A-430-1 
use in finding directions D-95 
use in telling time and direction, dia- 
grams A-429 

North Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada, 
town on Sydney Harbor, Cape 
Breton Island, 5 ml. n. of Sydney; 
pop. 7354; fine harbor; fishing. 
Nortli Texas State College, at Denton, 
Tex.; state control; founded 1890; 
arts and sciences, business, edu- 
cation, home economics, music, air 
science; graduate study. 

North Toiiawan'dn, N. Y., manufactur- 
ing city 10 mi. n. of Buffalo on 
Niagara River, opposite Tona- 
wanda, and on Brie Canal; pop. 
24,731; lumber, iron: map N-204 
Northum'berland, John Dudley, duke 
of (1502-53), English statesman, 
an unprincipled and subtle in- 
triguer; controlled government 
dui'ing part of reign of Edward VI; 
executed following plot to put Lady 
Jane Grey on throne; G-21S 
Nortlnimberlnnd, large county in ex- 
treme n.e. of England; 2019 sq. mi.: 
pop. 798,175; sheep raising, coal 
and iron mining; chief city, New- 
castle-upon-Tyne: map E-347 
Nortlnimberlaiid Strait, of Canada, 
separates Prince Edward Island 
from New Brunswick and Nova 
Scotia P-411, niop C-73 
Northumbria {nCrth-um'brl-a'i > an- 
cient kingdom in n.e. England, most 
powerful on island in 7th century; 
made tributary to Wessex in 827 : 
A-162, map E-358 

North Vancouver, British Columbia, 
Canada, city on n. shore of Burrard 
Inlet, opposite city of Vancouver; 
pop. 15,687; ships lumber; tourist 
center: maps C-68, 80 
Nortliwest, in U. S. See in Index Far 
West 

Northwest Administrative Area, a di- 
vision of Chinese People's Repub- 
lic; Includes part of Inner Mon- 
golia: M-342, map M-343 
Northwest Angle, part of Mlnnesom, 
and the northernmost point of the 
United States; formed where the 
United States-Canadlan boundary 
slants abruptly up and back through 
the Lake of the Woods cutting off a 
promontory on lake's w. shore: 
promontory (area about 150 sq. ml.) 
can be reached only by water or by 
crossing Canadian territory. Re- 
sult of geographic error when 
boundary was defined in 1783; map 
M-28e, table U-246 .• 

North West Cape, on w. coast oi 
Western Australia, maps A-488, 47o 


Key ! eiipe, (it, far, fast, wlipt, fRll ; me, yet, fern, there; tee, bit; row, won, for, not, dg ; ciire, biit, iqjde, fvll, biirn ; out 


NORTH WEST 


Xorth West Company, also callea 
jy®®* Company of Canada. 
Xorth-ft est Far Company, and The 
Xor'westers F-324 
British Coiumbia B-316 
Port ■Wiiiiam founded F-243 
ifanitoba M-80 

*^''#-324^5^ Company 

Xorthwestern State College, at Alva, 
UKla.; state control; founded 1897- 
liberal arts, education. ’ 

College of ionisi- 
ana, at Natchitoches, La.; .state con- 
trol; founded 1884; arts and 

Tlniverslty, at Evanston 
^lethodist board; 
chartered 1851; opened 1855; lib- 
'='’ni™erce, education, 
speech, teeh- 
ol^icai institute, graduate school 
{” commerce, denthstry. 

oTicago^*'^’"®’ college in 

peering Library, picture 1-30 

' "ince'^If Province, prov- 

7' bordered by 

Kashmir ; includes 
province proper (area 13,560 sq. 

and ®.’^°2,747 ; cap. Peshaivar) 
frlh.-f regions, made up of 

(ar^ KQo princely states 

(area 25,699 sq. nn.; pop. 2,647,- 

PasV Khyher 

pfbiif, becoming part of 

Front North-West 

isferia®^v,^^°'"‘”®® been admin- 

British Tn^ii princely families and 
British India: maps I-68a 

' Company. See in In- 

aex North West Company 

*culturA®y I-106c-e, 94 

ra/q/® 106/ 

JfV’®' color picture S-72 

' Ararvtut -'*“«®?«rl State College, at 
foSndnd^n„.^^°-: slate control; 
tion”*^®*^ 1005; liberal arts, educa- 

Police, former 
Police”^ l^oyo-i Canadian Mounted 

' Namnn^ T 1 ^*^*'‘rene College, at 
1913?^’ Nazarene; founded 

Vni-u. ’ ^rfs and sciences. 

A-189®*^ Passage C-95o, A-190, niqp 

Amundsen P-350 A-23S 

Probisli''’ P-350 

Pnn ^®r P-348 
Hudpn H-437 
McClure p-350 

IK finf^^^y^rritorles, Canada; pop. 


469 


lGnn.1. - “ories, Uanada; pop, 

Hudsntic ”*“P® C-68-9, 80-1 

H-4^8* Company N-298, 

?"'^.„’^ranlum C-88, picture 
PelloTOPn-r”* ’’ P'ofitre U-405 
Nor a ^ P'othre C-87 

n*of®Al,^®rritory, region in U. S. 
Indiana*’ "’hich Ohio, 

Wcon4ln^ Iliinois. and 
Anicies nf r- formed: N-298-9 

onnncoo *-°afederation, Maryland 
Clark°^^ll f-.206. N-298 
favors C-339 

U.3^j®rrong federal government 

^man°n”’® ®orvice H-277-S 
Ohio Rn°"1“®st W-23 
Ord?nanct'' to 0-363 

IndAn°y^^’l'^®‘^ from: Illinois 1-41; 
Ohio A n Michigan M-229: 

PeeumsPn'.®^’^ • ‘'■''’’iEconsin lV-178 
^■ortli'ttUM ® -.SPrising T-33-4. H-278 
s " oV®A; l="Rland. town -.'O mi. 
mifien. ‘''®'Pool ; pop. 17,4S0; salt 
Norll'^- ^"P P-325 
Caroline 


(1S08-"), Engli.-^h noveli.st and 
poet, granddaughter of Richard 
Sheridan; model of the 
witty heroine in George Meredith’s 
Diana of the Crossways’; she and 
her two sisters, Georgj- and Helen, 
^ W6re called the ''three graces," 
Norton, Charles Eliot (1827-1908) 
scholar and author, bom Cambridge 
Mass.; made prose translation of 
Dante; editor ’Poems of John Donne’ 
Norton, Thomas (1532-84), English 
lawyer, political leader, and poet- 
wrote, with earl of Dorset, ‘Gor- 
boduc’, earliest English tragedy. 
Norwalk, Conn., city on Long Island 
Sound, 40 mi. n.e. of New York 
City; pop. 49,460; hats, handbags, 
electrical goods, pumps, tires, tubes, 
clothing, auto accessories, hard- 
ware; oyster culture; burned by 
British and Hessians in Revolu- 
tionary AVar; map C-444 
Norway, a kingdom of n.w. Europe, 
in w. part of Scandinavian penin- 
sula; 125,000 sq, mi,; pop. 3,278,546; 
cap. Oslo; N’-299-305, S-55, maps 
E-416, 417, 424, N'-301, P-346, pic- 
tures N’-299-300, 303-46, Itejerence- 
Outiine S-466-7 

agriculture N'-302, 304a.- co-opera- 
tive A-70; dairying K-304a,- farm 
life K-302, picture N'-303 
Antarctic claims A-261 
bibliography S-467 
Christmas C-294a-b, 299, N-302, pic- 
ture C-297 

cities N-3046, list K-300. See also 
in Index names of cities 
Oslo 0-426o-b 
climate N'-302 

clothing, pictures N-300, 304, 304a.- 
wedding dress N-304a 
commerce K-30ia-~b,sce also in Index 
Trade, table: ships, tonnage S-161 
ednc-’tion N-304O, E-262: illiteracy 
P-374 

emigration to U. S. 1-45, 46 
fiords N-300, 302, picture N-299 
fishing N-302, 3046, picture N-304o; 
whaling W-114 

flag F-136b, color picture F-133 
forests N-300, 302, 304a, picture 
N-303 

government N-3046 
history N-3046-5, S-55, Reference- 
Outline S-467 

Northmen N-294-8,picfi(resN-295-7 
Canute, ruler C-I17 
Greenland colonized G-214 
Iceland I-ll 

Haakon IV Invades Scotland T-120 
Union of Kalmar D-71 
Charles XII attempts to conquer 
C-195 

woman suffrage adopted W-185 
World War II N-3046-5, W-249-50, 

276. See also in Index World War 
II, chronology 

holidays N-302: Independence Day 
F-58; St. Olaf’s Day F-59 
hvdroelectric power N-3046, picture 
'N-303, table W-69 
language and literature S-55. Sec 
also in Itidcx Scandinavian lan- 
guages; Scandin.avian literature 
libraries L-183, 184—5 
manufactures N-3046 
minerals N-3046 
national songs N-42 
natural features N-299-302: 

"drowned coast” 1-5 
people N-299-300, S-55, picture 

N-304: how the people live N-302- 
4a/ Lapps L-101-2: racial clas.'l- 
fication R-23, chart R-22 
product." N-302, 304a, 6, list N-300, 
picture E-415 

relation.ships In continent, maps 


NOTRE DAME 


Norway Deep, in North Sea N-298 
Norway maple M-82 
Norway pine, or red pine P-258, 259 
picture P-257 ’ ’ 

Norway spruce S-358 
u.sed in hedges H-329 
Norwegian elkhound, table D-II80 

IlterLure. 
J»<iex Norway, subhead lan- 
_ guage and literature 
Norwegian rat R-76-7 

AUanlie oZ' 

Atlantic Ocean, n.w. of Nomvav 
mnps E-419. W-204-5 
Nor'west^s, The. Sec in Index 
North We.st Company 
Norwlch (nor'wichy. Conn., citv at 

Rl?er 85 Thlme.s 

"8 a%. Hartford; pop. 

-3,4^, paper, textlle.s, leather 
goods; settled 1659: map C-445 
®'’. Oiar'ich), England, manu- 
factunng and trade center, capital 
m Norfolk County, on AVensum 

of London; pop. 121,226; fine Nor- 
man cathedral; Importance dates 
from Jliddle Ages: map B-325 

native to Eng- 
_ land, table D-1186 ^ 

-Vonrlch (uoFicich) Dnlverslty, at 

founded 

I8IJ’ arts and sciences, aviation 
administration, business adminis- 
tration, chemistry, engineering cn- 
trafmng^ nianagement, military 

rnf- S.W-. of 
tow-n.shlp, 16,636; 
printing plants; leather, roofing 
materials: map, inset M-132 

-®hburb n.e, of Cincin- 
nati; pop. 3o,00l; machlneiy, office 

se['o-357' ^ cards: map, in- 

Nose, N-305-6, pictures N-305 
bones of S-192 
breathing H-304, R-I17-I8 
clas.sification of man by R-22 
smell S-200 N-305: smell area on 

B-28f ® 

^'®F-97®®‘’' Heatment for P-98, picture 


UriF 


Elirabctli Sarah 


E-416-17, 419-20, 420, 429rf 
shelter N-302, pictures N-303, C-297 
sports N-304n.- skiing W-158 
Fvalbard, in Arctic Ocean X-SO-lb 


"No-Ree-iimB," tiny midges P-189 
Nosing. See in Index Architecture 
taOtc of terms 

Nostradamn.s (nos-trn-du'mus) (Michel 
dc Notredame) (1503-66). French 
astrologer, born at SaInt-R(-my In 
Provence, of jewi.sh parents who 
were later converted to Christian- 
ity: studied medicine; claimed ho 
could foretell events, and in 1550 
began writing his ‘Centuries’, mys- 
tic prophecies. 

Notary public. Sec in Index Law 
tabic of legal terms ' 

Notation, In color C-394 
Notation, in inathematlc.s. See In In- 
dex Number system 
Notation, in music Ar-4G8-468a 
Greek M-459 

Nme, financial, a credit instrument 
0*508 

Interest, how to compute P-1446 
mortgage C-510, 508 
proinl.B.Bory B-47. C-510, picture 

P-2446 

No’tocbord. a gristly backbone A'’-4C4 
Rcfcrcncc-Outline Z-364 ' 

Notornis (no-tfir’nis) . a genus of 
primitive flfghtles.s birds; Inhabit 
the South Island of New Zealand- 
believed estlnct until 1919 when two 
were photographed, 

Notredame. MIclicI dr. .Vce in Index 
Nostradamus 

Notre Dame, catliedral of Pari" 
France: beautiful example of early 
Gothic architecture: slum ted on lie 
de I.'i CitA a .small Isl.'inil in y.-ine 
River: con.itruetlon begun I,v 


'• fcnoiniyGerman t7 ; yem". /7o ; thin, then ; n = French na.sal (Jean) jgbrr French J (r In .azure) :g.^nenr..an guttural ch 


NOTRE DAME 

Bishop Maurice de Sully in 12th 
century; completed 1304; magnifi- 
cent rose windows, one of which is 
42 feet in diameter: twin towers: 
P-836, S-78a, map P-83a, pictures 
A-314-15, P-83 
chimeras, picture S-78 
Notre Dame, University of, at Notre 
Dame, Ind., near South Bend; 
Roman Catholic; for men; opened 
1843 ; arts and letters, commerce, 
engineering, law, science; gradu- 
ate school: S-282, pictures 1-82 
football history P-232 
Notre Dame College, at Cleveland, 
Ohio; Roman Catholic; for women; 
founded 1922; arts and sciences. 
Notre Dame College of Staten Island, 
at Grymes Hill, Staten Island, 
N. T. ; Roman Catholic ; for women ; 
opened 1931; chartered 1933; arts 
and sciences, education. 

'Notre Dame de Paris' (‘The Hunch- 
back of Notre Dame’), romance by 
Victor Hugo built around love of 
Quasimodo, the hunchback, for Es- 
meralda, a street dancer; vivid pic- 
ture of medieval Paris. 

Notre Dame Mountains, in Quebec 
Q-5, map C-73 

Notre Dame of Maryland, College of, 
at Baltimore, Md. ; Roman Catholic ; 
for women; founded 1895; arts and 
sciences. 

Notre Dame Seminary, at New Or- 
leans, La.; Roman Catholic; for 
men; founded 1923; history, phil- 
osophy, religion ; graduate study. 
Nott, Bliplinlet (1773-1866), educator 
and inventor; born Ashford, Conn.; 
president Union College; invented 
base burner for stoves. 

Not'tlngham, also Nottinghamshire, or 
Notts, county in central England; 
844 sq. ml.; pop. 841,083; cap. 
Nottingham: map E-347 
Nottingimm, England, city 110 mi. 
n.w. of London on Trent River, 
capital of Nottingham County; pop. 
306,008; lace and hosiery manufac- 
tures; Arkwright built first spin- 
ning mill here. Hargreaves a yarn 
mill: map B-325 
first machine-made lace L-77 
Nottingham, sherlfT of 
Robin Hood and R-165 
No'tus, in Greek mythology, the south 
wind A-29 

"Not worth a Continental" M-338 
Noun N-306, table G-148 
infinitive or participle V-450 
phrase and clause S-101 
relation to verb V-449, S-100 
Nourse, Joel (1803—?), inventor, born 
Shrewsbury, Mass.; perfected cast- 
iron plow, 1842, which he manufac- 
tured at Worcester. Mass. : A-59 
Nouvelie Caledonie, French overseas 
department, in s.w. Pacific. See in 
Index New Caledonia 
Novacliord, electric musical instru- 
ment invented by Laurens Ham- 
mond; similar in appearance to 
spinet; tones produced by vacuum 
tube oscillators and resemble those 
of harpsichord, violin, trumpet, 
and guitar. 

Novac’ulite, fine-grained rock made of 
quartz particles 
Arkansas deposits A-360 
Novao (iio've), or now stars S-S73 
Novacs (no-rd'ds), Gulomar (born 
1895), pianist, born Brazil; grad- 
uated Paris Conservatory; concert 
appearances Europe and Brazil ; 
U. S. debut in New York City 1915. 
Noralls ind-vd'Us) , pen name of 
Friedrich Leopold Freiherr von 
Hardenberg (1772—1801), German 
romantic poet and novelist (‘Hymns 
to Nighf). 

Nova Lisboa (no'va Icich-bd'a) , for- 


470 

merly Huambo (wdm'bd), town 
of Angola, s.w. Africa; pop. 28,297: 
map A-47 

Novara (no-ua'm), citj’ in n. Italy 
30 mi. w. of Milan: pop. 5 '‘. 260 ; 
railroad center; textiles: map E-425 
No’va Scotia (slco’shii), a niari,.inie 
province of (ianada: 21.068 sq. mi.; 
pop. 642,584; cap. Halifax: N-307— 9, 
maps C-69, 73, pictures N-307-9 
Acadia original name A-5, N-309 
agriculture N-308 
Bay of Pundy N-138, T-130 
Ca))e Breton Island C-117— 18, N-S07, 
308, 309 

cities N-307: Halifax H-248-9 
climate N-307-8 
education N-308 

fisheries N-308, picture C-70: tuna 
T-205, picture T-206 
flag P-130a, color picture P-131 
government N-308, 309 
history N-308-9. C-95n.- Queen 

Anne’s War Q-11; Sir Charles 
Tupper T-210 
libraries L-201 
manufactures N-308 
minerals N-308 
natural features N-307 
occupations, pictograph C-66 
parks, map N-38/ 

Cape Breton Highlands National 
Scenic and Recreational Park 
N-38/, C-117-18 

Port Anne National Historic Park 
N-39, picture N-307 
Portess of Louisbourg National 
Historic Park N-39 
Port Royal National Historic Park 
N-39 

people N-308, 309 
products N-308 

shield F-136a, color picture P-131 
Novaya Zemlyn. also Nova Zembla, 
"new land,” two islands in Arctic 
Ocean belonging to Russia; 35,000 
sq, mi.: maps R-266. A-406 
Novel N-310-12, L-98b-c, pictures 

N-310. See also in Index names of 
novelists 

American A-225, 226n. 227, 228, 230, 
230d.’ dime A-229; historical 
A-230, 230// idealistic A-230e-/; 
local color, or regional A-229-30, 
230/; realistic A-230a— 6, d— e 
authors’ royalties B-249 
Bunyan’s influence B-355-6, N-311 
children's literature L-274-6 
Chinese C-276 

English N-310— 12, E-S78— 378a, 6, 
380, 3806-1, 382a, 383 
historical, developed by Scott N-311, 
S-66 

Japanese J-312 
Latin American L-124 
prizes L-267. 268 
romance N-310— 11, R-179— 80 
Russian R-294, 295 
Scandinavian S-55 
Spanish S-326, 327 
values N-312 
Western stories P-37, 43 
Novel’la N-311 
‘Novels’, of Justinian J-367 
November N-312 

birthdays of famous persons. See in 
Index Birthdays, table 
birthstone, color picture J-348 
holidays F-57, 58. 59: foreign 

F-59; Russia R-271 
Novella, in Roman Catholic church, 
nine days of devotion, public or 
private, to obtain special graces; 
adopted from Apostles’ nine days 
of prayer between Ascension and 
Pentecost. 

Noverre (nd-rer'), Jean Georges 
(1727—1810), French choreographer 
and dancer, born Paris, France ; 
dance director at the OpSra, Paris 
1776-80; instituted important re- 
forms in ballet: D-147i 


NUBIAN 

Novgorod indv' go-rod), historic town 
in w. Russia 100 mi. s. of Leningrad 
near n, end of Lake I'men; pop. 
37,300; capital of 9th-century Rus- 
sian kingdom; great trade center 
in Middle Ages: map R-266 
early history R-284 
Novi Sad (no've siid), German Neii- 
satz (noi’zdts), Hungarian DJvldek 
(Q'yii-vt-ddU) , Yugoslavia, city in n. 
on Danube River, in former Hun- 
garian district of Vovvodina: pop. 
83,223: maps B-23, E-416, 417 
Novitiate (.nd-vish’i-at) , or novice- 
ship, in religious community M-358 
Novocaine (no'vo-kdn), a local anes- 
thetic A-247, B-147 
Novorossisk (no-vo-rd-sesk') , Rus- 
sia, seaport on n.e. coast of Black 
Sea; pop. 95,280; commerce in 
naphtha, cement, tobacco: maps 
R-267, B-204. E-417 
Novosibirsk (n6-v6-se-bersk') , Rus- 
sia, in w. Siberia; administrative 
region of R.S.P.S.R.; 235,900 sq. 
mi.; cap. Novosibirsk: map R-260 
Novosibirsic, capital of Novosibirsk 
region. Russia; pop. 750,000; junc- 
tion of Trans-Siberian Ry. and line 
to Turkestan; iron and steel, lum- 
ber, flour: S-174, maps R-259, A-406 
‘No'vum Or’ganum’ ("new method”), 
philosophical work in Latin by 
Francis Bacon on inductive method 
of reasoning, published 1620. 

Nox, in Roman mythology, goddess of 
night, corresponding to Greek Nyx. 
Noyes (noiz), Alfred (born 1880), 
English poet, born Staffordshire; 
(poems: ‘Drake, an English Epic’, 
‘Forty Singing Seamen, and Other 
Poems’, ’Tales of the Mermaid Tav- 
ern’, ‘The Torch-Bearers’, ‘Col- 
lected Poems’; verse play: ‘Sher- 
wood; or, Robin Hood and the 
Three Kings’). 

Noyes, Arthur Amos (1866-1936), 
chemist, born Newburyport. Mass.; 
on faculty at Massachusetts Insti- 
' tute of Technology 1887-1909, at 
California Institute of Technology 
after 1915; work in theoretical, 
analytical, and organic chemistry. 
Noyes, John Humphrey (1811—86), 
Congregational minister, born 
Brattleboro, Vt. See also in Index 
Oneida Community 
Noyes, William Albert (1857—1941), 
chemist, born near Independence, 
Iowa; first chief chemist National 
Bureau of Standards 1903—7 ; pro- 
fessor at University of Illinois 1907 
-26 ; noted for research in electronic 
theories and for determinations of 
atomic weights. 

Noyes, William Aibert, Jr. (born 1898), 
chemist, born Terre Haute, Ind.; son 
of chemist William Albert; profes- 
sor at University of Rochester from 
1938; research in photochemistry 
and electrochemistry (‘Modern 
Alchemy’, with father). 

Noyon inwa-potV) , Prance, historic 
town 60 mi. n.e. of Paris; pop. 
5900; Charlemagne crowned king 
in 768 ; birthplace of Calvin. 

NPA (National Production Author- 
ity), in U. S. U-368 
NBA. See in Index National Re- 
covery Administration 
Nu'ba, a Nubian; also one of a Negro 
people of Kordofan related to the 
Nubians: S-442, 442a, picture A-53 
Nu'bla, region and ancient country in 
n.e. Africa, s. of Egypt S-441, 4420, 
map P-156 

Nubian Desert, great desert in Africa 
between Red Sea and w, hend or 
Nile River, maps E-271, A-42, 46 
camel rider, color picture A-38 


Bey: cape, dt, far, fast, whqt, fffll; me, yet, fern, th4re; ice, bit; row, won, ffir, not, dp; cure, but, rjfde, ftdl, bi'irn; out; 



NUBIAN 


« 471 


NYMPH 


Xnbinn goat G-128 
Xuclear chemistry C-220 
Xuclear physics, a branch of physics 
which deals with forces and phe- 
nomena arising within the nuclei of 
atoms A-460-70, pictures A-461-3, 
465-9, tables A-460, 464, 470 
cosmic ray phenomena R-31-2, 
E-3446, pictures R-32 
gamma rays. See in Index Gamma 
rays 

nuclear force R-54(i-&, pictures 
R-54a, c-d 

X'nrleolus (.nu-Ule'6-lus) , in cell, 
color picture B-149 
X’ncleonics, the study of nuclear en- 
ergy and the changes that take 
place within the nucleus of an 
atom. See also in Index Nuclear 
physics 

Xncleus (na'hle-us) , of atom A-457- 
62b, C-212, See also in 

Index Atom, subhead "smashing” 
binding energy R-54b 
density R-55 

electromagnetic radiations, spectrum 
of, diagram E-344b 
neutron-proton ratio R-54b. picture 
R-54C 

nuclear force E-344d, A R-54a-6, 
pictures R-54a, c-d 
radius R-55 
Xucleus, of cell C-160 
amoeba A-236b, lj-224a, pictures 
A-236b, L-224a 

cell division H-346-7, picture C-161, 
color picture B-149 
h'nclens, of comet C-420 
Jiucees (niod'scs) River, in s. Texas, 
400 mi. long: enters Gulf of JTex’co 
via Corpus Christ! Bay; maps T-78, 
U-279 

Texas boundary dispute P-363 
J>nevn Esparta (nwd'vd es-pdr'td), 
island group in Caribbean Sea. a 
suite of Venezuela; cap. La Asun- 
cion; table W-Si 

buevo LeOn fng-wd'vo Id-dn'), Mex- 
ico, state in n.e. ; 25.134 sci. mi.; 
pop. 735,692; cap. Monterrey; map 
^ M-194-5 

Xullarbor (iiiTl-ar'ber) Plain, coastal 
In s. Australia, Inland from 
\ne Great Australian Bight, nlaps 

V ii'.n picture A-476 

■Auuiflca'tion, in American history, 
suspension of a federal law by a 
state S-386. See also in Index 
‘-tates’ Rights 
^alhoun’s stand C-24-5 
ylay’s stand C-342 
Jackson opposes J-287, S-385 
Webster on TV-82 

oujna Pompilius infi'mg. pom-plVi- 
as), legendary king of Rome R-181 
•■'iinibcr, in grammar 
nouns N-306 
pronouns P-418 
verbs V-449 

<iml)er8, Book of, fourth book of Old 
testament, so called because it be- 
’If 'vith account of cen.sus. 

-■•nmbcr system N-312-13, pictures 
Jj-3l2-312b 

nmuu-Arabic N-312a, pictures 
^.*Jl2-312b ; steps in learning 
i^-312b-13, pictures N-312b 
Place value N-312a, picture D-29; 
decimals an extension D-29-30, 
cnarf D-30 

o°'fnn N-312a, picture N-312 

bumerian B-6b 

' See in Index Number 

aj stem 

fractions r-256 

in '*’” (nu-mid't-o). ancient king- 
m and Roman province in n. 
corresponding nearly to mod- 

X, I -^'Reria. 

\ ’.HI.""' mythology' M-476c 

™»nint'ios, the science of coins and 
medals Jl-340. See also in Index 
- "mt! and coinage; Medals 


Nn'mitor, in Roman legend, king of 
Alba Longa, ancestor of Romulus 
and Remus R-198 

Numnuilite Oinni'n-m) (from Latin 
numviusj "coin”), a genus of Fora- 
minifera, practically extinct, whose 
many-ohambered spiral shells, re- 
sembling coins, form bulk of Ter- 
tiary limestone. 

Nun M-358. See also in Index chief 
orders bj' name 

Canadian, early days, picture C-105 
Juana Ines de la Cruz, pichire L-113 
medieval nurses, picture M-238c 
Nunc Dimittis (niingk di-mit'is) 
(“Now Thou lettest depart"), the 
song of Simeon (Luke ii, 29-32), 
part of the liturgy of the Roman 
Catholic and Anglican churches; so 
named from tne opening words in 
the Latin version of the song. 
Nuncio (nun'sht-d), diplomatic rep- 
resentative of the pope. 
Nuncupative (nung'kil-pd-ttv or nung- 
ku'pri-ttv) will W-134 
Nflfiez Cabeza de Vaca. See in Index 
Cabeza de Vaca 
Nun pigeon P-254 

Nun’s Priest’s Tale, in Chaucer’s 
‘Canterbury Tales’ C-203 
Nun’s veiiing, a fine worsted fabric 
originally made in black and used 
for nun.s’ veils. 

Nureddin (nor-cd-den’). Tlab'mud 
(1H67-74?), sultan of Syria and 
Bgypt 

Saladin and S-25 

Nuremberg inu'rcm-berg') ^ also NUrn- 
berg, Germany, city of n. Bavaria; 
pop. 362,459: N-313-14, maps G-88, 
E-416, 425, pictures E-436, N-313 
eneraving by Diirer, picture E-385 
war crimes trials G-101, TV-299a, 
picture TV-299a 
watches TV-57 
‘Nuremberg Cliroiiicle’ T-230 
Nurse Corps, U. S. Army A-379— 80 
Nursery, in horticulture 
forest industries operate, picture 
F-239CI 

Nursery rhymes. Sec in Index 
Mother Goose 

Nur.sery schools K-44. Sec also in In- 
dex Kindergartens and nursery 
schools „ _ , 

Nurse’s aides. Red Cross R-87b, pfe- 
ture R-87b 

Nurse siiark S-134, 135 
Nursing N-314. pictures N-315, H-307 
baby care B-2-4, picture B-2, table 

Barton. Clara B-61-2 
duties H-429-429a 
lirst aid F-94-8, pictures F-94-8, 
home nursing H-410a 
Nightingale, Florence N-236b, 237 
pioneer ivomen P-264 
profession V-604 t, or, „ 

Bed Cross R-87— 8 , pictures R-87— 8 , 
H-307 

Not (nut), Egyptian goddess (the 
sky), mother of Osiris E-283 
Nut (nut), hard-shelled fruit N-316- 
17, pictures N-317 
almond A-175, picture N-317 
Brazil nut N-316 
buckeye B-337 

chestnut ^(>226-7, pictures C-226-7, 
X-317 

coconut^C-ST-jls, pictures C-374-S, 
X-317 

haze! and filbert H-299 
hickory H-353-5, picture H-3o4 
indu.'trial nscf= 


peanut P-104-5, pictures P-105 
pecan P-los 
pifion P-258 


109-10, picture P-109 

forgotten hoards sprout 


new trees, picture N-54 
walnut TV-5-6, pictures TT-5, N-317 
weevils attack TV-85 
Nutcracker, Clark’s. See in Index 
Clark's nutcracker 
Nutg.all. See in Index Galls 
Nufhatclies, a family of small tree- 
climbing birds N-314-16, picture 
N-314 

White-breasted, bird and nest, color 
pictures B-163, 186 
Nutlcy. N. .1.. town on Passaic River, 
chiefly residential, 3 mi. s. of Pas- 
saic; pop. 26.992; plastic materials: 
map, inset N-164 

Nutmeg, seed of nutmeg tree, u.sed 
as spice N-316, pictures S-341, color 
picture P-288 

Nutmeg melon, or netted melon M-168 
Nutmeg State, popular name for Con- 
necticut C-437 

Nut pine, or pliion, tree Of s.w. United 
States P-258 

Nutria, a fur. Sec in Index Coypu 
Niitritlnii (uii-trish’on) , process by 
which living organisms obtain, mod- 
ify, and use nutrients for growth 
and repair. See also in Index Di- 
gestion; Food; Hygiene; Vitamins 
food reriuirements F-216-17, H-302- 
3, charts F-211, 216 
Infant feeding B-3 
life function L-224, A-250-250b 
physiology of digestion .and nutrition 
P-238-46 

plant P-290-5, N-4G-50, L-224d. 

See also in Index Plants, subhead 
food 

vitamins V-494-8, H-302, tabic V-495 
Nnftall, Tbomns (1780-1859). Eng- 
lish botanist and ornithologist, 
among first to make wide survey 
of American plants and birds; 
made trip up Missouri River 1809- 
H; explored along Arkansas and 
Red rivers 1818-20; accompanied 
TVyeth expedition to mouth of 
Columbia River 1834-35. 

Nunanii (ui(-if-d'uii) Pali, Hawaiian 
I.'ilands, mountain pass 0 ml. n.e. 
of Honolulu: H-288, map H-286 
Nnx vomica (uiiks v6m'i-kn), tree of 
the logania family; seed.s yield the 
drugs mix vomica and strychnine: 
S-432, picture P-341 
poisoning, treatment P-341, F-96a 
NYA (National Youth Administra- 
tion), U.S. R-205, 209 
Nyanzn (ui-dn’gp). In Central Africa, 
native word for lake V-471 
Nyasa (ni-ds'g), Lake, large lake on 
e. boundarj' of Nyasaland protec- 
torate; 14,000 sq. ml.; surrounded 
by mountains: discovered 1839 l)y 
David Livingstone: maps E-199, 
A-47, 42 

size, comparative. See m Index 
Lal:es, tabic 

Nyasabiud (ui-us'g-hind) , s.e. Africa, 
British protectorate: ,'17.600 sq. ml. 
(exclusive of 10,350 sq. mi. of In- 
l.aird waters); pop. 2.178.013. Sec 
also in Index Rhodesia and Nya.---.a- 
land. Federation of 

Nyctaginaccac. Sec in Index Four- 
o'clock family 

Nve («'). Edgar TTIIson (Bill Nye) 

* ‘(1SS0-9C). humorist, bom Shirley, 
Tie. (’History of the United States'; 

■Remarks’). 

Vvlon (iii'/i)’'). d protcinllke synthetic 

* product N-317-18, pictures N-318, 
table F-6 

burning tc.st. to identify, table F-C 
Fvoi and .'tain removal II-lll 
uses N-318: flag.s F-122 
Nj^pb, In fishing, list F-118h, pic- 
' (urc F-nSi! 

Nvmpb. in mythology N-318 
Vympb. of Insects I-15C 


-Prench u, German ii; gem,')o 




NYMPHAEACEAE 


472 


OAXACA 


Xymphaeaceae, See in Index "Water lily 
family 

Nyssaceae (ni-sa'se-e) , a plant family 
of trees and shrubs. See also in 


Index Tupelo; Tupelo gum 
Nystad (mi’sfdd). Peace of (1721), 
treaty between Russia and Swe,- 
den, signed at Nystad, a small port 


on Gulf of Bothnia P-167, S-466 
Nyx intks), in Greek mythology^ 
goddess of night, corresponding to 
Roman Nox. 



Our letter O probably started in Egyptian writing as a picture (i) which meant 
‘eye’. Soon after 2000 b.c., a Semitic people (jailed the Seirites adopted it as an 
alphabetic sign for a peculiar sound, a sort of dfeep growl, which came first in their 
word ayin or ain for ‘eye’. 

The Seiritic sign, like the Egyptian, was a crude picture of an eye (2). The 
later Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet simplified it to a circle (3). Its name, in all 
Semitic languages, resembled the Hebrew name ayin. 

■When the Greeks learned to lyrite from the Phoenicians, they had no growled 
ayin sound in their speech, and they had ho use for the sign with its Phoenician 
meaning. They did want signs, however, for several vowels which Semitic people 
never indicated in their writing. The Greeks therefore used the ayin sign for the 
vowel o. They called the sign omicron (4). 

Later they used this sign only for the shorter ‘o’ sound as in ‘obey’, and cut off 
the bottom to make omega (5) for the longer ‘o’ sound as in ‘oats’. Since omega 
was a new sign, they put it at the end of their alphabet. Hence we often say ‘from 
alpha to omega’, meaning ‘from beginning to end’, since alpha was the first letter 
of the Greek alphabet. 

The Romans, however, were content with only one ‘o’ in their Latin alpha- 
bet, and they chose the simpler omicron. From Latin the sign came without 
change into English. The capital and the small letter, in both printing and 
handwriting, are distinguishecl only by size, except that handwritten ones are 
often connected with their neighbors (6). 

Note.— For the story of how alphabetic writing began and developed, see 
the articles Alphabet; Writing. 


O, in Irish names N-2!) 

Oahe (d-wd'hi) Dam, in South Da- 
kota, on Missouri P,iver S-307, 
P-2B2, majis S-302, M-325a. See also 
in Index Dam, table 
Oahu (o-a'7iif), one of Hawaiian Is- 
lands; 589 sq. mi.; pop. 353,020: 
H-287-8, maps H-286, P-17 
Tripler Array llospital, picture 
H-290 

Oak, a hardwood tree 0-319-20, 
pictures T-180, 182-3, 0-319-20, 

table "W-lSSc 

acorns 0-319, pictures 0-320, N-49 
galls 0-320: ink from 1-150 
gumwood used as base and imitation 
G-232 

leaf L-1S2, picture T-183 
oak wilt O-320 
sacred to Druids C-163 
tanning, bark used in L-148 
weight H-355; wood carving "W-ISO 
wood 0-320: furniture 1-176, 180; 
Oak, Charter. See in Index Charter 
Oak 

Oak, cork C-479— 80, pictures C-479 
Oak, poison P-340 
treatment F-98 

Oak, Royal, sheltered Charles II 
C-192, T-184 

Oak, “shin,” or dwarf “chinquapin” 
C-287 

Oak apple, an oak gall or gallnut. 
See in Index Galls 

Oak Creek Canyon, s. of Flagstaff, 
Ariz., color picture "U-OOO 
Oakland, Calif., residential and in- 
dustrial city on San Francisco Bay 
opposite San Francisco; pop. 384,- 
575: 0-320-1, maps U-252, it[set 
C-34, picture 0-321 
bridge to San Francisco B-308, 
pictures B-307, 0-321, S-41. See 
also in Index Bridge, table 
Oak Leaf Cluster, tl. S. Army decora- 
tion of honor D-38 


Oakley, Annie (1860-1926), marks- 
woman, born in Darke County, 
Ohio ; in vaudeville and with circus 
troupes; markswoman in Buffalo 
Bill's Wild West Show 1885-1902; 
toured in United States and Europe. 

Oakley, Violet (born 1874), painter, 
born New York City; studied in 
U. S. and Paris, France; did murals 
for the State Capitol at Harrisburg, 
Pa., and the county courthouse at 
Cleveland. Ohio. 

Oak Park, 111., residential suburb w. 
of Chicago, formerly part of Cicerb ; 
pop. 03,529 ; incorporated as village 
1902 : map, inset 1-36 

Oak Ridge, Tenn., federal area 17 
mi. w. of Knoxville; created by 
U.S. government during World War 
II for manufacture of atomic bomb 
material: war pop. reached 75,000; 
pop. (1950 census) 30,229; location 
of Oak Ridge Operations Office, 
including National Baboratory, 
Institute of Nuclear Studies, and 
American Museum of Atomic En- 
ergy: maps T-67, U-253, picture 
T-58 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 
A-470, table A-470: plutonium 
plant P-324 

Oakum. See in Index Nautical terms, 
table 

OnrUsh, or rlbbondsli, a large deep-sea 
fish iliegalecus glesne^ F-lOO 

OAS (Organization of American 
States) L-122-3 

Oasis (d-d'sis or o'q-sis), fertile shot 
in a desert N-242b, D-73a 

Africa A-40: Libyan Desert E-2t0, 
L-218, picture L-219; Sahara S-15- 
16 

Asia A-414: Arabia A-286; Iran 
1-222 

products D-73b 


Oastler, Richard (1789-1861), Eng- 
lish reformer; called “the factory 
king” because of energetic advo- 
cacy of the factory workers’ cause. 
Oates, Lawrence Edward Grace (1880- 
1912), English army officer and po- 
lar explorer with Scott S-66 
Oates, Titus (1649-1705), English 
conspirator, who falsely accused 
the Catholics of a “popish plot” 
(1678-80) to restore Catholicism. 
Oath, or pledge 
armed forces, picture C-319e 
fealty F-Bl 

Four-H Club F-251, 252 
Girl Scouts G-115 

naturalization, U. S. N-43, picture 
C-319/ 

pledge to U.S. flag P-124 
president of U.S. P-408 
Quakers refuse to take Q-2 
Oatmeal, a breakfast cereal. See m 
Index Oats, subhead rolled 
Oatmeal biscuits B-295 
Oats 0-321-2, picture 0-322 
grain elevator G-147, picture G-147 
harvesting, picture 1-29 
pests 0-322, C-287 
producing regions 0-321, 322, map 
U-288 ’ 
rolled B-300 
root P-291-2 

rusts and smuts R-297-9, picture 
E-297 , 

starch content S-382 
Oaxaca (wU-lia’kd), Mexico, state in 
S., on Pacific; 36,371 .sq. mi.; poP. 
1,414,518; cap. Oaxaca (de Juarez): 


map M-195 

laxaca (de ,Tuarez), Mexico, industrial 
city in beautiful Oaxaca valley, 225 
mi. s.e. of Mexico City; capital of 
Oaxaca state; pop. 46,156; formerly 
Huaxyacac, Aztec military 
M-188, 202, 206, maps M-189, I 80 

rrl m..i« m 10A 


Key: cape, dt, far. fast, what, fqll; me, yet, fern, there; tee, bit; row, won, fdr, not, ds; cure, blit, ri(de, full, bilm; out; 






OBADIAH 


473 


— O’CASEY 


Obndiah (6-hd-dl'd) {6th century 
B.C.), Hebrew minor prophet, au- 
thor of the 31st book of the Old 
Testament, which bears his name. 
Book denounces Edomites. 

Obbligato, in music. See in Index 
Music, table of musical terms and 
forms 

O'bed, in Old Testament, son of Ruth 
and Boaz R-299 

Obedience trials, of dogs D-120 
Ob'ellsk, a four-sided tapering .shaft 
with a pyramidal top; a favorite 
form of monument of the ancient 
Egyptians 

Cleopatra’s Needle A-160, picture 
N-218 

Obelisk of Luxor, Paris, France 
P-83b, picture P-St 
Rome, picture P-65 

Oberammergau (6-ber-am'er-gou) , vil- 
lage in Bavaria, 43 mi. s.w. of Mun- 
ich; pop. 5101: 0-322-3, map G-88, 
picture 0-323 

Oberhausen (o'her-liou-zen) , Ger- 
many, manufacturing city just w. 
of Essen; pop. 202,808; known for 
ironworks and chemical works: 
map, inset G-88 

Ob’erhoffer, Emil (1867-1933), Amer- 
ican musician, born Munich, Ger- 
many; organizer and conductor 
(1903-22) of Minneapolis Sym- 
phony Orchestra. 

Oberkampf, Chrlstophe Philippe (1738— 
1815), textile printer, born Ba- 
varia; learned how to print cloth 
from carved rolls; 1768 started 
plant at Jouy, near Paris, Prance; 
plant destroyed in 1815 . 
toiie de Jouy, picture T-106 
Oberlin (6-ber-ldn) , Jean FrSdfirlc 
(1740-1826), Alsatian Lutheran 
^ergyman, born Strasbourg, 
Prance: improved industry, agricul- 
ture, education, built roads; Ober- 
lin, Ohio, named for him. 
oberlin College, at Oberlin, Ohio; 
founded 1833 ; first coeducational 
college in U. S.; arts and sciences, 
music, theology; picture 0-350 
aluminum solvent discovered at 
H-249 

Oberon (6'ber-5?i), in English folk- 
lore, king of the fairies; Titania is 
his queen 

Midsummer Night’s Dream’ 5T-240 
Oberth (o'berf), Hermann (born 
1894), German mathematician and 
Physicist, born present Sibiu. 
Rumania; author of books on space 
travel: S-309a 
Obesity, exeessive fatness 
“ft and P-216, 217, H-302-3 
Obi (d'bt), a broad sash worn by 
Japanese women J-303 
objoc’tive, in optics, the lens in an 
optical system nearest the object 
viewed 

microscope type M-232-5 
espope type T-46, 47 
nl’lrptlve ease, in grammar N-308 
UDiatc spheroid, the shape of the 
earth E-192 

Oboe (O'bd), or hautboy, a woodrwind 
musical Instrument TV-lsg, R-88o, 
Picture M-471 
range of, diagram M-468b 
Oboliig (db’o-lils), a modern Greek 
Unit of weight, equal to 1.54 grains 
Or 0.1 gram (metric) ; in ancient 
rimes, equal to 11.0 grains or 0.71 
gram. 

t“-brd-p6n’), Alvaro (1880- 
r928), Mexican general and presi- 
dent of Mexico M-208 
Obrenovltch (5-bren'd-vlch) . ruling 
*erbl.an family; held power (not 
ydutlnuous'y) from acce.sslon of 
Mllosh Obrenovltch (1813) to 
assassination of Alexander (1903): 
S-103 

t^renovltch, Mllosh, or ^Illosch (17S0— 


OCEANS AND OTHER BODIES OF TFATER IN WORLD 


OCEANS 
Pacific Ocean 
Atlantic Ocean 
Indian Ocean 
Arctic Ocean 

Total Oceans 



M EAN 

Maximusi 


Abba 

Depth 

Depth 

Volume 

in Sq. Mi. 

is Ft. 

i.s Ft. 

IS Cu. Mi. 

63,801.600 

14,052 

35.040 

109,749,500 

31,830,700 

12,874 

30,246 

77,609,000 

28,356,200 

13,002 

26,207 

09,821,000 

5,440,200 

3,954 

17,899 

4,073,700 

129,428,700 



321,253,800 


The waters around the Antarctic Continent to the outer limit of iceberg.?, called by 
some geographers the Antarctic Ocean, are considered part of the Pacific, Atlantic, 
and Indian Oceans, and add more than 24,000,000 square miles to their total area. 
Greatest depth of these waters is 28,152 feet. 

II. SEAS, BAYS, GULFS, ETC. 

Malay Seas 
Barents Sea 
South China Sea 
Bering Sea 
Mediterranean Sea 
Caribbean Sea 
Gulf of Mexico 
Sea of Okhotsk 
East China Sea 
Hudson Bay 
Sea of Japan 
Andaman Sea 
Yucatan Channel and 
Gulf of Honduras 
North Sea 
Red Sea 
Caspian Sea 

Baltic Sea (including Kattegat) 

Black Sea 
Persian Gulf 
Gulf of St. Lawrence 
Aegean Sea 
Gulf of California 
Adriatic Sea 
Irish Sea 
English Channel 
Lake Aral 
Sea of Azov 
Sea of Marmara 

Total Seas. Bags, Gulfs, etc. 

TOTAL FOR THE WORLD 
Kerr The figures for each body of water exclude those of adjoining waters if the 
Ktter'are nanied in the table. For example, the figures for the hlediterranean Sea 
do not include the Adriatic Sea or the Aegean Sea; but they do include the so-called 
Ionian Sea and Tyrrhenian Sea which arc not listed here. For the waters included m 
Malay Seas, see in Index hfalay Seas. 


2,248,000 

3,401 

13,422 

1,448,000 

942,600 

512 

1,803 

01,200 

895,400 

5,419 

14,250 

920,000 

878,000 

4,716 

13,032 

784,100 

843,000 

5,383 

15,240 

859,000 

750,000 

8,609 

23,748 

1,241.500 

618,200 

4,874 

12,750 

570.700 

589,800 

2,748 

11,154 

306,800 

482,300 

018 

14,250 

50,400 

475,800 

420 

848 

37,900 

389,100 

4,428 

12,180 

320,500 

308,000 

2,856 

14,445 

100,500 

293,600 

8,708 

/ 6,857 
\16,259 

484.400 

190,000 

312 

2,172 

11,200 

169,100 

1,500 

7,740 

48,000 

168,500 

591 

3,224 

19,000 

163,000 

. 180 

1,382 

5,500 

162,100 

4,018 

7,382 

123,400 

92,200 

200 

320 

3,500 

91,800 

420 

1,770 

7,200 

69,100 

1,912 

7,370 

25,100 

62,600 

2,670 

8,570 

31,700 

51,000 

794 

5,200 

7,700 

39,900 

197 

638 

1,500 

29,000 

177 

500 

900 

25,100 

52 

244 

200 

16,200 

33 

49 

100 

3,200 

1,027 

4,258 

GOO 

11,053,200 



7,379,200 

140,481,900 



328,833,000 


1860), prince of Serbia, born a 
peasant: for services in freeing 
Serbia from Turkish rule called 
"father of his country" : S-103 
O’Brien, Edward (Joseph Harrington) 
ft 890-1941). editor and antholo- 
gist born Boston. Mass.: editor 
ff annual ’Best Short Stories’ 1915- 
40 and 'Best British Short Stories 
1921—40: selected many of the short 
.Stories from "Uttle." experimental 


American aviator, 
-1932), 


stories from 
magazines. 

O’Brien, Forest, 

(abfeA-104 zioro 

O'Brien, Frederick 

writer, bom Baltimore. Md. ; "mt 
m sea at 18 and afterward traveled 
f*WTiftG Shadows In the 
South Se^ -Mystic Isles^ of the 
South Seas’: ‘Atolls of g 

o*Tir!en Jeremmh (1 Ma-lolo /, 

Navy officer, born Kittery, i : 

five brothers and other 
voUmteers capm'-e'l two ^rUmh 

fat'i’r mmmanded“ ’first ' ships of 

Oi?^"brBUv“grea7navigab,e river 
/■ QihpHa- flows n.w. and n. 

Ilor.nll S GuVr or Ob, bay o- 


comparative. See in Index 
B-30-1, 32, 34, 
P.0- 

SsS'fe-b''""™ "'‘"I 


Irti 

length, 

Elvers, table 
Observation balloon 


Ohsid'Inn, a glasslike lava used as an 
ornamental stone L-138, J-360, 

M-2G6-7 

geological classification. See in /n- 
dex Rock, tabic 

Obstetrics, In medicine M-164a 

Obtuse angle, in mathematics, dia- 
gram G-61 

Ocala (o-/.-dZ'ci), Fla., city 77 ml. s.w. 
of St. Augustine; pop. 11,741; fruit; 
processed food; limestone: map 
F-158 

Silver Springs nearby F-163, picture 
F-163 

Ocampo (d-kdm'po), Victoria (bom 
1891), Argentinian writer, bom 
Buenos Aires; educated In Franco; 
founded literary review Sur 1931; 
known as Argentina’s "queen of 
letters”: wrote chiefly essays. 

Ocaiitos iO-Uun’tos), Carlos Marla 
(1860-1949), Argentine novelist 
L-125 

Ocarina (dk-g-rCnri) , .a simple wind 
instrument having finger holes 
and mouthpiece and made of terra 
cotta or metal: tone.? soft and 
lioilow; name fro|Vi oca (Italian for 
"goose”) bec-ause of similar .shape; 
also called sweet potato which It 
resembles in size and form. 

O’Casey, Sean (shOn) (bom 1884), 
Irish playwright, born In the slums 
of Dublin: a laborer. Felt-taught, 
ho tvon wide praise for the theatri- 
cal skill, keen humor, and merciless 
realism of his plays. ‘Juno and the 
Paycock' and 'The Plough and the 
Stars': al.-o wrote autobiography. 


^^^^^ i.Gcrman li ; pem. po ; nasaUJeau) .•--b-Fronch j 


(c In azure) :K = Gcrin:in guttural ch 




OCCAM 


474 


OCTAVIA 


Oc'cam, or Ockham, William of (died 
1349 K English philosopher and 
logician; opposed temporal power 
of papacy; highly important con- 
tributions to logic and metaphysics. 

Occiden'tal College, at Los Angeles, 
Calif.; founded 1887 by Presbyteri- 
ans; now nonseotarian ; liberal arts. 

Occipital bone, of the cranium S-192, 
picture S-192 

Occipital lobe, of brain B-280, 281, 
picture B-279 

Occulta'tion, in astronomy E-210 

Occupations 

Canada, pictoprapji C-66 
‘Dictionary of Occupational Titles’ 
V-601 

United States U-332-3, pictograph 
U-315; industries, chart U-322; 
professions U-332-4. See also 
Pact Summary with each state 
article; also in Index name of each 
state, subhead occupations 
vocations. See in Index Vocations 

Ocean 0-327-36, maps 0-335—6, pic- 
tures 0-327-9, 331, color pictures 
0-333-4. See also in Index Naviga- 
tion; and the principal topics below 
by name. For list of oceans and 
other bodies of water, see table on 
the preceding page 
animal life O-330-4. See _ also in 
Index Deep-sea fish; Marine life 
Antarctic 0-328 

Arctic A-326-7, 0-328, map A-326 
Atlantic A-451-3 
books. about; seashore H-392-3 
cables C-5-8, mop C-5, picfwrea 
C-5-8 

circulation of waters 0-332, 335-6 
climate affected by W-60-2, C-349: 
currents 0-332, 335-6; Europe 

E-422, 429, N-302 
color 0-336, P-2 
continental shelves E-178 
corals C-476-8, pictures 0-477-8 
currents. See in Index Ocean cur- 
rents 

depths 0-328, diaprams A-4D5, 0-328. 
See also table on preceding page 
Arctic A-326 

Atlantic A-451, map A-452 
how measured N-74, 0-336, S-239 
Indian Ocean 1-87 

Pacific P-2, P-193, diagrams E-173, 
0-328 

divers and diving D-106-7, 0-328, 
B-455, pictures B-lOO, D-106, 
B-456, P-lOe, color pictures 0-333, 
334; cutting through vessel, pic- 
ture G-28; television camera 'r-52 
evaporation 0-336 
floods P-146 

floor (5-54, pictures 0-327, 331: At- 
lantic A-451; continental shelves 
B-178 
fogs P-192 
fossils F-244 

hydrographic surveying S-458 
icebergs 1-8, pictures 1-8 ■ 

Indian 1-87 

lands covered hy, in the past 0-327 
largest 0-327 

level: geologic changes G-52, I-G; 
variations 0-336 

lighthouses and lightships L-236-8, 
pictures L-236-8 
microscopic forms of life 0-332 
mirages M-294, picture M-294 
mountains M-439: Atlantic A-451 
oil from P-181 
origin E-194, W-eO 
Pacific P-1-19, map P-16-17, pictures 
P-1—3, 9—14, color pictures P-6—8 
phosphorescence P-208 
plant life O-330, 332, B-150, pictur'es 
0-329, 331, P-10, S-94, color pic- 
tures F-105,: ■ 0-333-4: diatom 
D-82; seaweed S-94— 5, pictures 
S-94; specimens, how secured 
0-330, picture 0-331 
proportion of earth's surface 0-328 
sounding devices N-74, 0-336 


storms S-403-403a, diagrams S-403- 
403a 

sunlight in depths 0-330 
temperature 0-335: how obtained, 
picture 0-331 

tides T-129-31, pictures T-130-1 
water 

circulation 0-332, 335-6 
compressibility ■VV'-62 
minerals in 0-328 

pressure 0-330, W-62, diagram 

0-328 

salt content 0-328, W-62: a basis 
for calculating earth's age 
E-194; origin 0-336 
weight of W-62 
waterspouts W-71 

waves W-75-6: erode land E-183-4 
winds W-150-5, diagrams W-151-5 
Oueaiiiiriitm A-281, picture A-281 
Ocean ciimatc, or marine climate 
C-349, E-422, 429, 0-332, 335-6 
Ocean currents 0-332, 335—6, C-349, 
maps 0-335-6 

Equatorial Currents. See in Index 
Equatorial Currents 
Gulf Stream G-228B, 0-335-6, maps 
G-228B, 0-335 

Humboldt, or Peru 0-335, 336, maps 
0-335-6 

Japan 0-332, J-296, map 0-336 
Labrador A-452, map 0-335 
North Atlantic Current A-452, 
G-228&, 0-335, map 0-335 
North Pacific Current W-34, map 
0-336 

Ocean Grove, N.J., town on Atlantic 
6 mi. s. of Long Branch; pop. 3806; 
summer pop. 20,000 to 30,000 ; con- 
trolled by Ocean Grove Camp 
Meeting Association of Methodist 
church: map N-164 
Ocean'/a, or Oceaiiioa, islands of Pa- 
cific Ocean divided into Polynesia, 
Micronesia, and Melanesia, with 
New Guinea and Bismarck Archi- 
pelago; sometimes Australia and 
New Zealand included: P-3-9, 
map P'16-17. See also in Index 
chief islands and groups by name 
Illiteracy P-374 
Oceanic bonito. a fish T-205 
Oceanides (o-se-dn'i-des), in Greek 
mythology, ocean nymphs N-318 
Ocean Island, tiny British island 
possession in Pacific Ocean, s. of 
equator, between Gilbert Islands 
and Nauru : seat of government of 
Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony; 
phosphate deposits; area 2 sq. mi.; 
pop. 2060: map P-16 
Ocean liner S-152— 61 
'Flandre’, picture P-274 
model by Norman Bel Geddes, pic- 
ture S-428 

Ocennog'rapby, the science of ocean 
phenomena. See in Index Ocean 
Oceiinography, Scripps Institution of. 
See in Index Scripps Institution of 
Oceanography 
Ocean percii 0-337, P-115 
Oceanside, Calif., city 12 ml. n.w. of 
San Diego; pop. 12,881; fruit, 
vegetables, flowers; 1900-foot pier; 
airport ; Oceanside-Carlsbad Col- 
lege; Camp Pendleton, Marine base, 
and San Luis Key Mission nearby: 
map C-36 

Ocean Springs, Miss., resort on Bay 
of Biloxi, inlet of Gulf of Mexico, 

3 mi. e. of Biloxi; pop. 3058: map 
• M-303 

Occanus (d-se'<(-5nts), in Greek my- 
thology, eldest of the Titans, per- 
sonification of the all-encircling 
ocean ; father of the Oceanides. 
Ocean Wave, a game G-8b-c 
Ocelli (o-sel'i), "simple” eyes of in- 
sects 1-156, diagram I-1B2 
Ocelot io'se-ldtl, a 'eopardlike cat 
L-171, picture C-135& 

Ocher, or ochre id'kery, a natural 


earth or clay found in all parts of 
the world; color varies from pale 
to dark yellow, depending upon the 
amount of coloring matter, hydrated 
oxide of iron, the clay contains; 
used as pigment in paint. 

Ochs, Adolph Simon (1858-1935), 
newspaper publisher; born Cincin- 
nati, Ohio, of Jewish parents; rose 
from newsboy and printer’s devil to 
ownership at 20 of the Chattanooga 
Times; acquired control of New 
York Times 1896; brought both 
papers from financial difficulties to 
great prosperity; his policy was to 
print sound news only, no sensa- 
tional features. 

Ochtman (oKt'mdn), Beonard (1854- 
■ 1934), American painter, born 
Netherlands; largely self-taught; 
landscapes noted for atmospheric 
luminosity and lyrical quality 
(‘Night on the Mianus River'). 

Ockenheim, Joannes. See in Index 
Okeghem 

Ockham, 'William of. See in Index 
Occam, William of 

Ocmulgee (6k-mul'ge) National Monu- 
ment, in Georgia N-38, map N-18 

Ocmulgee Kiver, rising in n.-central 
Georgia; flows 260 mi. s.e., joining 
Oconee River to form Altamaha 
River; map G-76-7 
dam at Macon G-79 
Ocmulgee National Monument N-38, 
maj) N-18 

O’Connell, Daniel (1775-1847), Irish 
lawyer and political leader 0-337 

O’Connell, William Henry, Cardinal 
(1859-1944), Roman Catholic pre- 
late, born Lowell, Mass.; arch- 
bishop of Boston after 1907, car- 
dinal after 1911. 

O’Connor, Andrew (1874—1941), sculp- 
tor, born Worcester, Mass.; 
statues and bas-reliefs in marble 
and bronze (porch of St. Bar- 
tholomew’s Church, New York City; 
statue of Abraham Lincoln at 
Springfield, 111.). 

O’Connor, Basil (born 1892), lawyer 
and humanitarian, born Taunton, 
Mass.; law partner of P. D. Roose- 
velt 1925-33; president National 
Foundation for Infantile Paralysis 
from 1938; chairman American Red 


Cross 1944—49. 

O’Connor, Thomas Power (Tay Pay) 
(1848-1929), Irish political leader 
and journalist, active in the cause of 
Irish nationalism ; called “father of 
the House of Commons,” of which 
he was a member for 49 years; 
founded and edited T. P.’s Weekly. 
OcotlUo io-kd-teVyo) , a shrub (Foii- 
qnieria splendens) having nu- 
merous slender, spiny branches, 
scalelike leaves, and clusters of 
flame-red flowers: common in des- 
ert areas of s.w. United States and 
Mexico; also called coach-whip 
cactus, Jacob’s staff, candle flower: 
color picture P-290 
Octane, a hydrocarbon (CsHib). See 
' also in Index Paraffin series 
antiknock test for gasoline G-33 
Octant, instrument for measuring 
angles, similar to sextant but hav- 
ing arc one eighth of circle; used 
especially in aircraft navigation; 
often popularly called sextant: 
A-94-5, N-77, picture A-433. See 
also in Index Sextant 
Octave (dk'tdv), interval and note in 
music M-468b. See also in Index 
Music, table of musical terms ana 


forms 

Octavia (dk-td'vi-g) (died 11 B.C.), 
sister of Roman emperor Augustus; 
wife of Marie Antony: deserted by 
him for Cleopatra: C-343 
Octavia (A.D. 42-02), Roman empress, 
wife of Nero; divorced by him m 


Key: cape, dt, far, fast, whqt, fffll; mg, yet, fern, there;fco, bit; row, won, for, ndt, do; cfire, but, rjfde, full, 


btlrn: out; 



OCTAVIAN 

favor of Poppaea Sabina ; banished 
to island of Pandataria on false 
charge of unfaithfulness and there 
murdered. 

Octavian, Octavianus, or Octavius, 
Gains Julius Caesar. See in Index 
Augustus 

Octa'vo, a book size B-239 
October 0-337 

birthdays of famous persons. See in 
Index Birthdays, table 
birthstone, color picture J-348 
holidays F-57: foreign P-59 
Octobrist Kevolution, Russia (1917) 
R-2B9 

Octom'etcr, line in poetry P-335 
Oc'topns 0-338-9, 337, M-333, pictures 
0-339, P-106 

eggs 0-338, picture 0-339 
in aquarium 0-338, picture A-281 
Ocular. See in Index Eyepiece 
Oculist (61:'n-list) . or ophthalmolo- 
gist (.df-thdl-mol'o-gist), a physi- 
cian who specializes in the eye and 
its diseases S-330 

Odd Fellous, Independent Order of, 
an international, secret, fraternal, 
beneficiary society founded in Eng- 
land about 1745; Thomas Wildey, 
who organized a lodge in Baltimore 
in 1819, considered founder of Amer- 
ican order; Rebekah de^ee for 
women established 1851; distinctive 
feature of order is care for sick, dis- 
tressed, and dependent members 
and their families. 

Ode (od), a form of stately and elab- 
orate lyric poetry; originally a 
poem intended to be chanted or 
sung; P-337 
Diyden D-157 
Horace L-131 
Keats K-19 
Pindar G-210 

Odell, ivniiam Franklin (1774-1844), 
Canadian statesman, bom Bur- 
lington, N.J. ; provincial secretary 
of New Brunswick 1812-44. suc- 
ceeding his father, Jonathan Odell, 
who held the office 1784-1812. 
Odena’thns (died a.d. 267 or 271), 
general and ruler of Palmyra P-50 
Odense (6’den-su), 3d city in Den- 
mark. on island of Fiinen at mouth 
of Odense River; named for Norse 
god Odin; pop. 100,940; splendid 
cathedral; industrial and commer- 
cial center: maps D-71, E-424 
‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’, poem bj' Keats 
K-19 

Oder (6’der), Czech Odra (o’dra), 
miportant river of Czechoslovakia, 
Poland, and e. German border ; 
nses in Moravia, flows n.w. 560 
lui. and enters Baltic Sea by 3 arms 
after widening to form Stettiner 
Haff; cities on river inc'ude Bres- 
lau, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Stet- 
tin : maps E-416, 419, G-88 
Odes’sa, Russia, seaport of the Ukrain- 
mn Soviet Socialist Republic on 
black Sea; pop. 600,000: 0-340, 
maps R-267, B-204, E-417 
Odessa, Tex., city 237 mi. s.w. of 
Amarillo; pop. 29,495; oil and gas 
jields; oil-field supply center ; ranch- 
ing; business college and Odessa 
Junior College: map T-90 
Var*"*’ ^tilgaria. See in Index 

(o-dcts"), Clifford (born 1906), 
Piai-wright, born Philadelphia, Pa-i 
'Plays: ‘Awake and Sing’, ‘Parad;se 
bust’, and -The Flowering Peach 
apict Jewish family life: ‘Waiting 
Is about taxi-drivers 
-trike; 'Golden Boy’, a violinist 
turned prize fighter; ’The Country 
a— •, the long-suffering wife of a 
urunken actorl. 


475 


OGBURN 


M-476(Z, picture 


gods 0-340—1, 

0-341 

in ‘Nibelungenlied’ N-232 

ODM (Office of Defense Mobilization), 
U. S. U-358 

O’do, French Eudes (fid) (died A.n. 
898), king of the Franks, crowned 
888 after deposition of Charles the 
Fat; son of Robert the Strong; 
fought Normans and his rivai 
Charles III for French throne. 

Odoaccr (d-dd-d'ser) (434?— 493), Ger- 
man leader who seized power in 
Italy, deposed Romulus Augustulus, 
and thus overthrew the Western 
Roman Empire in 476: M-236 

Odom, William (Bill) (1920-1949), 
aviator, born Columbus. Miss.; 
established round-the-world solo 
flight speed record of 73 hours 5 
minutes in Aug. 1947; set nonstop 
distance record for light aircraft 
in March 1949. Killed Sept 1949 at 
Cleveland, Ohio, in air-race crash. 

Odometer, for measuring distance 
traveled D-29, diagram S-334, pic- 
ture D-29 

Odonata (d-dd-iid'ta), an order of 
insects I-160a , - . 

O’Uonnell, I'eadar (born 1896), Irish 
novelist; writes sympathetically 
and discerningly of Irish peasant ; 
suffered period of imprisonment for 
revolutionary activities (‘Storm; 
"The Wav It Was with Them ; 
'There Will Be Fighting’). . 

O’Donnell f.-imily, an ancient Irish 
family; Hugh Koe 
(15717-1602). fought With Hugh 
O’Neill against British rule; with 
defeat in 1601 fled from the coun- 
try his brother Kory O Donnell 
(1575-1608). 1st earl of Tyrconnel, 
fled in "flight of the earls : 1-231. 
See also in Index O Neill familj 

Odontoid process S-192 , . 

Odontolite (d-ddn'td-lit). a. variety of 
fossil bone or tooth colored ’fioe “I 
iron phosphate, sometimes called 
fossil or bone turquoise: used as 

Od^r™a^^s?e*iit S-200, N-305 

O’Dowd, Bernard (Fatrick) (186(^ 
1953). Australian poet and lawy er, 
bom Beaufort. Victoria, Australia 
verse has strong national flavor 
(poero, ‘The Bush ). 

Odra Kiver. central Europe. See m 

war hlro 0-342-5, p.ctnres 0-342-4 
Achilles called W w ar A- 
Aeolus aids A-29-30 
Ajax contends with A-m 
Circe C-309 

Cvciops C-533 /'• 1QR 

Greek life in time of G- 196 
Homer’s -Odyssey H-4_15 

wooden horse of T-^91ek 

"Ki^advenWr^sofOd^,^^^^^^^^ 

S=.3T2-5.T47E i-98b. See also 
iii’AuenlifonlSunJiter^^^ 


place in Greek li‘eratum G-2 
o'L, ancient name of Tripoli, 
in Libya B-219 


a city 


Oedipus (ed'i-p.t.).^n Gmek m 

'^fSfmfd^s^bTect'' of many 


Plai-wright, born Philadelphia, Pa.: answers riddle of Sphinx R-153 

(Plap: 'Awake and Sing-, ‘Paradises .Oedipus’. 

Lost, and 'The Flowering Peach "r^iin Knowles Paine M-466 , 


-..ken actor). 

also Woden, or Wotan, 
Norse mythology’, father of the 


Oedipus o'rsanization for 

OEEG. sec in 1 ' Co-operation 

European Econom 

Oeldensehlager Adam. See 

Ohlenschla^er mvtholo.gv-, 

Oe;u;.'.?.i*-'r-mn h of -Mount Ida, wi^ 

French 


of Paris; story told in Tennyson’s 
‘Oenone’ 

Paris deserts P-80 

Oenothera. See in Index Evening 
primrose 

Oerlikon gun, picture M-10 
Oersted (fir'sted). or Orsted, Hans 
Cliristiaii (1777—1851), Danish 
physicist; established connection 
between electricity and magnetism: 
E-303, 308, picture E-307 
isolated aluminum A-183 
OES (Office of Economic Stabiliza- 
tion), U. S. R-215 

Oesophagus. See in Index Esophagus 
Ocsterreich. See in Index osterreich 
‘Ocstcrreichisclic Bund c sli ym ne’ 

iu'stCr-rlK-i-she bun'des-ltiim-ne), 
Austrian national hymn N-41 
O’Faolain, .Sean (shon) (born 1900), 
Irish author, born Dublin; charter 
member Irish Royal Academy of 
Letters; early writings in Gaelic 
(novels; 'A Nest of Simple Folk’, 
‘Come Back to Erin’; nonfiction: 
‘Life Story of Eanion De Valera,’ 
‘King of the Begger.s’ — a life of 
Daniel O’Connell, ‘The Irish: a 
Character Study’). 

Of’fa (died 796), king of Jlercia; de- 
feated Wessex and the Weksh, 
wresting part of his land from the 
latter and building great fortifica- 
tions ("Offa’s Dyke") along entire 
border between England and Wales 
gold coin, pictures M-340 
On’ciibach (d/'en-beix). Jacques (1819- 
80), composer, born Cologne. Ger- 
many; lived in Paris from boj-hood; 
began as ’cellist at L’Opdra Coml- 
que; later conducted at ThOStro 
Franqais; in 1855 opened own 
theater. Bouffes-Parisiens: 0-396 
story of ‘Tales of Hoffmann’ 0-393 
onice'. as applied to units or 
parts of the United States govern- 
ment. See in Index office by name, 
as (Civilian Defense, Office of 
Officer Candidntc School (OCS), TJ.S. 

Army A-384 ..-i .t. 

Office reproduction processes P-4146-C 
Officers of U. .8, Air Force A-81— 81a 
corresponding ranks and pay in 
Army, Marines, Navy, table A-384 
insignia, pictures U-238, 239 
uniforms, picfiire U-236 
Officers of U. S, Army A-383 — 4, table 
A-3S0 

corre.sponding ranks .and pay In 
Air Force. Marines, Navy, table 
A-384 

insignia U-235. pictures U-237 
Militarj' Academy M-248-9 
schools for A-385 
Officers of r. s. Const Guard C-371 
Officers of U. S. JIarinc Corps M-96-7 
corresponding ranks and p.ay in Air 
Force Army, Navy, table A-384 
Officers of U. S. Navy N-89 
corre-sponding ranks and p.ay in Air 
Force Armv. ^^arlne^■. tabic A-384 
in.signia’ r-23,5. 239. plrlurcs U-238 
Naval Academy N-70-1 
uniforms, picture U-230 , . 

OIT'.rt process, in lithography L-«7G, 
P-210f/ 

O-FIuherty, I-ium (born 1897), Irish 
writer: .studied for pric.slliood in 
vouth- novels and .short .stories are 
vivid and realistic, reflecting tlio 
author’s life during Irish Rebellion 
V’Famlne’: ’The Informer’). 
Oi^aiaw^ra Jima. in Pacific Ocean. 

Vcc ill Index Bonin Islands 
ogburn. William Fielding (bom 
i^T,) .socIoIogi.st and educator, 
born Butler. Ga.; profc.'sor of soci- 
oioA-: Unlvcr.sity of Chicago. 1927- 
ri. work on federal Lo:ird.s for 
social and economic 

American Marri.age anii I'.amll> 

relationships’; ’You and M-achmes ; 
‘.‘-•oei.al Cluaracteri.s-tlcs o. Citie-- ). 


‘'“‘ se myuloiogy, latner 


~j't: in azure), -st^Gennan guttural cb 



OGDAI 


476 


OILS 


Ogdai Klian (died 1241), Mongol em- 
peror M-345 

Ogden, Peter Skene (1794—1854), 
British-American fur trader; cul- 
tured, resourceful, ividely knot\-n 
and respected among Indians; dur- 
ing- 33 years’ service -with Hudson’s 
Bay Company in Northwest ex- 
plored much territory and became 
head of Columbia River district; 
Ogden, Utah, named for him. 

Ogden, Utah, industrial city in agri- 
cultural region, 32 mi.n. of Salt Lake 
City on AVeber and Ogden rivers; 
pop. 57,112; "Weber College; mili- 
tary bases adjacent: U-409, maps 
U-416, U-252 

Ogdensbnrg, N.Y., port on St. La-w- 
rence River, at foot deep-water 
navigation of Great Lakes; pop. 
16,166; trade in grain and coal; 
newsprint paper, window shade 
rollers, brass goods: piaps N-205, 
U-253 

Ogdensbnrg Agreement (1940), be- 
tween U.S. and Canada C-103 
Ogeechee (d-pe'c/ie) Kiver, in Georgia, 
250 ml. to Ossabaw Sound, maps 
G-70, 76-7 

Ogier (6’pT-er), the Dane, hero of ro- 
mance, figuring in literature of sev- 
eral countries; was hostage for his 
father Godfrey, duke of Denmark, 
at court of Charlemagne. 

Ogilvy, Margaret, mother of James M. 
Barrie B-60 

Ogive (d’pin), a graph G-164, graph 
G-164 

Oglala io-gVd'Vd') , a tribe of the Teton 
Sioux Indians living chiefly in Soutli 
Dakota; some in North Dakota. 
Oglethorpe io'gl-thdrp) , James Ed- 
ward (1696-1785), English general 
and philanthropist, founder of 
Georgia 0-346, G-79, picture 0-346 
Augusta, Ga. A-472 
Port Frederica National Monument 
N-33, map N-18 

prohibits importation of liquor into 
Georgia P-416 
Savannah S-51 

Oglethorpe Day (February 12) F-66 
Oglethorpe University, at Oglethorpe, 
Ga., near Atlanta; founded 1835; 
re-established 1912; arts and sci- 
ences, business, citizenship, com- 
munity service, fine arts, human 
understanding, science 
Crypt of Civilization A-451 
OGPU, name given to the Soviet 
secret police 1923-34; name from 
initials of -s^-ords meaning Special 
Government Political Administra- 
tion ; functions taken over by NKVD 
(secret police) : R-282, 290 
Ogygia (o-(/!p'j-<i), in Greek mythol- 
ogy, the island of Calypso 0-344 
O’Hara, John Henry (born 1905), 
writer, born Pottsville, Pa.; style 
simple and direct; contributor to 
New YorTcer and other magazines 
(’Pal Joey’, night-life sketches; 
‘Appointment in Samarra’ and ‘A 
Rage to Live’, novels). 

O’Hara, Mary, pen name of Mary AIsop 
Sture-Vasa (born 1885), author, 
born Cape May Point, N. J.; Re- 
mount Ranch, Granite Canyon, 
"Wyo., is background for her boolis 
(’My Friend Plicka’; ‘Thunder- 
head’; ‘Green Grass of "Wyoming’) ; 
also writer for motion pictures. 

O. Henry, pen name of "William Syd- 
ney Porter (1862-1910), American 
short-story ivrjter P-375—6 
O’Higgins, ^/Bernardo (1778?— 1842), 
Chilean patriot and dictator, leader 
in war for independence 0-346, 
C-266, picture 0-346 
flag, Chile F-138, color picture F-136 
Oliio, a n. -central state of U. S.; 
11,222 sq. mi.; pop. 7,946,627; 


cap. Columbus: 0-347-62, maps 
0-356-7, 363, U-253, 265, 275, 287, 
pictures 0-347, 349—50, 360—1 
admitted to Union, disputed date 
0-362 

agriculture 0-361—2, 352 
Arbor Day, school festival A-295 
bird, state 0-351 
Capitol, State, picture 0-361 
' cities 0-348, 350, 361, 353, piap 
index 0-365, 368-9. See also in 
Index names of cities 
Akron A-111 
Canton C-116-17 

Cincinnati C-307-8, picture C-308 
Cleveland C-346-7, picture C-346 
Columbus C-419 
Dayton D-25 
Toledo T-145-6 

Youngstown Y-342— 3, picture Y-S42 
climate 0-351 
commerce 0-350. 362 
communication 0-351 
counties, map index 0-364 
education 0-352, 362, picture E-258 
elevation 0-351 
extent 0-351 
Fact Summary 0-351-4 
fisheries 0-352 

flag P-130 h, color picture P-127 
flood control E-216 
flower, state 0-351, color picture 
S-384a 

forests, state 0-353, piap 0-353 
geographic regions in which situ- 
ated, maps U-250, 265, 287 : Middle 
Atlantic region U-264— 71; North 
Central Plains U-284-90 
glacial history 0-347-8 
government 0-362, 351 
history 0-348, 354 
settlement 0-347, 348 
Clark’s expedition C-339 
Western Reserve C-451 
Northwest Territory N-299 
admitted to Union, disputed date 
0-362 

development of Cincinnati C-307, 308 
Cleveland settled C-347 
Johnny Appleseed A-278, P-201-2 
discovery of natural gas G-31 
boundary dispute with Blichigan 
0-362 

Industries 0-350, 361, 362 
land use 0-351 

minerals 0-348, 350, 361, 352: sand- 
stone quarry, picture Q-2 
motto 0-351 

Mound Builders in M-438— 9 
name, origin of, and nickname 0-351 
natural features 0-347-8, 351: 

Cincinnati arch G-59 
natural resources 0-347, 348, 350, 
361, 351 

occupations 0-351 

parks, monuments, and other areas 
0-362—3, maps 0-353, N-18 
Mound City (Jroup N. M. N-37 
Perry’s "Victory and International 
Peace Memorial N. M. N-38— 38a 
people: noted persons 0-347, 362; of 
Cleveland C-347 

places of interest 0-353, map 0-353 
population 0-351 
products 0-347, 350, 361-2, 352 
rivers 0-351: Ohio 0-362-3 
seal 0-351 
song, state 0-351 
trade, wholesale and retail 0-352 
transportation 0-348, 350, 362, 351, 
C-346: Ohio River 0-362, 363 
tree, state 0-361 

Ohio and Erie Canal, between Ports- 
mouth and Cleveland, Ohio 0-348, 
map C-108 

Ohio buckeye B-S37, picture B-337 
Oliio Company of Associates, company 
formed by New England colonists 
(1786) for purchase and settlement 
of western lands; large tracts in s. 
Ohio purchased from Congress 
Marietta founded (1788) 0-362 


Ohio River 0-362-3, maps 0-348, 
K-23, N-246, U-253, 274-5 
bridges : Metropolis, 111., picture 
B-310. See also in Index Bridge. 
table 

commerce: of Ohio 0-348, 350, 362; 

of Pennsylvania P-276 
Palls, at Louisville, Ky. L-3S5, 

0- 363 

floods P-143 

hydroelectric power, map W-70 
influence on settlement P-264, 1-72 
navigation: dams D-7; early L-S35, 

1- 83 


Ohio State University, at Columbus, 
Ohio ; state control ; founded 1870 ; 
colleges of agriculture, arts and 
sciences, commerce and adminis- 
tration, dentistry, education, engi- 
neering, law, medicine, pharmacy, 
veterinary medicine; graduate 
school :, C-419, picture 0-350 

Ohio University, at Athens, Ohio, with 
branches at Chillicothe, Ports- 
mouth, and Zanesville, Ohio; state 
control; chartered 1804; opened 
1809 ; arts and sciences, commerce, 
education, engineering, fine arts, 
home economics; graduate college. 

Oliio Wesle.van University, at Dela- 
ware, Ohio; Methodist; opened 
1844 (chartered 1842) ; liberal arts, 
fine arts, music; graduate studies. 

Olilenschliiger, or Oehlenschlnger 
(u-lhn-shld'ger) , Adam Gottlob 
(1779-1850), Danish poet and 
dramatist of wide influence; a pio- 
neer of romantic movement in Eu- 
rope; fluent, profuse style (‘Hakon 
Jarl’; ‘Aladdin’s Lampe’). 

Ohm (dm), Georg Simon (1787- 
1854), German mathematician and 
physicist; ohm, unit of electrical 
resistance, named for him; also 
Ohm’s law. 

Ohm, unit of electrical resistance 
E-298 


Ohm’s law, for measuring electric cur- 
rent E-298, 299, dtapromsE-299, 300 
Cavendish anticipates discovery 
E-308 

modified for alternating : current 
E-306 

Oil nnd Gas, Division of, U. S. Depart- 
ment of the Interior U-363 ■' 

Oil beetles, group of blister beetles, 
subfamily Meloinae, that give off a 
disagrefeable, oily fluid when dis- 
turbed, picture B-105 
metamorphosis B-107 
Oil-bnrning ships S-156 
Oil cake, seeds from which oil has 
been pressed F-45 
corn C-484, diagram C-483 
soybean, picture M-76 
Oil City, Pa., on Allegheny River 
about 60 mi. s.e. of Erie, one of 
largest oil markets of Pennsylva- 
nia petroleum fields: pop. 19,581: 
maps P-132, P-180, U-253 
Oilcloth, how made L-255 
Oildale, Calif., in Kern County, one 
mi. n.w. of Bakersfield; pop. 16,- 
-615; oil fields; refineries; airport: 
map C-35 
Oil heating 

burner H-322, picture H-322 
Oil industry P-i78— 81, 168. See also 
in Index Petroleum 
Oiling, of machinery L-339. See also 
in Index Lubricant 
Oil of vitriol S-448. See also in In- 
dex Sulfuric acid 

Oil painting P-37c, d. See also in In- 
:dex Painting 

eariy use of oil paints P-25o 
Oils F-44-5. See also in Index Fats; 
■Petroleum; and chief oils by name 


animal oils F-44-5 • 

butter substitutes 0-377-8, C-37b, 
■ F-45 

chemical nature F-44, 45 


Key: cape, (it, far, fdst. whot, fflll; me, yet, fern, there; ice, bit; row, won, ior, not, dg; ciire. 


blit, riide, ftdl, burn; out; 


OILSTONE 


■* 477 


OLD-AGE 


coal-tar derivatives C-370-1 
colloidal mixture in water C-385 
com C-484, P-45, diagram C-483 
drying- oils F-45 

essential F-45: in perfumes P-147-8; 
in spices S-340; in wintergreen 
W-156 

fats distinguished F-45 
fuel oils F-314, chart F-314 
fuller’s earth a purifier F-316 
halibut viscera H-248 
hydrogenation H-458-9 
Iridescence explained 11,-233 
lighting 1,-89 
lubricants 1,-339 

oleomargarine made from 0-377-8 
paints, varnishes P-40, 41, 42, F-45 
soaps made from S-211, 213 
soybean S-3086 
sperm oil W-114 
vegetable oils F-46 
T?ater and oil, why they do not mix 
S-235, diagram S-234 
waterproof property F-44 
whale oil ■W-114 

Oilstone, smooth rock used for sharp- 
ening tools; often used with oil 
Arkansas produces A-860 

Oil wells. See in Index Petroleum, 
subhead wells 

OIrot, also Oirat, XJ.S.S.R., an auton- 
omous region of R.S.P.S.II. in Al- 
tel Mountain regdon of -w. Siberia; 
91,200 sq. mi.; inhabited W Oirots, 
a nomadic Asiatic people, and Rus- 
sians; stock raising and hunting: 
map R-260 

Oise (waz) River, in n. Prance; rises 
in s.vf. Belgium; flows s.w. receiv- 
ing Aisne at ComplSgne, and joins 
loi”® Paris; length 

^7 mi.; strategic line in World 

ni . S ^ F-259 

Index Ossian 

Oltlcica oil p.4o 

’ Alonzo de 
t SP3-nlsh explorer; 
panied Columbus on his 


(1465?- 

accom- 

second 


founded colony on 
Gulf of Darien, 1509 
Venezuela V-442 

Tnm**’ Chippewa (chip'e-ioa) , 

Qian tribe that lives in Minnesota, 
^Ilchigan, North Da- 
’ *^°"tana, and in Ontario, Can- 
.1-106/^ table 1-108 
oi-o picture 1-99 

Oltano, ® in Index Trappist cheese 

s. British Colum- 
80 ’ 90 ml. long, maps C-68, 

or Okanagan River, 
Ish n of the Columbia in Brit- 

Canada, and Wash- 
3nn^' Bake Okawogus; 

nrort,,™,- maps C-80, W-37 

Oka„i"5^,°?,XaIley C-86 
raffo n n relative of the gi- 

prlce Picture G-112 

Oka zoos Z-358 

cent-ai it ®iver, navigable river in 
1000 mi.; receives 
s. of iloscow; joins 
R'268 *nap E-417, picture 

io Florida, 40 mi, 

F.ia’i ,,._'7i!. wide F-163, maps 
O’K w ■ U-277 

<^ivs. Alfred Stieg- 
Vralrip PO-inter, bom Sun 

in ahcfU noted for her w’ork 

fashin^?'^*' Oeslgn, also for unique 
Ohefennt' 'Which she paints flowers, 
in Goo", (o-ke.fi-no’ke) Swamp, 
G-m v^and Florida G-70, maps 
Okerhom U-277 

Ocke^„,'° ^o-x/em), Joannes, also 
,(14307-95?), Flemish 
biusfo ohurch music, and a 

his punlf . sreat Influence; 
Of jTirif, were founders of schools 
h’Keiir c many parts of Europe. 

' ./l “can (s/ida) (born 1882), 


Irish newspaper publisher and 
statesman; a founder of Sinn Fein; 
member of Bail Eireann after 1927 ; 
elected president of Eire (now Re- 
public of Ireland) 1945, re-elected 
1952. 

Oldiofsk (d-k6tak', Russian o-Kotsk'), 
Sea of, large inlet of Pacific in- 
denting e. coast of Siberia: maps 
R-259, A-406, 411. See also in Index 
Ocean, table 

fur seals of Robben Island S-89 
Oldiofsk Current, or Oyashio (Japan- 
ese for “parent stream”), a cold 
current which flows s. from Sea of 
Okhotsk dividing into two branches, 
one flowing toward mainland of 
Asia, the other along e. coast of 
Japan 

effect on Japan J-296, map 0-336 
Okinawa ( d'fct-nd'ico) , largest island 
of Ryukyu chain, about 60 mi. long, 
2 to 20 mi, wide; pop, 517,634; 
strategic air and naval base; with 
nearby islets known as Okinawa 
Gunto (Okinawa “cluster of is- 
lands’’) ; total pop. 579,791: maps 
P-16, J-297, picture P-19 
World War II W-272, 293 
Oklahoma (o-klg-ho'mg), state of s.- 
central IJ.S.; 69,919 sq. mi.; pop. 
2,233,351; cap. Oklahoma City: 
0-363-76, maps 0-370-1, 364, 367, 
U-252-3, 274, 278-9, pictures 

0-363-4, 368, 373-6 
agriculture 0-366, 373, pictures 

0-363, 374 
bird, state 0-365 
Capitol, State, picture 0-384 
cattle ranges C-148, picture 0-374 
cities 0-373, 367, map index 0-369, 
372. See also in Index names of 
cities 

Oklahoma City 0-376-7, t>icture 
0-376 

Tulsa T-204-5, picture T-205 
climate 0-365 
communication 0-365 
counties, map index 0-369 
education 0-366, 376 
elevation 0-373, 365 
extent 0-365 
Fact Summary 0-365—8 
flag F-1306, color picture F-127 
flower, state 0-366, color picture 
S-384a 

forests 0-373: national 0-367, map 
0-367 

geographic regions in which situ- 
ated, maps U-250, 274 278-9: 

Great Plains IT-291-S; The South 
U-272-83 

government 0-376, 366 
history 0-363—4, 375-6, 367-8 
hydroelectric power, picture 0-374 
Indians 0-376—6, I-llOe 
industries 0-373, 366 
land use 0-365 
minerals 0-364, 373, 366 
motto 0-365 
mountains 0-365, 373 
name origin of, and nickname 0-365 
SaSral features 0-373. 365; Ozark 
Mountains 0-440 

natural resources 0-364, 373, 365 
occupations 0-365 
"Oklahoma Run 0-363-4 - 

■mrks and other areas 0-366-7, 

^ Iw’ps 0-367, N-18; Platt P- 

plac'es^of interest 0-366-7, map 
0-367 

population 0-364, 395 
products 0-364, 366, 373 
rivers 0-365, 373 
seal 0-365 

S, "wholesale and retail 0-366 
transportation 0-365 
tree, state 0-365 

Oklahoma!’ an American light opera 
0-398, picture 0-397 




Oklahoma, Dniversity of, at Norman, 
Okla.; state control; founded 1892; 
colleges of arts and sciences, busi- 
ness administration, education, en- 
gineering, fine arts, law, pharmaev; 
graduate school; schools of medi- 
cine and nursing at Oklahoma City; 
picture 0-374 

Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College, at Stillwater, Okla.; 
state control; founded 1891; arts 
and sciences, agriculture, com- 
merce, education, engineering, 
home economics, veterinary medi- 
cine; graduate school; technical 
training at Okmulgee. 

Oklahoma Baptist Dniversity, at 
Shawnee, Okla.; controlled by 
Southern Baptist Convention ; 
opened 1911 ; arts and sciences, edu- 
cation, music. 

Oklahoma City, Okla., state capital, w. 
center of state, on Canadian River; 
pop. 243,504: 0-376-7, maps 0-370- 
I, U-262, picture 0-376 
Capitol, State, picture 0-364 
Oklahoma City University, at Okla- 
homa City, Okla.; Methodist: 
founded 1904; arts and sciences, 
business, law, music. 

Oldnhomo College for Women, at 
Chickasha, Okla.; state control; 
founded 1908; arts and sciences, 
fine arts. 

Olcmui’gec, Okla., city 37 mi. s. of 
Tulsa, in coal, oil, and cotton 
region; pop. 18,317; glass products, 
oil refining, food processing; Okla- 
homa A. & M. College School of 
Technical Training; capital of 
Creek Nation 1868-1907: maps 
0-371, tr-263 

Oflera, or gumbo, a plant 0-377, pic- 
ture 0-377 

when and how to plant, fable G-19 
Okubo (d’klt-bo), ToshimUsn (1830- 
78), one of 5 Japanese nobles who 
led revolution (1868) against sho- 
gunate; one of emperor’s advisers, 
Oknma (6’ktt-mS), Shlgenobu, Mar- 
quis (1838-1922), Japanese states- 
man. early advocate of abolition of 
feudal system and advance re- 
forms; founded schools; premier 
during first half of World War I. 
Olnt tO’laf) II, Saint (095-1030), 
king and patron saint of Norway, 
conquered throne 1016; unified 
kingdom and continued its Chris- 
tianization 
festival day P-69 

Olaf Tryggvesson (069-1000), king 
of Norway; began Christianization 
of Nonvay; leaped Into sea after 
defeat by Danes and Swedes; hero 
of Bongfellow’s ‘Saga of King Olaf : 
E-391, N-296b 

Oland (u’land), an island of Sweden, 
near Its s.e, extremity. In the Bal- 
tic Sea, separated from the main- 
land by Kalmar Sound; 310 .sq. ml.; 
pop. 20,230; cap. Borgholm on w. 
coast: maps N-301, E-424 
Olcott, Frances .Tenkins, American 
librarian and writer, bom Paris. 
France (father at that time in 
U. S. consular service) ; author and 
editor of folklore and fairy- tales 
for children and books on children's 
reading (‘The Children's Reading’; 
'Tales of the Persian Genii'). 

•Old Abe, the Wnr Eagle', story E-168 
Old ago 

economic and social aspects P-372-3 
geriatrics C-454a, picture C-454 
leisure-time activities 1,-169— 61 
pen.s[ons P-141, S-2l8-218n .• England 
I.,-2B6: New Zealand N-228a 
Old-age beneflt*, stated allowancc.n 
paid regularly to persons who have 
reached a certain age; csmbllshcd 
In United State-s, England, Aus- 

(r In azureJ :/: = German guttural ch 



478 


OLIVER 


OLD BAY 


tralia, New Zealand, and other 
countries: P-141, S-218— 218a 
Old Bay State, or Bay State, popular 
name for Massachusetts. 

Oldberg, Arne (born 1874), composer 
and teacher of music ; born Youngs- 
town, Ohio. 

Old Bet, elephant, called "mother of 
the American circus” C-311 
‘Old Black Joe’, song by Stephen C. 
Foster M-466 

Old Blood and Guts, nickname of 
Gen. George S. Patton, Jr. P-99 
Old Castile, Spain, n. part of Castile, 
an elevated plateau walled in by 
mountains. 

Old Catholic churches, religious bodies 
adhering to dogma and customs of 
Roman Catholic church but not 
accepting authority of its hier- 
archy; groups in U. S. are out- 
growths of Old Catholic movement 
and churches of Europe. For mem- 
bership, see in Index Religion, table 
‘Old Curiosity Shop’, novel by Charles 
Dickens telling the story of an old 
curiosity-shop keeper and his 
granddaughter. Little Nell: D-83, 
•picture D-84a 

Old Dominion, popular name for Vir- 
ginia 

origin of name V-477, 489 
Olden Barneveldt. See in Index Bar- 
neveldt 

Oldenburc (old'eu-bvrK) , former 
state of n.w. Germany on North 
Sea; 2480 sq. mi.; pop. 500,000; 
after World War II, included in 
Lower Saxony; P-424o, maps G-88, 
B-424 

Old English language and literature. 
See in Index Anglo-Saxon language 
and literature 

Old English sheep dog, color picture 
D-116a, table D-lieb 
Old Faithful, geyser in Yellowstone 
National Park Y-337, maps Y-338, 
picture Y-339 
Oldfield goldenrod G-1S5 
Oldfield pine, a common name some- 
times applied to the loblolly pine. 
‘Old Folks at Home’, song by Stephen 
C. Poster P-248, M-466 
Old Forge, Pa., coal-mining borough 
on Lackawanna River, 4 mi. s.w. of 
Scranton; pop. 9749: map P-133 
Old Fuss and Feathers, nickname of 
Gen. Winfield Scott S-69 
Old Glory, name given to U. S. flag. 
Old Granary Burial Ground, in Boston, 
Mass. B-258 

Old Guard, popular name of noted 
body of troops in army of Napo- 
leon I; made last French charge at 
battle of Waterloo. 

Oldham (old'um), England, impor- 
tant cotton manufacturing town in 
Lancashire 6 mi. n.e. of Manches- 
ter; pop. 121,212; coal: map B-325 
Old Hickory, nickname of Andrew 
Jackson J-286 

Old Ironsides. See in Index ‘Constitu- 
tion’ 

‘Old Ironsides’, poem by Oliver 
Wendell Holmes H-408, A-226e 
Old Easaan National Monument, on 
Prince of Wales Island, Alaska 
N-S8, map N-18 

‘Old Kentucky Home, My’, famous 
American plantation song; words 
and music written by Stephen 
C. Foster in 1850: P-248 
Bardstown shrine, picture K-34 
Old King, horse, foundation sire of 
Albino Horse, table H-428e 
‘Old King Cole’, origin M-406 
Old Lady .of Threadneedle Street, 
popular name for the Bank of 
England L-301 

Old Line State, popular name for 
Jlaryland. 


Old Sian Eloquent, nickname of 
John Quincy Adams A-16 
Old Man of the Mountain, head of the 
Assassins A-425 

Old Man of the Mountain, New Hamp- 
shire N-143, picture N-143 
Old Man of the Sea, in ‘Arabian 
Nights’, the little old man who begs 
Sinbad the Sailor to carry him 
across a brook and then will not be 
dislodged from his back; hence, a 
bore or burden: A-293 
Old Manse, in Concord, Mass., home of 
Emerson and Hawthorne C-430 
Old moon M-386, diagram M-385 
"Old Moon in the now moon’s arms” 
M-386, 389 

‘Old Mortality’, novel by Sir Walter 
Scott telling of the struggles of 
the Scottish Covenanters with the 
royal forces under Claverhouse; 
title is taken from the nickname 
of old Robert Paterson who kept 
the gravestones of the Covenanters 
in repair 

Buchan quoted on S-69 
‘Old Mother Hubbard’ M-406 
Old North Church (Christ Church), 
Boston B-260, picture B-259 
Old North State, popular name some- 
times applied to North Carolina. 

Old Point Comfort, Va., summer re- 
sort at mouth of James River, 14 
mi. n. of Norfolk; Port Monroe is 
here. 

Old Pretender (James Francis Ed- 
ward Stuart) (1688-1766) P-410 
Old public functionary (Buchanan) 
B-335 

Old Regime (rd-zliem'") , the despotic, 
oppressive government of France 
before the Revolution (1789). 

Old Rough and Ready, nickname of 
Zachary Taylor T-27 
Olds, Elizabeth (born 1897), artist 
and author, born Minneapolis, 
Minn.; studied art in Paris; re- 
ceived Guggenheim Fellowship for 
her paintings of circus horses and 
trapeze artists. Wrote and illus- 
trated the following books for 
children: ‘Big Fire’; ‘Riding the 
Rails’ ; ‘Feather Mountain’. 

Olds, Ransom Ell (1864—1950), pio- 
neer automobile builder, born 
Geneva, Ohio; built a 3-wheeled 
steam carriage 1887, a 4-wheeled 
steam car 1893, a gasoline car 
(Oldsmobile) 1896: table A-505 
Oldsmobile, picture A-606 
Old Salamander, nickname of David 
Glasgow Parragut P-S7 
Old Sarum, (sd'ricm), parish in Wilt- 
shire, England, 2 ml. n. of Salis- 
bury; former city, although almost 
entirely deserted by 16th century, 
sent members to Parliament until 
1832; proverbial "rotten borough” 
sends Chatham to Parliament C-198 
Old Saybrook, Conn., town on Con- 
necticut River near mouth; pop. 
of township, 2499; settled by Eng- 
lish 1635; united with Connecticut 
1644; early home of Yale Univer- 
sity: map C-446 

Old South Meeting House, Boston, 
Mass., B-260, picture B-259. See 
also in Index New Old South 
Church 

Old Spanish Trail U-409, map R-169 
Old squaw, a diving duck (.Olangula 
hyemalis) D-160 

Old State House, Boston, Mass. B-260, 
pictures D-3S, B-269 
Old Stone Ago. See in Index Paleo- 
lithic Age 

Old Testament, a division of the 
Bible B-134, 136, See also in 
Index Bible 
divisions P-419 


language H-S26-7 
Prophets P-418-19, picture P-419 
Old Tippecanoe, nickname of Wil- 
liam Henry Harrison H-278 
Old wives’ tale, odd tale, belief, or 
traditional superstition 
about children C-239 
‘Old Wives’ Tale, The’, by Arnold 
Bennett, story of two sisters in the 
pottery-manufacturing section of 
Staffordshire, England; also title of 
English comedy by George Peele. 
Oleaceae (6-Ze-a'se-e) , the olive fam- 
ily, a group of trees and shrubs 
distributed over temperate and 
tropical regions; includes ash and 
olive trees, and lilac, fringe tree, 
privet, forsythia, and jasmine. 
Olean (o-le-dn') , N.Y., distributing 
point for Pennsylvania petroleum; 
on Allegheny River 60 mi. s. of 
Buffalo; pop. 22,884; oil-well ma- 
chinery, glass, leather, tile: map 
N-204 

Olean'der, a flowering shrub 0-377, 
picture 0-377 

Oleg, early ruler of Russia R-284 
Ole’ic acid, a fatty acid P-46 
Olein (d'Ze-in), compound found in 
fats and oils P-45 

Oleomargarine (o-le-o-mdr'ga-ren or 
6-le-6-mar'ga-rin) , or margarine, 
butter substitute 0-377-8 
tallow or oleo stock in F-45 
Oleo stearin F-46 


Oleron (d-Id-rdu'), fertile island off 
w. coast of France at mouth of 
Charente River; Included in depart- 
ment of Charente-InfSrieure : 66 sq. 
mi.; chief town St. Pierre: maps 
P-259, E-426 

Oleum, or fuming sulfuric acid S-448 
Olfactory nerve, the nerve of smell; 
branches are distributed to mucous 
membrane of nasal cavity. 

Olga, known as St. Olga, ruler of Rus- 
sia A.D. 945-955 R-284 
Olibanum. See in Index Frankincense 
Olier de Verneull, Jean Jacques 
(1608-57), French Roman Cath- 
olic prelate, born Paris, France; 
helped to establish Sulpioian settle- 
ment at Montreal in 1640. 
Oligarchy {dl'i-Sar-ki), a form of 
government G-146 
ancient Greece D-63 
Venice V-446 

Ol’igocene epoch, in geology, diagram 
G-68, table G-57 

Ol'igoclnse, a mineral containing sodi- 
um and calcium silicates M-266 
Oliphant iol'i-fdnt) , Laurence (1829- 
88), Scottish writer and mystic, 
born Capetown, South Africa; books 
reflect life of adventure and travel 
(‘A Journey to Katmandu’, travel; 
‘Piccadilly’, novel; ‘Episodes in a 
Life of Adventure’, autobiography). 
Olipliant, Margaret Wilson (1828—97), 
Scottish novelist and historical 
writer ('Chronicles of Carringford ; 
‘Makers of Venice'). 

Oliphant, or horn, of Roland B-178 
Olive, a small evergreen tree 0-S78-9, 
pictures 0-378, color picture P-288 
groves; Corfu, picture G-191 
packing, California, picture C-42 
sacred tree of Hercules 0-381 


stuffed P-143 

)Uvc family. See in Index Oleaceae 
llivene, a mineral R-169 
Hive oil 0-378, 379, P-46 
freezing point, table P-2B4 
Hirer, Ocorse, See in Index Onions, 
Oliver 

Hirer Optic, See in Index Optic, 

Dlirer Twist’, novel by Charles 
Dickens; relates adventures oi 
orphan who infringes workhou^se 
etiquette by asking for more 




Key: cape, at, far, fast, whqt, foil; me, yet. fern, there; ice, bit; row. wdn, for, ndt. dp; cure, but, rijde, ftdl, bUrn; out: 



OLIVES 


479 


ONE-HOSS 


pupil of Fagln the pickpocket and 
tool of Bill Sikes the burglar: pic- 
ture E-380& 

Bill Sikes, picture D-85 
Olives, Sfonnt of, historic ridge e. of 
Jerusalem; favorite resort of Christ 
and Disciples; contains Hill of Of- 
fense, reputed scene of Solomon’s 
Idolatry ; alluded to in Old and New 
Testaments: J-336, map J-336, pic- 
ture J-337 
Olive shell 

lettered olive (Oliva sayana), snail: 
shell, color picture S-139o 
Oliv’ia, countess beloved by the duke 
in Shakespeare’s ‘Twelfth Night’. 
Olivier (d-Ziu’t-d) , Sir Daurence (born 
1907), English actor, director, and 
producer; imighted 1947 for serv'ices 
to stage and to motion pictures; pro- 
duced, directed, and played title 
roies in the films ‘Henry V’ (re- 
leased in XJ.S. 1946) and ‘Hamlet’; 
won Academy award for 1948 for 
his role in ‘Hamlet’; this film, in 
turn, won Academy award as best 
picture of 1948, 

Olirine (ol't-vert), also chrysollfe, or 
peridot, a semiprecious stone J-350, 
31-266 

hirthstone, color picture J-348 
sand S-38 

Ollivant, Alfred (1874-1927), English 
novelist; known particularly for 
‘Bob, Son of Battle’ (published in 
England as ‘Owd Bob’), the story 
of two sheep dogs. Bob and his life- 
long enemy Red Wullie, both sus- 
pected of killing sheep. 

Oloiecs, ancient race of Indians 
statue, picture I-llO 
Olmcdo (Cl-md’dC), Jose Joaquin Jo 
(1780-1847), poet oi Ecuador 
L-127, picture L-125 
Olmsted (om'stSd), Frederick Daw 
(1822-1903), pioneer landscape ar- 
chitect, horn Hartford. Conn.; 
designer of Central Park, New York 
City. Fairmont Park, Philadelphia, 
and Franklin Park, Boston; origina- 
tor of school of landscape gardening 
which emphasizes natural features, 
avoiding formal European styles: 
P-86a 

Olmlitz, Czechoslovakia. See in Index 
Olomouc 

oiney, Richard (1835-1917), jurist 
and statesman, bom Oxford, Slass.; 
attorney general (1893-95) and 
secretary of state (1895-97) under 
President Cleveland; used Injunc- 
tion in railroad strike of 1894, first 
case of court injunction in strike. 
Olomonc (6‘16-mota), German Olmiitz 
(OVmiits), Czechoslovakia, town 
in Moravia on Jlorava River; coal 
mining; pop. 58,178; occupied by 
.Swedes in Thirty Years' War; be- 
sieged by Frederick II of Prussia 
(1758) ; conference to settle Austro- 
PruEslan conflict over German 
affairs (1850) : maps C-535, E-425 
Olszeivska (6l-shcv’s!:d), 31nrln (bom 
1892), German contralto; sang in 
opera and concert in Europe and 
South America; American debut, 
Chicago. 1930. 

Olsifyn (olsh'tin), German Allensteln 
(Sl’Jn-shtin), Poland, former Ger- 
man (East Prussian) town in 
Masurian Lakes region; pop. 29,- 
053; In Poland since 1945: map 
E-424 

hl'is'tce, Pla., village 46 ml. s.w, of 
Jacksonville; battle of Olustee or 
Ocean Pond (Feb. 20, 1864), one of 
the bloodiest battles of the Civil 
JJ’ar, resulting in dete.at for the 
Federal forces; maps F-158, C-334 
fhym’pla. Greece, plain in ancient Elis 
on Alpheu.= River(modern Knphla) ; 
adorned, by beautiful temples and 


statues; scene of Olympic Games: 
0-381, map a-197 

Praxiteles’ ‘Hermes with the Infant 
Dionysus’ G-204-5, S-77, picture 
S-77 

temple and statue of Zeus S-105, pic- 
ture S-106 

Olympia, "Wash., state capital, at head 
of Puget Sound: pop. 15.S19 : 0-379, 
maps 37-44, U-252, picture W-3i 
Capitol, State, pictures Vl-Si, 38 
Olym’pind, formerly the interval of 
four years between celebrations 
of Olympic Games; in modem 
usage signifies tne Olympic Games: 
0-381 

Olympian gods, the gods and goddes- 
ses of Greek mythology who were 
supposed to live on Mount Olympus: 
Zeu.s, Apollo, Hermes, Po.seidon, 
Ares, Hephaestus, Hades, Hera, 
Athena, Hestia, Aphrodite, and 
Artemis. 

Olympia oyster 0-436 
Olympias (died 316 B.C.), fierce, am- 
bitious Epirote princess, wife of 
Philip H of Macedon A-148 
Olympic Games, ancient and modem 
0-379-82, pictures 0-379-81 
field sports T-163 
3Iarathon race 31-92 
modern sites 0-381 
Olympic Jfonnfains, in n.w. Washing- 
ton, part of Coast Range, between 
Puget Sound and Pacific W-34, 
maps W-44, U-307, picture W-35 
national park N-38, maps W-44, 
N-18 

oij-mplc National Park, in Washing- 
ton N-38, maps W-44, N-18 
Olympic register, Greeks reckoned 
time by C-23 

Olym'pus, Slount, ridge in n. Greece, 
separating The.ssaly and Mace- 
donia; about 10.000 ft. above sea 
level: G'189, maps G-189, 197 
fabled home of gods Z-350, 3I-476a 
Olympus. Slount, In Olympic National 
Park, Washington N-38 
Omaha, tribe of Siouan Indians for- 
merly living between Platte and 
Niobrara rivers in Nebraska 0-382 
Omaha (d'mc-ftff). Neb., largest city 
of state, on 3Iissourl River: pop. 
251,117: 0-382, maps N-103, U-253, 
pictures 0-382 , , , 

East Omaha Bridge. See \n Index 
Bridge, table . 

Omalia, Municipal University of, at 
Omaha, Neb.; city control; founded 
1908' arts and sciences, adult edu- 
cation, applied arts and sciences, 
business administration, education. 
Oman (o-man'). Independent state of 
s e Arabia on Persian Gulf, Gulf 
of Oman, and Arabian Sea; 82.000 
so mi.; pop. 830.000. chiefly Arabs; 
cap. Muscat: A-284, maps A-285, 
A-407 

flag F-137, color picture F-135 
natural features anC climate A-28o 
products A-287 

relationships in continent, maps 
A-406-7, 411-12 

Oman, Gulf of, arm of Ambl.an Sea s. 
of Iran; connected with Persian 
Gulf by Strait of Ormuz: mops 

Omar^%'marI (^17-044). 2d 3To- 
hammedan caliph, organizer of 3Io- 
hammedan power from warring 
sect to conquering nation and em- 
pire f Q j5 

Omar, ^fosque of, Jerusalem, See in 
Index Dome of the Rock 
Oroar Khayyam (hi-Vam') (10507- 
11237). Persian mathematician, 
astronomer, and poet P-158 
Oma'««m, or ntanyplics, third stom- 
ach of ruminant-s R-251 
Oroayyad'. Sec in Index Ommlads 


Y ; r — rr; wrench nasal (Jeaii) French j 

“ — Frcncn u , German it ; pem.^o; thin. tJien , r 


Ombu, evergreen tree (Phytolacca 
dtoica) of pokeweed family, native 
to river courses of pampas of South 
America. Grows to 60 ft.; thick 
trunk; spreading, flat crown; leaves 
oval, smooth: flowers white, in 
clusters. Sometimes called umbQ, 
and "bella sombra." 

Omtlurman (6m-ditr-mdn') , Sudan, 
city on Nile River opposite Khar- 
toum; pop. 126,650; ivory, gum ara- 
ble: map A-46, picture S-442a 
Kitchener captures K-52, S-442a 
O’men, sign or Indication of some 
future occurrence, favorable or un- 
favorable. Primitive peoples believe 
flight and feeding of birds, action 
or sound.s of animals or insects, 
and other natural phenomena 
and accidental happenings betoken 
future events. See also in Index 
Augurs 

O'miak, iiminU, or oomlak, Eskimo 
boat C-114 

Ommlads (d-mi'udc), Omayyads. or 
Umayynds, dynastj’ of caliphs or 
successors of 31ohamined who as- 
serted rule over 3Iohammedan Em- 
pire from death of Ali, 4th caliph, 
to rise of Abbasids (661-750), and 
ruled in Spain (756-1031). 
Omnibus hili, term applying to any 
bill carrying .several separate and 
unrelated measures, but particu- 
larly used for Compromise of 1850. 
Most states now require each stat- 
ute to relate to one topic only. 
Omnirange. See ill Index Aviation, 
table of terms 
Omnivorous animals A-250 
Omodeo, Giovanni Antonio. See in 
Index Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio 
Onio River, or Boftego River, Ethio- 
pia. flows into Lake Rudolf, map 
E-402 

Omphalc (om'/q-lJ), in Greek mythol- 
ogy, queen of Lydia whom Hercules 
served for three years a-s a punl.sh- 
ment for having slain Iphitus; to 
please her Hercules wore her gar- 
ments and .spun wool while she wore 
his lion .skin. 

Omsk, Rus.sia, administrative region 
of R.S F..S.R,, In w. Siberia; 556.000 
sq. ml.; chief clt.v Om.“k: maps 
R-259. A-406 

Omsk, distributing point for w. Si- 
beria. on Irtish River and Tran.s- 
.Siberian Railway, 280 mi. s.e. of 
Tobolsk; pop. .500,000; flour, farm 
machinery: maps R-259, A-406 
all-Rus.sIan government (1918) 
W-240, 241 

Onn. Indian tribe of Tlcrra del Fuego 
S-262-3, picture .S-259 
Onager (dn'(i-ptr), a wild ass A-425 
Onagraceac (Cii-O-f/rd'.'fc-d ), the eve- 
ning primrose family, a botanical 
group of chiefly herbaceous plants 
containing about 10 genera .and 500 
.species; most abund.ant In temper- 
ate America; familiar members are 
evening primrose, willow herb, 
fuch.sia. and clarkla. 

Onnte iOn-yii'tu) , .liinn de (1549 7- 
16247), Spanish explorer and colo- 
nizer of New 3Iexlco N-181 
inscription on El Morro National 
Monument N-33 

O'Neal, -lelTrey Unmet (flouri.shcd 
1760-72). Ir/.sh p.ainter 
porccl.aln P-398 

Onega (o-nu'pd). Lake, also Onejskoe- 
Orero. in n.w. RU-s-Sia. 2d largc.st 
lake In Europe: 3700 sq, mi.; In- 
dented. rocky shores; outlet to 
MTiite Se.a. canal connection with 
Volga and Dvin.a; fl,>-herie.s, timber 
trade: maps R-259. 2CG. 17-419 
“One good torn ilrirrves another'* F-2 
•Onr-Ho«s Miay. The tVondrrfor, 
poem by Oliver Wendell Holme.-: 

(c In azure) ; ggiC.-rmar. giilturitl eh 



ONEIDA 

full title ‘The Deacon’s Master- 
piece; or The Wonderful One-Hoss 
Shay’ ; tells how a carriage, built 
by a deacon so "that it couldn’t fall 
down,” fell to pieces all at once 
at the end of 100 years. 

Oneida (6-jit'dct), tribe of Iroquois 
Indians formerly living about 
Lake Oneida, N. T.; one of Sis. 
Nations: table 1-107 
Oneida, N. Y., city 25 mi. e. of Syra- 
‘cuse; near Lake Oneida; pop. 11,- 
325; silverware, caskets, furniture, 
automobile bodies; canneries; map 
N-205 

Oneidn, Lake, N. Y., maps N-196, 205 
Oneida Community, communal re- 
ligious settlement founded by John 
H. Noyes 1838, and established 
near Oneida, N. Y., 1847-48 ; dis- 
solved 1879, and reorganized as 
Oneida Community, Ltd., a joint 
stock company engaged in the 
manufacture of silverware, with 
plants at Oneida, N. Y., Northamp- 
ton, Mass., Niagara Falls and 
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and 
Sheffield, England. 

O’Neill, Eugene Gladstone (1888- 
1953), American dramatist 0-383, 
A-231, D-134, picture 0-383 
O'Neill family, an Irish family long 
notable in fighting British rule ; 
Shane O’Neill (15307-67), fought 
and raided until defeated by O’Don- 
nells; his nephew Hugh O’Neill, 
called the Great O’Neill (1540 7- 
1616), 2d earl of Tyrone, sought 
Spanish aid against England; 
though able and victorious for a 
time, was defeated 1601; made 
peace 1603; fled 1607: 1-231. See 
also in Index O’Donnell family 
O'Neill. Bose (Ceell) (1874-1944), 
illustrator and writer, born Wilkes- 
Barre, Pa.; married Harry Leon 
Wilson 1902, divorced; best known 
as creator of the kewpie doll 
(novels: ‘Garda’ and ‘The Goblin 
Woman’). 

OneJsUoe-Ozero, in n.w. Russia, Sec 
in Index Onega, Lake 
One-o-cat, forerunner of baseball 
B-71 

Oneon’ta, N. Y., market for dairy 
products, on Susquehanna River 65 
mi. s.w. of Albany; pop. 13.564; 
railroad shops ; gloves, cloth ; Hart- 
wick College; State 'Teachers Col- 
lege: map N-205 

On’ion, a biennial food plant 0-383, 
pictures N-47, 0-383 
bulb structure B-348 
growing in Japan, picture J-306 
when and how to plant, table G-19 
Onions, Oliver (legal name, George 
Oliver) (born 1873), English writer, 
born Bradford, England (‘The Col- 
lected Ghost Stories of Oliver 
Onions’ ; novel, ‘Poor Man’s Tapes- 
try’, awarded 1947 James Tait 
Black memorial prize). 

On'nes, Heike Knmerlingh (1853— 
1920), Dutch physicist, winner of 
Nobel prize for physics 1913; dis- 
covered method of liquefying 
helium; professor of physics, Ley- 
den University in Netherlands. 
Onomatopoeia ( on-d-mdt-o-pe’i/q) , 
formation of words in imitation of 
natural sound as "cuckoo,” “hum”; 
in rhetoric, use of imitative and 
naturally suggestive words. 
Onondaga (dn-fin-d[t’p(i), Indian tribe 
of Iroquois group formerly living 
about Lake Onondaga, N. Y. ; one 
of Six Nations: table 1-107 
Ontario. Calif., city 35 mi. e. of Los 
Angeles; pop. 22,872; fruit growing, 
dairying; electrical appliances; 
Chaff ey Junior (College; Army Air 


1 480 

Corps pilot training school: map, 
inset C-35 

Ontario, a central province of Can- 
ada; 412,502 sq. mi.; '.pop. 4,597,- 
542; cap. Toronto: 0-384-7, maps 
C-68— 9, 72, pictures 0-384—7 
agriculture and dairying 0-384, C-85, 
picture <3-64 

canals C-109: Sault Salnte Marie 
S-49-51; Welland Sh!f> W-90 
cities 0-385, list 0-384. See also in 
Index names of cities 
Port William P-243 
Hamilton H-253 
Kingston K-47 
London L-307 

Ottawa 0-428-9, picture 0-428 
Toronto T-154-5 
Windsor W-156 
climate 0-384 

education 0-386-7: Kingston K-47; 

London L-307; Toronto T-165 
Georgian Bay H-452 
government 0-386 

history 0-387, C-96; rebellion of 
1837 M-15 

Laurentian Plateau L-137, 0-384, pic- 
ture C-70 
libraries L-201 
lumber 0-386, 0-428 
manufacturing 0-384-5, C-89: 

Hamilton H-2S3; Kingston K-47; 
London L-307; Ottawa 0-428; 
Sault Sainte Marie S-51; Toronto 
T-165; Windsor W-166 
minerals 0-385-6, C-87: emery 

E-339 

natural features 0-384, list 0-384 
natural resources 0-384, 385-6 
Niagara Palls N-230, picture-map 
N-231 

occupations, pictograph C-66 
parks N-39, 0-386, map N-38/ 

Port Malden National Historic 
Park N-39 

Port Wellington National Historic 
Park N-39 

Georgian Bay Islands National 
Scenic and Recreational Park 
N-38/ 

Point Pelee National Scenic and 
Recreational Park N-38/ 

St. Lawrence Islands National 
Scenic and Recreational Park 
N-38/ 

people 0-386 
products, list 0.-384 
St, Lawrence River S-19-21, map 
S-20 

shield P-136a, color picture F-131 
transportation 0-385 
Ontario, Lake, smallest of Great 
Lakes; 7540 sq. mi.: 0-387, 
G-178-85, 7naps G-179, 181 
height and depth, diagram G-179 
Weiiand Ship Canal W-90 
Ontario Agricultural College, at 
Guelph, Ontario. Canada: founded 
1874; agriculture, home economics, 
commercial baking. 

‘On the Crown’, bj' Demosthenes D-67 
‘On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity’, 
poem by John Milton C-299 
Ojis-chopliorn (dn-t-fcd/'d-rq), in zo- 
ology, Reference-Outline Z-364 
place in “family tree” of animal 
kingdom, picture A-251 
On’yx, a semiprecious stone J-350 
Onyx marble M-92 
Oolakan. See in Index Candleflsh 
Oolitic (d-d-Ut’ihy limestone L-844, 
Q-2, 1-84 

Oolong (g'Mngy, a dark tea T-32 
Oo’mink, omtak, or umiak, Eskimo 
boat C-114 

Oostende, Belgium. See in Index 
Ostend 

Ooze, deposit on sea bottom B-160 
Ooze, or suede, leather L-149 
OPA. Sec in Index Price Administra- 
tion, Office of 

Opnh. See in Index Moonfish 


Key: cfipe, «t, far, fast, whfit, ffill; me, yet, fern, thdre;Ice, bit; row, won, fdr. 


OPHELIA 

Opal, a semiprecious stone consisting 
chiefly of silica and water; Sun 
God opal from a Persian temple, 
now in the Chicago Natural History 
Museum, is famous: J-350, color 
picture M-264 

formed of quartz and water M-262 
Iridescence, diagram L-233 
birthstone, color picture J-S48 
Opaque substances L-232 
Opata (d-pd’td), a group of Indian 
tribes of the Piman linguistic stock 
living In the valleys of Rio Sonora 
and tributaries in Sonora, Mexico. 
Opelika, Ala., city 57 mi. n.e. of Mont- 
gomery; pop. 12,295; farming: 
A-116, map A-127 

Opelousas, La., city 54 mi. n.w. of 
Baton Rouge; pop. 11,659; cotton, 
sweet potato, other farming; oil 
and gas fields; cottonseed oil, lum- 
ber: map L-330 

Open account, form of credit C-509 
Open-chain hydrocarbons, in chem- 
istry. See in Index Paraffin series 
Open city, in military science, a city 
which claims immunity from bom- 
bardment or other violence on 
pledge that it will not be defended 
or used for military purposes 
Paris, in World War II W-261 
Open-cut coal mining. See in Index 
Strip mining 

Open-door policy, term used to desig- 
nate equality of commercial oppor- 
tunity to all nations 
China and the powers C-280, M-19 
Open-end investment trust T-201 
Open-lienrtli process, of steel manu- 
facture 1-242-3, 244, 247, diagrams 
■ 1-236, 242, pictures 1-235, 242 
invention 1-247 
Open market operations P-60 
Open-pit mining M-270 
asphalt, picture A-424 
copper C-474, U-409, pictures C-473, 
A-355, U-419 

iron, pictures 1-238, M-280 
Open seasons, for hunting game 
H-451b 

"Open Sesame” (ses’<t-»ne), magical 
words in ‘Arabian Nights’ story of 
Ali Baba A-293 
Open shop, in industry L-70b 
Opequon io-pek'on) Creek, near Win- 
chester, Va., Civil War battle (also 
called battle of Winchester), Sept. 
19, 1864; Pederals under Sheridan 
defeated Confederates under Early: 
S-147, H-296 

Opera (op’er-n) 0-388-94, pictures 
0-388-94 
Chinese C-276 
festivals at Bai’reuth W-2 
Gluck’s influence G-126 
great names in opera 0-388-9 
light opera 0-394—8, pictures 0-395—7 
Mozart’s operas M-443 
opera houses T-112 
place in history of music M-464 
stories of famous operas 0-389-94 
Wagner’s influence W-1 
Opfira iO-pa-rii'), theater in Paris, 
Prance P-83b, 86, map P-83a, pic- 
ture P-82 

Op4ra bouffe (bp/) 0-388, 396 
Opera buffa (bg’fd) 0-388, 395 
Opera comique (kd-niek’) 0-388, 396 
Opera (op'er-a) glass T-48 
stereoscopic principle S-392 
Operations, surgical. See in Index 
Surgery 

Operation Skywatch. See in Index 
Ground Observer Corps 
Operetta 0-394-8, pictures 0-395-7. 
See also in Index Music, table of 
musical terms and forms 
high-school production, picture E-250 
Ophelia (6-/e’Ii-ci), in Shakespeare’s 
‘Hamlet’, daughter of Polonius, be- 
loved by Hamlet H-254 

not, dp; cflre, but, rpde, full, bllm; out; 



OPHIDIA 


ORCAGNA 


Ophidia, suborder of reptiles com- 
prising the snakes S-209 
Opliir (6'fer). ancient land mentioned 
in Bible S-232 

Ophinclius {o-fUn’kiis) , constellation 
in Northern Hemisphere, chart S-377 
Ophthalmologist. See in Index Oculist 
Ophthalmology {of-tlidt-moV 6-gi) 

(from Greek meaning "eye” and 
"science"), a science which treats 
of the structure, functions, and dis- 
eases of the eye. 

Ophthalmoscope, an Instrument for 
examining the interior of the living 
eye; invented 1851 by Hermann 
von Helmholtz. 

Opiates (o'pt-dts) 0-398, 399, N-13 
Op'ish, .secret language used bj' chil- 
dren C-240c 

O'pitz, Martin (1597-1639), German 
poet; head of so-called First Sile- 
sian School; called “father of mod- 
em German poetry.” 

O'pinm 0-398-9, N-13, picture 0-399 
China C-270, 0-398, 399 
poisoning, antidote P-341 
Opium poppy 0-398, P-370, picture 
0-399 

Opium War (1839-42) C-279 
Opopanax (o-pop'a-ndks), a gum 
resin obtained from roots of a 
species of parsnip (Pastinaca 
opopanax ) ; formerly Important as 
an antispasmodic medicine; used 
in perfumery. 

Oporto, Portugal. See in Index Porto 
Opos'sum, small marsupial 0-399, 
pictures 0-399, N-58 
Oppenheim, E. Phillips (1866-1946), 
English writer of mystery stories 
and popular romances, especially of 
political intrigue (‘The Great 
Awakening’ ; "The Clreat Prince 
Shan’; ‘The Fortunate Wayfarer’). 
Oppenheimer, J. Robert (born 1904), 
physicist, born New York City; with 
University of California and Cali- 
fornia Institute of ‘Technology 1929- 
47, made director Institute for 
Advanced Study. Princeton. N. J., 
1947-; director atomic bomb project, 
Los Alamos, N.M., 1943-45; chair- 
man general advisory committee, 
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 
1947-52 ; member science advisory 
committee. Office of Defense Mobil- 
ization 1951-54: table A-464 
Opper, Frederick Burr (1857-1937), 
cartoonist, bom Madison. Ohio; il- 
lustrated for Bill Nye. Mark Twain, 
Finley Peter Dunne; created 
Happy Hooligan’, ‘Alphonse and 
Gaston’, ‘Our Antediluvian An- 
cestors’. 

Opposition, in astronomy, the relative 
petition of two heavenly bodies 
when they are 180° apart in longi- 
tude; usually applied to the position 
of the moon directly opposite the 
sun. or a star opposite the sun 
Mars p.283 

Hips), in Roman mythology, wife 
of Saturn; goddess of plenty. 

Oliver, pen name of William 
Taylor Adams (1822-97), author of 
boys’ books; born Bellingham, 
ilass.; editor of Oliver Ojjtic’s Mag- 
ciitne (‘Young America Abroad’; 
Starry Flag Series’). 

Op tlcal center, of lens 1.-170 
Optical glass, any kind used in optical 
Instruments G-122a, picture C-89 
"Tfcbl Illusion 1-43-4, pictures 1-43- 
4. See also in Index Illusions 
Plica! InstruTnent, one designed to 
act upon light 
“Old glass T-48 

lens L-164— 70, diagrams L,-165-9 
microscope M-232-6, piedires M-232, 
234 

periscope P-153 
Polariscope L-235 


spectroscope S-331-4, pictures S-333 
telescope T-46-9, pictures T-46-9 
Optician (op-tish'dn) , one skilled in 
making spectacles S-330 
Optic nerve E-460, diagram E-459 
Optics, the branch of physics which 
deals with the phenomena of light. 
See in Index Light 
Option, in law. See in Index Law, 
table of legal terms 
Optometry (dp-tdm'e-trl), the scien- 
tific measuring of the refraction 
(visual power) and the muscular 
conditions of the human eye in 
order to prescribe lenses or prisms 
for correcting visual defects; the 
work done by an optometrist: pic- 
ture C-454 

Opnntia (o-piin’shi-g), a genus of 
cacti C-9, 10 

Opus (plural opera). See in Index 
Music, table of musical terms and 
forms 

Or, in heraldry H-341 
Orach (or'ach), an annual plant 
(Atriplex hortensis) of the goose- 
foot family; native to Asia; grows 
to 6 ft.: leaves arrow-shaped; some 
varieties have reddish leaves and 
stocks; eaten boiled like spinach. 
Oracle (.or'g-k’l), Delphic D-62, A-274 
consulted by: Cadmus C-13; Croesus 
C-515: Ls’curgus L-354 
Theseus’ grave T-117 
Oracle bones, China C-278 
Oracle of Ammon, at Siwa oasis in 
Libyan Desert A-148 
Oracle of Apollo, name sometimes 
given to Delphic oracle because it 
was at one time in possession of 
Apollo. See in Index Oracle, Delphic 
Oracle of Zeus, at Dodona D-62 
Oradea (6-rad'yd), also Oradea .Mare 
(md'rd), German Grosswardein, old 
town in Rumania about 80 mi. n.w. 
of Cluj; founded by St. Ladis- 
laus (1080) : pop. 82,282; important 
railroad junction; potteries; ORri- 
cultural trade: maps B-23, E-417 
Oral method, in education of deaf 
D-25 

Oral surgery M-164a 

Oran (o-rdu'). Algeria, seaport and 
naval base on n. coast of Africa, 
230 mi. s.w. of Algiers; pop. 244,- 
594- exports cereals, olives, wine, 
tobacco, hides, and cattle; ufter 
centuries of Moorish or Spanish 
domination. was obc‘ipied by 
French in 1831 : maps A-167, A-46 
Orange, Calif., city 27 ml. s e. of 
Los Angeles; pop. 10.027; \alencia 
orange and other fruits, walnuts ; 
fruit packing: map, visct C-36 
Orange, France, principality in s.e ; 

. fell to House of Nassau in 1531. 


under Nassau-Orange family until Or’atory R-132-3 
1709 annexed to France in 1714. Cicero C-3C7, L-1 


navel, origin 0-400 
old trees at Versailles V-463 
perfume making P-147. 148 
pests and diseases 0-402 
seedless 0-400 
vitamin C, rich in V-496 
Orange, a color 
eye reaction C-400 
hue and value C-394, color chart 
C-393 

mi.xtures C-392, 396-9 
place in spectrum, color diagram 
C-391 

secondary color, color charts C-392, 
398 

wave length of light L-233, S-332 
Orange, House of, princely family 
whose heads were sovereigns of 
Orange (s.e. France); also held 
large possessions in the Nether- 
lands and thus bec.ame defenders of 
Dutch liberty against Spanish op- 
pression, and ancestors of present 
Dutch royal line: N-121 
William the Silent W-139 
William III of England W-138-9 
Orange, osage. See in Index Osage 
orange 

Orange bowl, at Jliami, Fla. F-230 
Orangeburg, S. C., City 35 mi. s. e. of 
Columbia; pop. 15,322; agricultural 
products: Claffin College and State 
Colored Normal, Industrial, Agri- 
cultural. and Mechanical College: 
maj) S-291 

Orange Day, anniversary of battle of 
Boyne (July 12. 1690), an annual 
celebration in Northern Ireland. 
Orange Free State, province of Union 
of South Africa; 49,647 .sq. mi.: pop. 
1,018,207; cap. Bloemfontein: 

0- 402, maps A-47, S-242 
diamonds E-220: Excelsior diamond 

D-81 

education S-243 

historj’ S-244-5: Boer War B-219- 
20, S-245 

Orange Lake, in n. Florida, about 14 
ini. long: map F-158 
Orangemen, members of Orange So- 
ciety of Irish Protc.stants in Ulster 

1- 230a 

Orange-peel dredge D-142 
Orange pekoe tea, pieturo T-29 
Orange River, large river in South 
Africa; flows 1100 mi. into Atl.an- 
tic; maps S-242, A-47, 42 
Orange root. See in Index Goldenseal 
Orangutan (6-rdng'g-tdn' ) . an an- 
thropoid ape 0-402, A-271, pictures 
0-402, A-271 

altitude range, picture Z-3C2 
Oratorio. See also in Index Mu.sic, 
table of musical terms and forms 
Handel develops H-257-8 


1702. annexed to France in ‘ • 
See also in Index Orange. House of 
Oraiitre X. J-. residential and manii- 
“acturin^ suburb 12 mi. w- of Xew 
Vnrk City* pop' 38,03i; hats, elec- 
trical machinery, 

chines; Orange, and East, West, 
and South Orange form the 
„ Oranges’;^ map,. 

*Houston, on Sabine River and Gulf 
Intracoastal Waterway: I’°T’ 

174; shipyards; rice and paper 

ga-r'l‘o1i= ^ 

color picture S-384o; wedding 
svmbolism M-lOlo . n m 
Carifomia 0-400. pictxtrcs C-39 
Florida F-151. p-400 
groves, color picture U-30j ^ 

Irowing and 

introduced into Europe C-5»- 


famous American orators: Daniel 
Webster W-82-3: Patrick Henry 
H-339-40 

Greek G-211: Demosthenes D-C7 

Oratory of St. .Joseph, In Montreal, 
Canada M-381 

•Orbis I’lrtus’ (The World In Pic- 
tures), by John Comenlus, first pic- 
ture book for children (1057) L-2C9, 
picture R-8Sd 

Orbit, astronomical, path taken by a 
heavenly body In moving about Its 
center of attraction 
asteroids A-426 
comets C-420, picture C-420 
earth .\-432. 433, diagrams A-432, 
437: size E-101 

moon M-387-S, tliagram M-3S5 
plane’s P-285, diagram P-2B2: Kep- 
ler’s laws K-3G 

Orb wrb, of spider, picture S-343 

Orragim 1 6r-l:iin'ij(i) . comuion n.amc 
of Andrc.a dl Clone (c/i>!-6'n<i ) 
(130S7-CS7) al.so c.alled Arcagnuolo, 
Italian sculptor, painter, archltert. 


7 — — -g/i = Frcnch J (c In azure) : /: = Gcrm.an guttural ch 

"^French ...German ii;gem.go; f;,in.<J.en:» = French nasal (JeanJ 



ORCHARD 

musician, and goldsmith; noted for 
frescoes in Strozzi chapel of church 
of Santa Maria Novella, Florence; 
also for tabernacle, or canopy, over 
Bernardo Daddi’s painting of the 
Madonna in the Or San Michele, 
Florence. 

Orchard F-304-6, pictures F-304-6. 
See also in Index Fruit and fruit 
growing 

Orchard Knob, Tenn. 

Civil War C-199, map C-199 
Orchard oriole 0-425 
Orchardson, Sir William Qniller 
(1835-1910), Scottish painter, horn 
Edinburgh; famous for portraits, 
historical scenes, and genre paint- 
ings (‘Lord Peel'; ‘Voltaire’; ‘Na- 
poleon on Board the Bellerophon’). 
Orchestra (dr'kes-trQ.) O-402— 6 , pic- 
tures 0-403-5 
part of theater T-112 
symphonic form M-462-3 
Orchid (or'kid), family of flowering 
plants 0-406, F-164, picture 0-406 
grown on fern roots P-53 
lady’s-slipper L-84, picture L-84, 
color picture P-178 
vanilla-producing types V-439 
Orchid, poor man’s. See in Index 
Schizanthus 

Orchidaceao (dr-hi-da'se-S), orchid 
family 0-406 
"Orchid peat,” fern F-53 
Orchomemis (,6r-kdin'e-nus'), ancient 
Greek city in Boeotia; great conti- 
nental and maritime power in pre- 
historic times; capital of the 
Minyae; superseded by Thebes. 
Orczy (Srf'si), EmmusUa, Baroness 
(Mrs. Montagu Earstow) (1865- 
1947), Hungarian -English writer, 
born Hungary; wrote ‘Scarlet 
Pimpernel’ novels about English- 
man whose band helped aristocrats 
escape during Reign of Terror in 
French Revolution. 

OPdcal, trial by J-367 
Order, in biological classification, a 
group of related families B-152 
bird orders B-178 
insect orders I-I6O0 
mammal orders M-82, Reference- 
Outline Z-364 

reptile orders, Reference-Outline 
Z-364 

Order for Merit, Germany I)-40 
Order in Council, in Great Britain any 
order issued by the sovereign on 
advice of the privy council 
in Napoleonic wars W-11, 12 
Order of Christ, founded in 1318 by 
King Diniz of Portugal and by Pope 
John XXII; papal branch continues 
as the Supreme Order of Christ; 
the Portuguese branch was made 
distinct in 1522, secularized in 1789, 
and discontinued in 1910 when Por- 
tugal became a republic. 

Order of Leopold. Belgium D-40 
Order of Merit, England D-43 
Order of Pius IX, papal order founded 
1847 by Pope Pius IX; awarded to 
nobility for virtue and merit. 

Order of St. Gregory the Great, papal 
order founded 1831 by Pope 
Gregory XVI; awarded for distin- 
guished work for the church. 

Order of St. Michael and St. George, 
a British order of knighthood D-43 
Order of St. Patrick, an Irish order of 
knighthood D-43 

Order of St. Sylvester, papal order 
founded 1841 by Gregory XVI to ab- 
sorb Order of the Golden Militia, 
or Golden Spur (founded 1559 by 
Paul IV). In 1905 divided into two 
orders, St. Sylvester and the Golden 
Militia. 

Order of the Annnnzlata, chief secu- 
lar order of knighthood in Italy, its 
members taking precedence over all 


482 

state officials; established In 1362 
as the Order of the Collar; Charles 
III changed the name in 1518; D-43 
Order of the Bath D-43 
stalls, Westminster Abbey, picture 
W-191 

Order of the Garter D-43, W-155 
Order of the Golden Militia, or Golden 
Spur. See in Index Order of St. 
Sylvester 

Order of the Holy Sepulcher, papal 
order founded probably in 1496 by 
Pope Alexander VI (traditional 
foundation dates from 1099). 

Order of the Thistle D-43 
Orders, religious. See in Index Reli- 
gious orders 

Orders of architecture, Greek A-306, 
309, picture A-308 

Orders of Foresters. See in Index 
Foresters, Orders of 
Orders of knighthood D-43 
crusading orders C-522-3, 520 
papal orders D-43 
Or’dinal numbers C-121, N-312a 
Ordinance of 1783, U.S,, on Western 
lands A-396 

Ordinance of 1787, U.S., statute gov- 
erning Northwest Territory N-299, 
A-396 

Ordinances of Justice, In Florence 
F-148 

Ordinary, an early type of bicycle 
B-142, picture B-142 
Ord'nance, heavy firearms, such as 
mortars and cannon A-S97-400, pto- 
tures A-397-8, 400. See also in In- 
dex Artillery 

Ordnance, Bureau of, IT. S. Navy N-90 
Ordnance Corps, U. S. Army A-S80 
insignia, picture 11-238 
Ordovician idr-dd-vish'an) period. 
In geology G-59, diagrams G-52, 
58, tal)le G-57 
Ore. See in Index Ores 
lire (iVru), a bronze coin, one hun- 
dredth of a krone, historical value 
about 2/5 cent: used in Denmark, 
Norway, and Sweden. 

Oreads (d're-dds), in Greek mythol- 
ogy, mountain nymphs N-318 
Orebro (d-ru-brg') , Sweden, manu- 
facturing and trading town on 
Svarta River near w. end of Lake 
Hialmaren; pop. 66,548; diet of 
1540 declared crown hereditary; 
diet of 1810 made Bernadotte 
crown prince; 13th-century castle 
and church; mop E-424 
Or’egon, a n.w. state of U.S.; 96,981 
sq. mi.; pop. 1,521,341; cap. Salem: 
0-407-20, maps 0-416-17, 413, 408, 
U-252, 307, pictures O-407, 409-10, 
419 

agriculture 0-407, 408, 410, 412 
bird, state 0-411 

Bonneville Dam. See in Index 
Bonneville Dam 
Capitol, State, picture 0-419 
Chinese ring-necked pheasants in- 
troduced P-187 

cities 0-414, map index 0-415, 418. 
See also in l7idex\names of cities 
Portland P-376-7 
Salem S-26 
climate 0-408, 411 
communication 0-411 
counties, map index 0-415 
dams 0-410, C-415a, pictures D-7, 
O-409, color picture U-308. See 
also in Index Dam, table 
early settlers 0-419-20 
education 0-412 
elevation 0-408, 411 
extent 0-411 
Pact Summary 0-411—14 
fisheries 0-410, 412 
flag P-1306, color picture P-127 
flower, state 0-411, color picture 
S-384a 

forests, national and state 0-413, 
map 0-413 


OREGON 

geographic region in which situated, 
maps 11-250, 307: Western Basins 
and Plateaus 11-299-301 
government 0-411 

history 0-407, 410, 419-20, 414: 

boundary dispute P-363, 0-419, 
map U-379; early settlers P-39, 
40-1, 0-420-2; initiative and refer- 
endum 1-150; Marcus Whitman’s 
work W-130-1, picture W-131; 
separation of Washington Terri- 
tory W-38 

hydroelectric power 0-410, pictures 
D-7, 0-409. See also in Index 
Oregon, subhead dams 
industries 0-410, 412, pictures 0-409 
irrigation 0-410, 1-252 
land use 0-411 
lumber 0-410, 412, P-377 
minerals 0-410, 412 
motto 0-411 

mountains 0-409, 411: Cascade 

C-131 

name, origin of, and nickname 
0-411 

natural features O-408, 410, 411: 

Columbia River C-415a-16 
natural resources 0-407,408, 410, 411 
occupations 0-411 

parks, monuments, and other areas 
0-412-13, maps 0-413, N-18 
Crater Lake N. P. N-33, color pic- 
ture N-27 

Oregon Caves N. M. N-38 
places of interest 0-413, map 0-413 
population 0-408, 411 
products 0-410, 412 
rivers 0-409, 411: Columbia 

C-416a-16 
seal 0-411 
song, state 0-411 
trade, wholesale and retail 0-412 
transportation 0-411 
tree, state 0-411 

‘Oregon’, U.S. battleship, built 1896! 

junked Aug. 1942 for metal 
in Spanish-American War S-326 
Oregon, University of, at Eugene and 
Portland, Ore.', state control; char- 
tered 1872; opened 1876; liberal 
arts, architecture and allied arts, 
business administration, education, 
journalism, health and physical 
education, law, music; graduate 
school at Eugene; dentistry and 
medicine at Portland: picture 0-419 
Oregon ash, tree (.Fraxinus oregona) 
of olive family, found in moist val- 
leys from Washington to Califor- 
nia ; grows to 75 ft. Wood used for 
tool handles, barrels, furniture, fuel. 
Sometimes called water ash. 

Oregon Boundary Treaty (1846), be- 
tween United States and Great 
Britain settling w. Canadian boun- 
dary 0-419 

Oregon Caves National Monument, in 
Oregon N-38, map N-18 
Oregon cedar. See in Index Port Or- 
f ord cedar 

Oregon country 0-410, 419 
Oregon grape, a shrub ( Malionla aquy 
folium) of barberry family; prickly 
evergreen leaves, dainty yellow 
flowers followed by clusters of acid 
blue berries, which resemble small 
grapes 

state flower of Oregon, color pic- 
ture S-3840 , „ 

Oregon maple. See in Index Blgleal 
maple „ 

Oregon myrtle. See in Index Califor- 
nia laurel 

Oregon pine. See in Index Douglas nr 
Oregon plan, in legislation I-l®® , 

Oregon question, dispute with Great 
Britain 0-419 

Polk and "reoccupatlon” P-363 
Oregon State College, at Corvallis, 
Ore.; state control; chartered 1858; 
opened 1868; liberal arts, agrlcui- 
ture, business, educatlon^enginee^ 


I5.er: cope, at» for, fast, wh(it, fffU; ydt, fern, th^re; ice, bit; row, won, fdr, n6t. dp; cure, b^t, r;/de, fidl, bfim; owt, 



OREGON 


483 ®*“ 


home economics, 
science ; graduate 


ing, forestry, 
pharmacy, and 
school. 

Oregon Trail, emigrant route from 
Independence, Mo., to Fort Van- 
couver on the Columbia River 
0-420-2, F-40, majis 0-421, R-159, 
pictures N-96, 0-420 
Parkman’s book about P-86 
O’Keillj', Alexander (1722—94), officer 
in Spanish army, born Ireland; 
governor of Louisiana 1769 ; put 
douTi revolt against first governor, 
executed leaders, won nickname 
Bloody O’Reilly; his administra- 
tive policies followed to end of 
Spanish period; made count 1771. 
O’Reilly, John Boyle (1844—90), Irish 
poet, political leader, and jour- 
nalist; sent to penal colony in Aus- 
tralia because of revolutionary ac- 
tivities in Ireland ; escaped and set- 
tled in Boston, Mass. ; editor of The 
Pilot, Roman Catholic newspaper 
('Songs of the Southern Seas'; 
‘Moondyne’ ; ‘America’ ) . 

O'Eell, Max, pen name of Paul Blouet 
(1848-1903), French satirical 
writer, born in England; taught in 
St. Paul’s School and in University 
of London ; books written in French 
and trans'ated into English (‘John 
Bull and His Is’and’ ; ‘A Frenchman 
in America’; ‘John Bull and Co.’). 
Orellana (,6-rel-yd'nd) , Francisco de 
(1490?-1549?), Spanish explorer; 
discovered course of Amazon River 
in 1541; S-276 

Orem, Utah, town 7 mi. n.w. of Provo 
in agricultural area; pop. 8351; 
truck gardening; tomato cannery, 
steel plant: map U-416 
Ore Mountains, in Czechoslovakia. 

See in Index Erz Mountains 
“'■“i’org, Russia. See in Index 
Chkalov 

minerals containing metals or 
other valuable substances. See also 
in Index names of metals 
assaying A-425 

extracting metal M-176-7, table 
M-176 

how deposited, diagram G-49 
origin G-57 

radio detection of deposits R-41 
restes (o-res'teg), in Greek mythol- 
ogy, son of Agamemnon and Ciy- 
lemnestra; killed his mother be- 
cause she had killed his father 
Aeschylus’ dramas G-210, F-316 
rtord, earl of. See in Index Wal- 
pole, Horace; 'Walpole, Robert 

a musical instrument 0-422-4, 
Pictures 0-422-3 

picture M-465 

hiack and white, reason for 
M-468b-9 

Pipe organ 0-422-4, pictures 0-422-3 
‘one Production S-240, 0-422-4 
tuning M-469 

ia animal or plant L-2246, 

organic sensitivity S-99 

acids, in chemistry 0-424C, 

V-474, 0-424C 
acids B-145, 0-424c-d 
benzoic C-371 

(phenol) C-H9-20 

attj S-211, 213, P-45 

,7„“r°cyanic C-532-3 
lactic B-146 

^0^4043 1-"371: formula, diagram 

tartaric T-20-1 

Orp“"!® Alaska A-137 

ehemlstry, branch of chem- 
} dealing with compounds of 
raruon Which are typically found 
no organisms 0-424-424d, 
‘-rj, diagrams 0-424a-d, Refer- 


ence-Outline C-223 
biochemistry. See in Index Biochem- 
istry 

Bunsen’s work B-352 
compounds, classification 0-424B-C, 
diagram 0-424b 
alcohols A-146 

carbohydrates. See in Index Carbo- 
hydrates 

fats and oils F-44-5 
hydrocarbons H-458-9, diagrams 
H-458-9 

nitrogen compounds (proteins, en- 
zymes) P-422, E-389 
Liebig s work L-221 
organic acids. See in Index Organic 
acids 

plastics P-311 
silicones S-180 

Organism, in biology L-224a, B 
Organization chart G-166 
Organization for European Economic 
Co-operation (OEEC), an organiza- 
tion of western European nations 
formed in 1948 to co-ordinate their 
efforts under the European Re- 
covery Program (ERP) adminis- 
tered by the Economic Co-operation 
(EGA) of the 


American States 
Central American 


Administration 
United States. 

Organization of 
(OAS) L-122-3 
intervention in 

border di-sputes N-233 
member nations, table N-16a 
Organized laiior. See in Index Labor 
boards; Labor unions 
Organized Reserves, U.S, Army A-383 
Organ of Corti, in the ear E-171 
Organol'ogy, of plants, defined B-262 
Organon (dr'ga-non), the Greek word 
for “instrument”; the title applied 
to Aristotle’s treatises on logic, 
because logic is the tool of thought. 
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monu- 
ment, in Arizona N-38, znap N-18 
Or'ganzine, a silk thread ,.-184 
Orghiiro,in Russian goy^rnment R-282 

_ . , xi\ College, Oxford Univer- 


°'’iuy°ESand'0-434,"picttirc 0-433 
Oriental amethyst, purple variety of 
corundum used as S®"! 

Oriental cockroaeh, sometimes called 
” the "black beetle”; 

has functional wi^s: ^373, 374 
Oriental dancing D-14/-(7, pictiir 

OrfenVal' Uerald, green variety of 

OrS^^n-if-firrilf^terous 

insect (Laspegresia molcsta) 1-16 

table , ,,a 

mummy, pictures M-449 

Oriental lace L-78 

Oriental bntterfiv, or 

oricntolc) of the poppy 
to Mediternanean 


Oriental 

irapaver 

ai?d“lran."'Grows to about 

. leaves lobed. toothed. 
nnweVs scarlet with black spot at 
V each petal, or orange, pink, 

ofwhite sometimes double: color 
picture F-173 _ 

how to grow, zoogeo- 

Orlcntnl region, J 

OrfJnfnl'fug^RWO, color piclnrc 
R-249 
prayer rug 

Turkey, ^'jeture R-277 

Turkmen S-S-R- 

orlcntnl sc„lP^«rcJ-8^^.^ ^P^^ 

Ori:nmiwo;d a.so caned A-«ra{.a^ 




ORLEANISTS 

tree (Endiandra palmcrstonii) of 
Queensland coastal regions. 
Orientation course, in colleges U-403 
Oriflammc (6r'i-fldm) (golden flame), 
royal standard of France in medie- 
val times; originally the bright red 
three-tongued banner of the abbey 
of St. Deni.s. 

Origen (or'i-gen) (1857-254?). early 
Christian theologian, native of 
Alexandria. Egj'pt; exerted great 
influence in his day and for .some 
time later; sought to reconcile Pla- 
tonism and Christianity, 

‘Origin of Species by Cleans of Nn- 
tiiral Selection, On the’, book by 
Charles Darwin D-20, B-151 
cat.s and red clover, relation E-213 
Orll'lin, Ontario, Canada, summer 
resort, railroad and industrial town 
on Lake Simcoe, 64 ml. n. of 
Toronto; pop. 12,110; smelting 
works, planing mills, furniture, 
boats: map C-72 

Orinoco io-rg-nu'kii) River, in South 
America 0-424d, V-441, S-270, maps 
V-442, C-387, S-252, 266 
Columbus discovers S-27G 
Raleigh’s expeditions R-74 
Oriole (d'ri-ol) 0-424d-5, picture 
0-424d, color pictures B-163, 169, 183 
egg. color picture E-268n 
nest B-172, pictures B-173, 0-424d, 
color pictures B-163, 169 
Orion (d-rl'dii). In Greek mythology, 
hunter loved by Artemis 0-425 
Pleiades and P-321 
Orion, a constellation 0-425 
directions found by, diagram D-94 
location, charts S-373, 379, 381 
nelmla K-106 

Orisknny (o-ris'hg-ni') , N.T., village 
7 mi. n.w. of Utica: pop. 1346; 
Revolutionary War battle between 
Americans under General Herkimer 
and British and Indians (under St. 
Leger and .To.seph Bnant), Aug. 0. 
1777: Herkimer was mortally 

wounded: map K-205 
Orissa, state in e. India; area 60,130 
sq. ml.: pop. 14,645.940; cap. 
Bhubaneswar; Iron ore; rice, tur- 
meric. fish; silver filigree work: 
map I-68a 

Orislano (6-rcs-td'n6) . gulf at central 
part of w. coa.st of Sardinia. 

Orizaba (6-re-sd’bd), Mount, also Ci- 
tlaltepetl (se-tldl-td’pct-l). highest 
peak in Mexico (18,700 ft.); 175 
mi. s.e. of Mexico City: JI-188, map 
M-189, picture M-191 
height, comparative. Sec in Index 
Mountains, table 

Orhim’i f dr-B'bi’l n32C-59), sult.an 
of Turkey T-219-20 
OrU'ncy Islands, n.e. Scotland; 375 sq. 

ml.; pop. 21.258: 0-425. man R-324 
Or’nndo ibr-Uin'do). lover of Rosa- 
lind in ’As You Like It’ A-401 
Orlando, Vittorio Emaniiclc (18C0- 
1952), Italian statesman: favored 
intervention In World War I ; prime 
minister 1917-19; one of loaders at 
Peace Conference; at first sup- 
ported Fascism but .soon resigned 
from, parliament in protest: picture 
U-385 

Orlando. Fla., city In central Florida; 
resort: many lakes within city lim- 
its; pop. 52,367; citrus fruit ship- 
ping and canning; Orlando Air 
Force Base; Rollins College nearby: 
maps F-168, U-2G3 
•Orlando Ftirioso’ (fn-r(‘-6'z6), poem 
by Ludovico Ariosto I-2C0, S-4I4 
punpet pcrfnrm.anco p.441 
Orleannis (Gr-ld-tt-nC ) . France, hls- 
Toric province, map F-270 
or’lrnnlsti. in French polltlc.s. sup- 
porters of Hou.se of OrKan.s 
Burgundlan.s and C-192 
Loui.s Philippe (19th century) L-321 


(r In azure) :s: = German guttural ch 



- 484 


ORLEANS 


Orleans (dr-Ia-an') , dukes of, heads 
of a younger branch of French 
royal house of Bourbon. 

Orleans, IjouIs Philippe, duke of 
(1747-93), “Philippe ii:galit§,” the 
regent’s great-grandson; as "Citi- 
zen Bquaiity” was elected Paris 
deputy to Convention 1792; voted 
lor death of Louis XVI; executed 
under the Terror. His son was 
Louis Philippe, king of the French. 
Orleans, Maid of. See in Index Joan 
of Arc 

Orleans, Philip, duke of (1674—1723), 
regent of Prance during minority 
of Louis XV; able but dissolute 
and corrupt; supported “Missis- 
sippi Bubble" scheme. 

Orleans, France, historic city; pop. 
64,755: 0-425, maps P-259, 270, 
E-425 

housing project, picture F-274 
Joan of Arc at J-356, picture H-447 
siege (1428-29). See in Index Siege, 
tahle 

Orleans, battle of , (1429) J-355 
Orion, a synthetic substance N-318 
inspecting bobbins of yarn, picture 
S-293 

plant, Camden, S. C., pieture S-284 
Or’lov, a famous diamond D-80, ptc- 
ture D-79 

Or'mandy, Eugene (born 1899), 
American conductor, born Budapest, 
Hungary; came to America 1921; 
conductor Minneapolis .Symphony 
Orchestra 1931-36; conductor of 
Philadelphia Orchestra 1936-. 
Ormazd. See in Index Ahur Mazda 
Or’molu, gilded bronze, decoration 
1-179 

Ormuz, Island of Iran. See in Index 
Hormuz 

Ormuz, Strait of, or Hormuz, Strait 
of, between Iran and Arabian pen- 
insula, maps A-285, 1-224 
Otmuzd. See in Ihdex Ahur Mazda 
Orne (drn) River, in Normandy; flows 
n. 95 mi. to English Channel. 
Ornlthischtn, order of dinosaurs R-116 
Ornithogalum idr-ni-thdp'a-iiim), a 
genus of perennial plants of the 
lily family; native to the Eastern 
Hemisphere: the Cape Chincher- 
inchee (O. thyrsoides) has a strik- 
ing triangular cluster of white, 
apricot, or yellow flowers. Star-of- 
Bethlehem is O. umbellatum. 
Ornithologists’ Union, American 
B-195 

Ornithol’ogy, a division of zoology 
which deals with study of birds. 
See also in Index Birds 
Ornstein, Leo (born 1895), American 
pianist and composer, born in Rus- 
sia; ultramodern in earlier com- 
positions; declared he was “not 
concerned with form or with stand- 
ards of any nature” (‘Wild Man’s 
Dance’) . 

Orontes (o-rdn'fes) River, Arabic 
Nahr el ‘Asi (nd'h’r dl d'st), in 
Lebanon, n.w. Syria, and s. Turkey; 
about 250 mi. long: S-487 
‘Oroono’ko’, title of a novel by Alphra 
Behn dealing with the mistreat- 
ment and tribulations of an Af- 
rican prince sold as a slave in Suri- 
nam (Dutch Guiana) . 

Orozco (d-rds'fcd), Jose Clemente, 
(1883—1949), Mexican artist of 
modernist school, famous for power- 
ful black and white drawings and 
caricatures as well as for paintings; 
did murals tor New School for So- 
cial Research, New York, and 
library at Dartmouth College : L-116 
‘Zapatistas’ P-37a, color picture P-37 
Orpali, in Bible, sister-in-law of Ruth 
R-299 

Orpen, Sir William (1878-1931), Brit- 
ish painter, born Dublin ; his por- 


traits show broad and free tech- 
nique; oflicial British artist during 
World War 1; knighted 1918. 
Orpheus (dr’/e-iis), in Greek mythol- 
ogy. musician of marvelous powers 

0- 425-6, picture 0-426 

‘Orpheus and Eurydlce’, by Watts, 
picture 0-426 

Orpiment, sulfide of arsenic M-262 
Orpine (or'pin) family, or Crassul- 
aceae (kras-u-la'se-e), a family of 
plants and shrubs including the 
houseleek, the sedums, live-forever, 
the kalanchoes, and the echeverias. 
Or’plngton, a breed of poultry P-402h, 
picture P-402a 

Orr, John Boyd, first Baron Boyd-Orr. 

See in Index Boyd-Orr 
Orrefors glass, picture G-125 
Orrisroot (corruption of “iris root”) 

1- 232 

Or San Michele (or scin me-kd'ld). 
Madonna of, famous painting by 
Bernardo Daddi in the Or San 
Michele, a building of the grain 
merchants, later converted into a 
church; this Madonna was declared 
on Aug. 13, 1365, by the Florentine 
Republic, to be the protectress of 
the Florentines; it is enshrined in 
a tabernacle of Florentine Gothic 
style by Orcagna. 

Orsini (dr-se'ne), a noble Roman 
family, which first appears promi- 
nently in 12th century; conflict 
with Colonna. a rival family, kept 
Rome in a turmoil for centuries; 
three of its members became popes 
(Celestine III, Nicholas III, and 
Benedict XIII) ; many others were 
prominent in church and state. 
Orsova (or'shd-vii) , Rumania, a for- 
tified island-town on the Danube 
River near Iron Gate; pop. 5107. 
Orsted, Hans Christian. See in Index 
Oersted 

Ortega (dr-td'Sa), 3os6 Francisco de, 
scout in expeditions of Gaspar de 
Portola C-46 

Ortega y Gasset (e gd-set’), Jos6 
(born 1883), Spanish philosopher, 
essayist, and statesman, born Ma- 
drid, Spain; famed for humanistic 
approach to philosophy; helped to 
set up Spanish republic 1931 ('The 
Revolt of the Masses’). 

Orteig, Raymond (1870-1939), French 
restaurateur and patron of avia- 
tion; came to New York City as a 
boy ; owner of Hotel Lafayette 
prize won by Lindbergh L-253 
Orthochromat'ic film P-224 
Or'thoclase, a glassy, variously col- 
ored silicate of potassium and alu- 
minum M-266 

Or’thodox Eastern church, or Orthodox 
Greek church. See in Index Greek 
Orthodox church 

Orthograph'ic, map projection M-84, 
diagram M-85 

Orthographic projection, in mechani- 
cal drawing, M-157I-d, picture 
M-157flr N 

Orthog'raphy, connect or standard 
spelling; fromll Greek meaning 
“straight, or cort-ect, writing.” See 
also in Index Spelling 
Orthomorph'ic, or coniormal, map pro- 
jection M-85 

Orthopedics (6r-th6-pe’diks) , in medi- 
cine and surgery M-164 
Orthop'tera, order of insects I-160a 
Orthorhom'bic crystals M-262 
Ortiz (dr-teth'}, Juan (died 1542), 
Spanish adventurer, survivor of 
Narvdez’s expedition; captured by 
Indians on return to Florida from 
Cuba ; rescued after 11 years by 
De Soto’s men; interpreter for De 
Soto 1539-42. 

Orfiz Rubio, Pnscual (born 1877), 
Mexican political leader and diplo- 
mat 


OSBORNE 


president of Mexico M-208 
Ort'ler, highest point in Tyrol and 
in eastern Alps (12,800 ft.). 

Or'tolan 
bobolink B-219 
European bunting B-353 
Orton, Helen Fuller (1872-1955), 
author of children’s books, born 
Niagara County, N. Y.; first books, 
for small children, followed by 
historical stories and mysteries 
('Twin Lambs’; 'Treasure in the' 
Little Trunk’; ‘Mystery of the Lost 
Letter’). 

Oruro (d-rp’ro), city in w. Bolivia; 
railroad and tin-mining center; 
pop. 62,975: map S-252 
Orvieto (6r-ve-ya'to), Italy, town 
and Episcopal see in province of 
Perugia, 80 mi. n.w. of Rome; built 
on a rock commanding fine views; 
numerous 13th-century houses and 
palaces; Gothic cathedral begun in 
1290; pop. 8883. 

Orwell, George, pen name of Eric 
Blair (1903-50), Englis.-, writer, 
born India; 5 years with imperial 
Police in Burma; fought for Loyal- 
ists in Spain ('Animal Farm’ and 
'Nineteen Eighty-Four’, attacks on 
totalitarian state; ‘Homage to 
Catalonia’, memoir, excellent book 
on Spanish civil war). 

Osage (6-sag'), Indian tribe that lives 
in Oklahoma, map 1-106/, table 
1-108 

Osage orange. North American tree 
(Maclura pomifera) with inedible 
fruit, resembling a large orange; 
wood bright yellow, fine grained, 
and very eiastic 
hedges H-329 

Osage River, .about 260 miles long, 
formed in state of Missouri by 
junction of Marais des Cygnes River 
and Little Osage River, flows gen- 
erally n.e. through Lake of the 
Ozarks to Missouri River at Osage 
City 10 mi. below Jefferson City, 
Mo.: 0-440, maps M-312, 318. See 
also in Index Bagnell Dam 
Osaka (6'sa-ka), 2d city and chief 
manufacturing center of Japan on 
Osaka Bay; pop. 1,956,136: 0-426, 
maps A-406, J-297 

Osawatomle (os-a-wgt'o-mi), Kan., 
city 45 mi. s.w. of Kansas City; 
pop. 4347; attack of proslavery 
men 1856 resisted by John Brown 
and followers; latter finally over- 
powered and town practically de- 
stroyed: map K-11 
John Brown at B-331 
Osawatomle Brown, American aboli- 
tionist. See in Index Brown, John 
Osborn, Chase Salmon (1860-1949), 
political leader, born Huntington 
County, Ind.; newspaper publisher 
1883-1912; governor of Michigan 
1911 - 12 ; agitated for inclusion of 
Great Lakes water areas in oflicial 
areas of adjoining states; wrote 
‘The Iron Hunter’, 'The Earth up- 

Osborn, Henry Fairfield (1857—1935), 
paleontologist, born Fairfield, Conn.; 
with American Museum of Natural 
History from 1891, president 1908- 
33; with U. S. Geological Survey 
from 1900; research professor zo- 
ology, Columbia University, from 
1910 ('Men of the Old Stone Age ; 
‘Origin and Evolution of Life' ; Im- 
pressions of Great Naturalists ; 
‘Creative Education’ ) . 

Osborne, Thomas Mott (1869-1926), 
prison reformer, born Auburn, 
N. Y.: as warden of Sing Smg 
1914-16 and of Portsmouth 
Naval Prison 1917-20 applied 
his Mutual Welfare League plan; 
ivrote ‘Society and Prisons, 
‘Prisons and Common Sense’. 


Key: cape, dt, far, fast, wh(it, ffill; me, ydt, fern, there; ice, bit; row, won, f6r, not, dff: cure, but, rgde, full, btlm; out; 



OSBORNE 


"'of” Cowes, Isle 

of Wight; convalescent home for 
army and navy officers ; site of a 
College 1903-21 
Untish royal residence W-lSi 

Grift (1840’- 

son S-3^4 

Osbonrne rioyd (1868-1947), Amerl- 
Robert Louis 

Stevenson S-394 

presented annually 
Motion Picture Arts 
and Sciences; sketched by Cedric 
?n9a°"®’ Hollywood art director 
George Stanley; 
in awarded 

"cadlmv ■«^l'6n 

®"’ployee Jested that 

O^c^r- M ^®*’ °1 Hncle 

Osonr T J’»ofMre M-431 

and 1^1"^ °1 S'veden 

(cLr^es?Tw’. Bernadotte 

luiarlesXIV) ; succeeded to throne 

® ana of Sweden 

Sudden TqYs 1872-1905, king ff 
euen 1905—7; known an mu. 


S®" 1305-7: -known a^mu- 

cSes CMemoirs of 

^Se^Inaia^'^i^^n (1804-38), Sem- 
ture 0P42I 0-426-426a, pic- 

OsciUation, of electric current R-33, 


applied to clocks 'W-^O 
ObcIHo? action E-320-1, R-38 
nectlon''i’u'/®JiS!J°r detecting de- 


flection ®T*®! 1°^ detecting de- 

tubes Em a olootrons In vacuum 
•oran ufe R-28 ®'813 

’'^pfc‘'£«rey _R^2l%'^:f, 1^-28- 

"soSgbMSoup-!' iiame for 

ftsBomf -f^dea; Saaremaa 

50) nf/P Locke (1811- 

lished Boston, Mass.; pub- 

tales- poems and a few prose 

OBRood' of Edgar Allan Poe. 

and Dotiff"? , (1748-1813), soldier 
Mass^- Andover, 

tion • ' American Revolu- 

gress Continental Con- 

treasmur^?io8'l' commissioner of 
„.®{;al a%9-9l^p.’387’"‘“^"^^’■ 

Mffilam E (o-sl‘»'’ic-sr) , Arthur 

assoelnf,^’ (10^^91). English poet; 

Pre-Raphaelites; 
of Wume, Ijaunting beauty (‘Epic 
■Mus^9^a”^V of France’; 

O’Shaimn Moonlight’). 

1" California, on 

. Bam! tanf ' 

LakeOnm’^-^^P’ Ganada, city on 
la agrimuf^’°’i33 7>-e. of Toronto, 
aufomnhf! ‘I'Strict; pop. 41,545; 

oitwi’'fe„f'ass products, iron 
C-68 ^ ’ l®s;tlles: maps C-72, iiiset 

and'^’crf/?^®'?'*® (born 1886), poet 
poetry fmi 1^®’^ Gity; 

mystSnl sensitive, and 

Irish 9ul.’ strongly Influenced by ( 
Hath »l®®®lay (’He Whom a Dream 

p*f,r junction of 

75 * mi Lake Winnebago, 

41,0^. iV^A,°f Milwaukee; pop 


41,084- tr^V„®f Milwaukee; pop. 
shoes 'm l®^tiles, leather goods, 
bodlei ^oodwork, rugs, automobile 
ana narts- 'nricr.nriojr, stnta 


Osiers 'llS. maps W-173, U-253 

Osiris ' willows W-143 

Osknioo-"^ ^"‘7 ®*ster of 1-255 
65 nil f°wa, agricultural center 
124. ,'..fi‘®' ®f Bes Moines; pop. 11,- 
— I aives, wood tnv.«; plnv rjj-nd- 


for maps 

^ ■W'Hllam (1849- 

pSe?-4l6i“ 0-i26a, 

chief seaport of Norway- nnu 
ouis N-30L^E-4lt^lt^^pS^N-3’o^® 
ally ' L-1T5 "°®”- 

Sic "■"SfASIS; "■>“ 

tor, rainfall N-302 

ley Oslofjord (os'ld-fijSrd), s. Xorwav 
hen io'et opening off 

hat n 498?"^’" Kattegat xX-302, 
hat 0-426a^ maps N-301, E>424 
kcle Osman I. See in Index Othman I 

len Sergio (born 

it-fP’ ,Kd‘P'no statesman; senator 
tte Philippine Assembly 1922-35- 1st 

me vice-president Philippine Common- 

wealth (1935) ; on death of Quezon 
en 1944, became 2d president, and 

Of S6r\‘ed until 1946: picture P-192 

Osmium, a chemical element; rare 
of bluish-white metal, very hard and 

heavy: fables P-151, C-214 
n- found with platinum P-315 
c- Osmo'sls L-265, P-292, diagram L-265, 
picture P-293 

i3, plants P-292-3, picture P-293 ‘ 

“Osmundine," ferns P-53 f 

OsnabrUek (os-nd-briik’), or Osna- r 

18 burg. Germany, industrial town on 
a- Haase River 30 mi. n.e. of Mlinster; 
m pop. 109,538; iron and steel manu- , 
factures; member of Hanseatic i 
League: maps G-88, E-424 . 

i, Os'naburg, originally a coarse linen j 
cloth made In OsnabrUek (or Osna- j 

r burg), Germany; now a strong, \ 
cheap, unbleached cotton fabric 
1 used chiefly for sacking, t 

- Osorno (d-sdr'nd), Chile, distributing o, 

center for farming, dairying, and 
3 stock-raising region, about 600 mi. „ 
s. of Santiago; pop. 16,000; tourist 
• center: C-254, map C-250 Os 

, Osorno, Mt., volcanic peak in s. Chile, 
picture S-248 

Os'prey, or fish hawk H-292-3 ^ 

eagle robs E-167 * 

Ossa, Mount (modem Kissoro), in ^ 
Thessaly. See in Index Pelion ' 

Os'sa innomina'fa (nameless bones), O®' 
the hipbones S-192 1 

OssendowsUi (Cs-sen-d6f'skS), Ferdl- ? 

nand Anthony (1876-1945?), Polish '' 

scientist, explorer, and writer, im- ® 

prisoned by Russian government; ® 

wrote books on Russian prison sj-s- ^ 

tem; ’Beasts, Men and Gods’ ro- 0*4 

counts Journey Uirough Asia. B 

Osslan (dsh’dn or os't-dn). also Oisin 

(3d centurj'), legendary Irish bard i® 
0-4266, 1-234 4r 

Os'sining, formerly Sing Sing, N.Y., t" 
residential village on Hudson River 
31 mi. n. of New York City; pop. 

16,098; stoves, clothing, engines, L, 
drugs; Sing Sing State Prison is „ ' 
just south: map, insef N-204 ” Isi 

Ossoli, Margaret Fuller. See in Index t.j 
F uller, Mars-aret 

Ostndo (ds-tdd'-dit), Adrian (1610— no] 
85), Butch painter, pupil of Hals; 
vigorous treatment of rustic life. 
Ostnde.Isaac (1621— 49), Dutch painter, ery 
brother of Adrian; noted for winter Te; 
landscapes. ma 

Ostend (Cs-tend'), Belgium, also Oos- 0.swe! 
teiide, seaport and resort on North Os\ 
Sea. 67 ml. n.w. of Brussels: pop. ing 
49,651; repeatedly shelled In "World wef 
War I; harbor closed by Brit- Bar 
Ish by sinking of ships May 10. 20.7 

1918; became temporary c.apital of Oswee 
Belgium 19-10: maps B-111, E-424, imlr 
picture B-1I6 (-^tc 


OSWEGO 


Siege acoi-4). see in Index Sice, 


Manifesto (1854) C-332 P-259 

: Hsr bSSaS 

bouth Dakota, and Manitoba- -a-nn 

” bones^^'’ ®®>®n®® or study of the 
Osteop'nthy 0-4266 
osferrcieh, “eastern realm ’’ 
name of Austria A-496,^’96 °®™^" 
Ostia (ds'fi-p), ancient port of Rome ' 
at mouth of Tiber now mostly cov 

TCafed *"’P°Hant ruins re- 
eal®d by excavations; modern 
4nile distant. 

Os tiaks, tribe of Finno-Ugric groiin 
Valley In w. Siberia- 
Uielr language is related to Magyar 

tongue; R-262 luagjar 

Ostmark, east ’’march," or province 
epiy Germaa name of Austria re-^ 
yived by Hitler A-495. 496 
Ostracism (ds'trg-sizm), in ancient 
Greece, banishment by popular vote 
Ar|^stldes A-338-g, picf.mc G-199 

fKre G-i9? ^-839. Pir- 

the oyster genus 0-436 


d\ PA. * t f-iCitua 

O.s tneh, largest living bird 0-4266-7 
Picture 0-4266 ’ 


a- P(®(hre Z-362 

‘o farming 0-427 
feathers 0-427 

•h foot 0-4266-7, picture B-176 
leather made from hide L-160 

0 ’ A-249°^ ^'■®''‘^5e, pictograph 

protective coloration, picture P-421 

1 Os^rlclg American, rhea R-132, picture 

j Os'frogoths. or East Goths G-143_4 
Ostrolcnka (6s-(rfi-leiip'7;,7). or Osfro- 

, Poland, town CO ml. n.e.* of 

9279; French de- 
feated Russians 1807 and Russians 
suppressed Polish uprising i83i- 

” I Alexander 

>IKolacvlch (382.3-80), Rus.sian 
dramatist, bom Moscow; studied 
t®;V'®G® comedle.s and tmg- 
edie.s built around middlo-class Rus- 
sian life ( The Storm' ; ’Poverts- Not 
a Vice': 'The BankrupO. ^ 
Ostwald (dst'vaU), 'Winiclm fiR7-i 
1932), German chemist! professor 
of chemfsto-. University of ]>ip7ig. 
leader In modern phy.sical cbemlsl 

’ P!^’'® ’"■'""Of In chemistn- 
1000, aided Germany In World War 
"®"' method of 
making from ammonia the nitric 
acid and nitrates needed for ex- 
plosives. * 

-fapan, s. of Kj-u.shii 
Island; .separates it from T.ancga 
Island: map J.297 

Oswe'go, N.Y., port and re.shlpmcnt 
point for coal, grain, and lumber 
on Lake Ontario at mouth of Os- 
wego River; pop. 22,647; machln- 
wy, maters knit goods; State 
Teachers College; Fort Ontario - 
maps N-204-5, U-253 '^‘■mrio. 

0.swego Canal, the 2! mi. carnalized 
Oswego River in New Yori: enur- 
ing Lake Onffirio at city of o«- 
wego: part of .New York State 
Barge Canal; N-211, maps N-l'gc. 


Oswego tea. lire l,„lm. or fragrant 
mim. a mil showy pore nr. 
(Mor.arda dldgnta) of the mint 


l4i4» -‘-'CO : JJUW. Xi,- wn-yvvv r»*TCIiniai 

■ talves_ wood toy s, clay prod- picture B-1I6 (Jlfonarda didgma) of the mint 

^Preach It, German ii;j;em. go; t/iin, then; Ji=French nasal (Jeaii) ;gh=Frcnch J (c In azure) ; g=:Gcrm.an giittn.-nl eh 


OTARU 


486 


family and horsemlnt genus; bril- 
liant red or pink flowers. 

Otaru (d-fd-rp), Japan, chief town 
on s.w. coast of Hokkaido Island on 
s. shore of Ishlkarl Bay; pop. 178,- 
330; marine experiment station; 
fisheries; large trade: map A-406 
'Otel'lo’, opera by Verdi 0-392, V-4:50 
‘Othel'lo’, tragedy by Shakespeare 
0-427 

chronology and rank S-129 
Oth'maii 1. or Osman I (1259?— 1326), 
Turkish sultan, founder of Ottoman 
Bmpire T-219 

Otho, Holy Roman emperors. See in 
Index Otto 

O'tis, Elisha Graves (1811—61), inven- 
tor of elevator improvements; born 
Halifax, Vt.: B-329 
Otis, Elwell Stephen (1838-1909), 
soldier, born Frederick. Md. ; served 
Federal army in Civil War; military 
governor and commander of forces 
in Philippines; major general 1900. 
Otis. James (1725-83). American 
Revolutionary War orator 0-427—8 
burial place, Boston B-258 
Oto, Indian tribe of Siouan stock; 
after various migrations from 
Wisconsin to Iowa and Nebraska 
were removed to Indian Territory 
(Oklahoma) in 1882. 

Otoconia, or ear dust E-171 
Otranto (d-trdn’to), seaport on s.e. 
coast of Italy 46 mi. s.e. of Brindisi; 
during Middle Ages chief Adriatic 
port of Italy; sacked by Turks 
(1480) : map B-23 

Otranto, Strait of, passage connecting 
Adriatic and Ionian seas and sep- 
arating Italy from Albania; mini- 
mum width approximately 45 mi.; 
7iiaps B-23, E-426 

O’Trigger, Sir Eneius, in Richard 
Brinsley Sheridan's comedy ‘The 
Rivals’, fortune-hunting, duel-lov- 
ing Irishman. 

Ottakar II. See in Index Ottokar II 
Otter (9th century), Norwegian ex- 
plorer P-348 

Ottar, otto, or attar, of roses P-148 
Ottawa (at'(i-uJ(i), Indian tribe that 
lives in Ontario and Quebec, Can- 
ada, table 1-107 
Pcntiac I-llOb 

raid Pennsylvania settlements P-139 
Ottawa, 111., farming trade center on 
Fox and Illinois rivers, 70 ml. 
s.w. of Chicago; pop. 16,957; 
glass, pottery, brick and tile, agri- 
cultural implements; glass sand 
and fire clay nearby: map 1-36 
Ottawa, Kan., city 50 mi. s.w. of 
Kansas City in farming and live- 
stock section; pop. 10,081; steel 
products, tractors, and airplane 
parts; Ottawa University: map 
K-11 

Ottawa, Ontario, capital of Canada; 
pop. 202,045; 0-428-9, niaps C-69, 
72, picture 0-428 

Library of Parliament L-202, picture 
L-202 

museums. See in Index hluseums, 
table 

Parliament Building, pictures C-92, 
0-428 

Ottawa. University of, at Ottawa, On- 
tario, Canada; Roman Catholic; 
founded 1848; charters in 1866 and 
1889; arts and sciences, applied 
science, library science, medicine, 
music, normal school, nursing, 
political science, theology. 

Ottawa River, Canada, chief tributary 
of St. Lawrence; rises in Quebec, 
flows w., and then s.e., forming 
boundary between Quebec and On- 
tario; length 685 mi.; enters St. 
Law’rence by 2 channels enclosing 
^lontreal island: 0-428, maps C-69, 
72 

Algonquian route G-185 


Rldeau-Ottawa Canal system C-169 
Ottawa University, at Ottawa, Kan.; 
Baptist; founded 1865; arts and 
sciences. 

outer, a weasellike, aquatic mammal 

0- 429, pictures 0-429, N-62 
altitude range of sea otter, picture 

Z-362 

Otterbein (dt'er-biJl), Philip William 
(1726-1813), American clergyman, 
born Germany; founded United 
Brethren in Christ. 

Otterbein College, at Westerville, 
Ohio; Evangelical United Breth- 
ren; founded 1847; arts and sci- 
ences, education, fine arts, music. 
Ot'terburn, village in n.e. England; 
Scots under Douglas defeated Eng- 
lish under Percy 1388; battle cele- 
brated in ballad of Chevy Chase. 
Otter Creek, a river in w. Vermont, 
about 110 mi. long, mops V-457, 
N-144 

Otterhound, table D-118a 
Otter shrew, an aquatic mammal of 
Africa, related to shrews and to 
moles; lives in Cameroons, Congo, 
and Angola; total length about 24 
in. (half of this is tail) ; fur is 
brown above, whitish below; sci- 
entific name Potamogale velox. In 
fur trade, the fur of the otter shrew 
is sometimes called desman. See 
also in pidex Desman 
Otter trawl P-113, picUtres P-112, 
U-282 

Ottery St. Mary, village of Devonshire. 
England; pop. 4015; birthplace of 
Samuel Taylor Coleridge; the 
Clavering of Thackeray’s 'Penden- 
nis’: C-381, map B-326 
Ot'to I, or Otho I, the Great (912-973), 
Holy Roman Emperor 0-430 
empire, extent of G-96 
subdues Magyars H-448 
Otto II, or Otho II (955-983), em- 
peror 0-430 

Otto III, or Otho III (980-1002), em- 
peror O-430 

Charlemagne’s tomb opened by A-1 
Otto IV, or Otho IV (1175 7-1218), 
emperor O-430 

Otto (1848-1916), king of Bavaria; 
insane throughout reign (1886- 
1913); his uncle. Prince Luitpold, 
regent until 1912; deposed. 

Otto (1815-67), king of Greece, son 
of Louis I of Bavaria G-193 
Otto, Nikolaus A. (1832—91), German 
inventor 

four-stroke cycle gas engine A-504 
Otto, ottar, or attar, of roses P-148 
Ot'tokar II, or Ottakar II (12307-78), 
king of Bohemia; acquired Austria, 
Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria; 
later lost all except Bohemia and 
Moravia; famous for handsomeness, 
cieverness, and valor 
Ot'toman Empire, former name of 
Turkish Empire, T-220, 220a, map 
T-220 

Ottoman Turks, branch of Turks 
which founded and ruled Turkish 
Empire; named from Othman, first 
sultan (reigned 1288-1326): 
T-219-20 

Mesopotamia ruled by ar-175 
Rhodes conquered by R-144 
Ottum'wa, Iowa, center of agricul- 
tural and coal-mining district, 75 
mi. s.e. of Des liloines on Des 
Moines River; pop. 33,631; abun- 
dant water power; machinery, iron 
products, packed meat: 1-220, 7naps 

1- 215, U-253 

Otway, Thomas (1652-85), English 
dramatist, born near Chichester, 
England ; remembered for tragedies 
(’Don Carlos’, in rfij-med verse; 


OUR LADY 

‘The Orphan’ and “Venice Preserv’d’, 
In blank verse). 

On, a Hawaiian songbird (Psitfi- 
rostra psittaceal. 

Ouachita Baptist College, at Arkadel- 
phia. Ark.; controlled by Arkansas 
Baptist Convention; opened 1866; 
arts and sciences, education. 

Ouncliita Mountains, outlying portion 
of main Ozark Plateau, s. of Arkan- 
sas River in Oklahoma and Arkan- 
sas: height 1500 to 2500 ft.: maps 
A-366, 0-364, U-250, 274 
Magazine Mountain, picture A-360 
whetstone rock A-360 

Ounchita National Forest, national 
forest preserve in s.e. Oklahoma and 
w.-central Arkansas ; comprises 
2,132.286 acres in Arkansas and 
291,509 acres in Oklahoma; mainly 
short-leaf pine and hardwoods. 

Ounchita River, rises in w. Arkansas 
and flows s.e. across n. Louisiana 
to Red River near the latter’s junc- 
tion with the Mississippi: 7naps 
A-366-7, L-333, U-274 

Onargln, or IVargln (tcar'gla), Al- 
geria, oasis town in Sahara about 
200 mi. s. of Biskra; pop. 5461: map 
A-46 

Oubangui Chari tg-bdfi-ge' shd-re’), 
also Ubangi-Shari id-bang' ge-shd’- 
re), territory in central French 
Equatorial Africa ; approximately 
238,000 sq. mi.; pop. 1,068,400; cap. 
Bangui: map A-46 

Ond, J. J. P. (born 1890), Dutch 
architect and modernist, born Pur- 
merend, Netherlands; aimed for 
"purity of form, straightness of 
line, equilibrium of proportions’’; 
important buildings in Amsterdam 
and Rotterdam. 

Oudenarde igd-nard'), Belgium, town 
on Scheldt River 18 mi. s. of Ghent; 
victory of Allies under Marlborough 
and Prince Eugene of Savoy over 
French under VendOme (1708). 

Oudh (oud), region in Uttar Pradesh 
state, India; chief city Lucknow 
Begum of. and Hastings H-280 

Onessnnt, He d’ (el' dioe-sdn'), or 
Ushant (iish'dnt'), westernmost is- 
land of Prance (lighthouse 48’ 27' 
N., 5’ 8' W.), in Atlantic Ocean w. 
of Brittany; area 6 sq. mi.; pop. 
2223; naval battles between French 
and English 1778 and 1794: tnap 
E-425 

Ouidn. See in Uidex De la Ram6e, 
Louisa 

Ouimet (we’met), Francis (born 
1893), amateur golfer, born Brook- 
line, Mass.; w’on U.S. Open 1913 
and U.S. Amateur 1914 and 1931 
Golf’s Hall of Fame G-138 

Ounce, tile snow leopard, pichire L-170 

Ounce, unit of weight and measure, 
tables W-87, 88 

‘Oiir American Cousin’, plaj’ by Tom 
Tayior; first produced 1858; at a 
performance of this play President 
Abraham Lincoln was assassinated. 

Our American Heritage, pictures 
A-218-23, Xiefereiice-Outline A-218- 
23 

Ouricnry, or licuri, name for useful 
wax scraped from leaves of licuri 
palm (Syagrus coronata) abundant 
in state of Bahia, Brazil: ■W-76 

Our Lady of tlie Elms, College of, ^at 
Chicopee, Mass.; Roman Catholic: 
for women; founded 1928; arts and 
sciences. 

Our Lady of the Lake College, at San 
Antonio, Tex.; Roman Catholic; 
lor women; founded 1912; arts and 
sciences, business administration, 
education, home economics, library 
science, social service; coeduca- 
tional in music and graduate school. 


Key: cfipe, at, far, fast, whcit, fflll; md, yet, fern, there; ice, bit; row, won, fdr, ndt, dp; cure, blit, rgde, ftill, burn; out; 


X 



OUR MUTUAL 


487 


OX 


‘Onr Mutual Friend’, novel by Charles 
Dickens (1865) ; two plots are tied 
together by Mr. BofRn, the Golden 
Dustman, and his wife: D-84a 
Ourslcr, (Charles) Fulton (1893— 
1952) (pseudonym Anthony Abbot), 
writer and editor, born Baltimore, 
Md.; editor Di&erti/ magazine 1931— 
42 (life of Jesus, ‘The Greatest 
Story Ever Told’, basis for radio 
program of same name ; storj' of 
the Old Testament, ‘The Greatest 
Book Ever Written’). 

Ourthe (.ort), river of Belgium, flows 
n. 100 mi. to Meuse at Liege, map 
B-111, picture B-114 
‘Our Young Folks’, a children’s maga- 
zine L-274 

Ouse (ps), river in Sussex, England; 
30 mi. long; flows into English 
Channel at New’haven. 

Ouse, river in Yorkshire, England; 
about 60 mi. long; flowing s.e., 
joins the Trent River to form the 
Humber: map B-321 
Ouse, or Great Ouse, river in s.e. 
England; about 160 mi. long; flows 
n.e. into The Wash; one of its trib- 
utaries is Little Ouse: maps B-321, 
325 

Ousel (o'zl), or ouzel, former name of 
the blackbird, now given to Euro- 
pean and American dipper. 

Outboard motor, picture M-435 
Outboard motorboats E-217 
Outcasts, of India 1-58 
Outcault, Ricbard Felton (1863-1928), 
comic artist and advertising man, 
born Lancaster, Ohio; created 
Hogan’s Alley’; ‘Yellow Kid’; 
Buster Brown’ 

estimate of Randolph Caldecott 
L-207 

Outer Islands, East Indies E-207 
Outer Mongolia, See in Index Mon- 
golian People’s Renub' ic 
Outfielder, in baseball B-69-70, pic- 
ture B-68 

Outlanders, See in Index Uitlanders 
Outlines, See in Index Reference- 
Outlines 

Outline stitch, in sewing S-112, dia- 
gram S-lli 

‘‘Out of sorts,” in printing T-229 

Sir James (1803- 
English general, hero of Indian 
T ’ S'ven title “the Bayard of 

India ’ by Sir Charles Napier, his 
superior, when he defended British 
residency at Hyderabad against 
8000 Baluchis 1843: helped to hold 
Lucknow against siege 1857. 
Outremont iQ-tru-mon' ) . Quebec, Can- 
ada, residential suburb n. of 
n.^ddtreal; pop. 30.057. 
itruler, an attendant riding on a 
oeside a carriage or on one 
ro • 1 ® ^rorses drawing a carriage 
ojal coach outriders, England, pic- 
ture G-67 

a device attached to the 
Blue of certain boats of narrow 
oeam to prevent capsizing B-219, 
pictures B-218, P-13 

Index Ousel 
0,“: in Index Ovum 

ai wimlow (inner ear) E-170, pic- 
tures E-170-1 

U'ni ’ ^“"•■ering plants, the recep- 
1 ■i'’hich fertilized seed germs 
18^'°^ E-184, pictures F-182, 183, 
changes 
P-186 

Oven 

annealing. 


during fruit development 


, Picture 


G-122, 


p - V--380 

peasant’s home j 
ollei'®’ P'af'ircs B-294, 29 
^"ssian 


Free 

‘The 


E-273 
C-389, 


tunnel oven for pottery and porcelain 
firing P-400 

Ovenbird, a warbler W-7 
Oven canning, of food F-222 
Overcasting, in sewing S-112, dla- 
grams S-111, 112 

Overcup oak, tree (Quercua hjrata) of 
beech family, grows to lOO ft.; 
leaves to 8 in. long with large 
terminal lobe: table W-186c 
Overdrafts, on a bank B-48 
Overdrive, in automobile A-521, dia- 
gram A-521 
Overhand knot K-60 
Overhaul, See in Index Nautical 
terms, table 

Overland, Mo., city 11 mi. n.w. of St. 
Louis; pop. 11,566: map, inset 
M-319 

Overland Stage, historic road in II. S. 
R-161 

Overland trails. United States F-39— 43, 
R-160-1, map R-159 
Oregon Trail. See fu Index Oregon 
Trail 

Overseas Highway, In Florida K-37, 
picture F-164 

Overseer, in early church C-302 
Overshot wheel, a water wheel W-68, 
picture W-68 

Overstreet, Harry Allen (bom 1875), 
psychologist, born San Francisco, 
Calif.; head of philosophy depart- 
ment. College of City of New York 
1911-39; later a conductor of radio 
program ‘Town Meeting of Air’ 
(‘About Ourselves’; ‘Our 
Minds’; 'The Mature Mind’ 

Great Enterprise’). 

Over-the-counter market S-398b 
financial page lists prices S-400 
Overthrust, in geology G-54, R-176 
Overtone, in music S-238-9, diagram 

S-240 c . r 7 

Overture, in music. See in Index 
Music, table of musical terms and 

Ov'id (Publius Ovidius Naso) (43 
b.c.-a.d. 17?), Roman poet L-131, 

OviedV (.b-ve-a'do). industrial city 
of n. Spain, 16 ml. s. of Bay of 
Biscay; pop. 106,002. with suburbs; 
university; plundered by hrench in 
Peninsular War (1809 and 1810): 
map E-425 

Ovlp'arous animals, egg-Iaj mg 
mals E-268, 1-157 
Ovipos'itor, egg-laying organ of 
sects 1-154, diagram 1-152 
cricket: Mormon cricket, 

grasshopper, picture G-168 
ichneumon fly 1-12 
spider S-347 . 

O'vis, the sheep genus of animals. 

Ovis poll, or Marco Folo slicop b-136, 

Orvie%'vul). cell which forms em- 
bryo plant after fertilization F-184, 
185° 186, picture F-183 
O’vum, an egg. or female reproduc- 
tive cell H-346 , 

Owatonna, Minn., city 62 mi. s. of 
St Paul; pop. 10,191; farming, 
scholastic jewelry, hand tools, 
canned goods; state school for 
handicapped children; Pilksburj- 
Mllitarv Academy: map M-287 
Owen Sir Bichard (1804-92), English 

biologist conservator of museum 
Royal College of Surgeons; super- 
intendent natural history depart- 
ment British Mu.seum (‘Memoir on 
the Pearly Nautilus’; ‘Odontog- 

owc^f Ko'x'rt (1771-1858). English 
mopian socialist S-215-16 
Owen, Kuth Br.van (Mrs. Boerge Roh- 
de) (1SS5-1954), political leader 
ind lecturer, bom Jacksonville, III.: 
daughter of William Jennings 
Brj'an; lyceum and Chautauqua lec- 


ani- 

in- 


picturc 


turer 1919-28; congresswoman from 
Florida 1929 -33 ; minister to Den- 
mark 1933-36 (‘Leaves from a 
Greenland Diary'; ‘The Castle in 
the Silver Wood'). 

Owen Falls Dam, in Uganda Protec- 
torate, on White Nile River N-238, 
map E-199. See also in Index Dam, 
table 

Owens, Jesse (born 1913), Negro track 
athlete, born Danville, Ala. 
performance in Olympics T-163 
Owens, Michael Joseph (1859-1923), 
inventor and glass manufacturer, 
born Mason County, Va. (now W. 
Va.) : held 45 patents: organized 
Owens Bottle Machine Co. 1903 
bottlemaking machinerj' G-125, pic- 
ture G-122 

Owensboro, Ky., center of farm and 
mine region and tobacco market. 80 
mi. s.w. of Louisville; pop. 33,651; 
tobacco, petroleum, brick, tile, -n-ood 
products, canned foods: Kentucky 
Wesleyan College and Bresica Col- 
lege: maps K-30, U-253 
Owens Lake, Calif., 12 ml. s.e. of Mt. 
Whitney; about 18 ml. long and 10 
mi. wide; receives Owens River at 
n. end: map C-26 
borax deposits B-262 
how formed D-152 

Owen Sound, Ontario, Canada, port 
at mouth of Sydenham River, on 
Owen Sound, inlet of Georgi.an 
Bay; in farm and fruit-growing 
region; pop. 16,423; gi'ain, lumber: 
maps C-69, 72 

Owens KIver, in s.e. California, flows 
s.e. and s. 175 ml. to Owens Lake: 
7nap C-34-5 
aqueduct C-39 

Owen Stanley Mountains, In s.e. New 
Guinea: scene of battle action 
1942: N-143, map E-203 
Owen submachine gun, picture M-10 
OWI (Office of War Information), 
U. S. n-215 

Owl, a nocturnal bird of prey 0-430-1, 
pictures 0-430-1 

aid in balance of nature, diagram 
N-63 

Arctic regions A-328 
bam 0-430, picture 0-430, color pic- 
ture B-181 

b.arred 0-430-1, picture O-430 
feathers 0-431, color picture F-47 
feeding habits B-168, 0-430 
foot 0-431, picture B-175 
horned 0-431, pictures 0-431, B-169 
inru'iation of eggs B-174 
length of life, average, pictograph 
A-249 

long-eared 0-430 
paras'te of. omture P-79 
screech 0-431. picture 0-431, color 
picture B-181: protective colora- 
tion, picture B-177 
spectacled, picture 0-430 
Owlet moth, moth tfamily Koctuidac) 
of the cutworm C-532 
Owos’so, Mich., city 75 ml. n.w. of 
Detroit on Shiawassee River; pop. 
15,948: beet-sugar industry; iron 
products, furniture: map M-227 
Owyhee Dam. in Oregon, on Owyhee 
River 0-410, map 0-417, picture 
0-409. Sec also in Index D.am. table 
Ox (plural oxen) C-141. Sec also in 
Index Cattle 
Bavaria, picture C-lila 
Brazil, picture B-287 
Costa Rica, picture T-170b 
early use in North America 0-421-2, 
pictures S-308U, A-213 
Egypt, ancient E-274. T-170d 
England, Middle Ages, picture E-3e2 
Hondura.c. picture C-175 
India, pictures 1-55, 685 
Italy, picture 1-264 
Nicaragua, picture N-233 
Peru, picture L-109 
rubber tran"portatIon in Far East. 


-Erench u, German ii : 


gem. 



OXALIC 


488 


OZONE 


picture R-240 
Spain, picture S-314 
Tasmania, picture T-21 
Turkey, picture T-217 
Oxalic acid, poisonous crystalline 
compound (CnHsOt) found in many 
plants (especially in wood sorrel or 
oxalis) : artificially made by oxi- 
dizing: sugar, starch, cellulose, etc., 
by nitric acid, or by fusing caustic 
alkalis with compounds having oxy- 
gen: used in bleaching and dyeing 
antidote Li-244, F-96 
Oxalis (dfc'sd-Hs), a genus of plants 
with acid-tasting, cloverlike leaves ; 
flowers red. violet, yellow, or white; 
both flowers and leaves fold, or 
“sleep,” at night; %vood sorrel a tj-pe 
in the United States. 

Oxalis family, or Oxalidaceae (d/ca-dl- 
i-da’se-e), a family of plants and 
trees including the violet wood 
sorrel, lady’s-sorrel or sour grass, 
yellow wood sorrel, Bermuda but- 
tercup, oka, bilimbi, and carambola; 
also called wood-sorrel family. 
Oxbow lakes, how formed L-87 
Oxcart 

Brazil, picture B-287 
Costa Rica, pi -turea C-490, T-170& 
Cuba, picture C-526 
Germany, picture G-90 
Honduras, picture C-175 
Japan, picture J-323 
Spain, picture S-314 
Tasmania, picture T-21 
Trinidad, picture W-95 
Turkey, picture T-217 
United States, pictures S-308aj T-171 
Oxenstjerna (,6ks'en-shSr-nd) , Axel 
Gustafsson, Count (1583-1654), 
noted Swedish statesman; became 
chancellor 1616; showed great abil- 
ity in directing foreign policy and 
home government of Sweden; held 
absolute control in central Germany 
during Thirty Years’ War; guard- 
ian of Queen Christina, who op- 
posed him: S-466 
Oxeye. See in Index Heliopsis 
Oxeye daisy, a species of chrysan- 
themum D-5 

Ox family, or Bovldae, a subfamily 
of hollow-horned ruminant mam- 
mals, including cattle, bison, buf- 
faloes, and yaks. 

Ox’ford, or Oxfordshire, county of s - 
central England; 749 sq. mi.; pop. 
275,765; farming, manufacturing; 
county town, Oxford: map E-347 
O.xford, England, famous university 
town, 52 mi. n.w. of London; pop, 
98,675: 0-432—5, map B-325, pic- 
tures 0-432-5 

university. See in Index Oxford Uni- 
versity 

Oxford and Asquith, Herbert Henry 
Asquith, first earl of (1852-1928), 
English statesman, for many years 
leader of Liberal party; stood for 
many governmental reforms, one 
of which deprived the House of 
Lords of its veto power; sympa- 
thized with Irish struggle for home 
rule ; opposed woman suffrage ; as 
prime minister (1908-16) was crit- 
icized for his conduct of the gov- 
ernment during World War I; 
created earl in 1925 
Lloyd George and L-285-6 
O.xford and Asquith, Margot, countess 
of (1864—1945), English writer, 
wife of first earl of Oxford and 
Asquith; her autobiography made 
sensation in European society; 
(‘The Autobiography of Margot 
Asquith’: 'Places and Persons’; 
‘Octavia’; ‘Myself When Young’; 
'Move Memories’). 

Oxford Down, a breed of sheep S-138 
‘Oxford English Dictionary*, Xhe’R-88/ 
Oxford Groups, inform^ associations 
of tlie followers of /jBuchraanism. 

. \ 


See in Index Buchmanism 
Oxford Movement, a religious move- 
ment in Anglican church after 1832; 
aimed to restore to Church ot Eng- 
land some doctrines and practices 
abandoned during the Reformation 
Newman's part N-168 
Oxford Reformers, in English Renais- 
sance M-391 

Oxfordshire, county, England. See in 
Index Oxford 

Oxford University, Oxford, England 
0-432-5, pictures (5-432-5 
Bodleian Library L-183 
Christmas, boar’s head ceremony 
C-299 

excavations at Kish K-51 
religious restrictions removed G-118 
Rhodes scholarships R-144 
Ox Hill, battle of. See in Index Chan- 
tilly, Va. 

O.x'idase, ferment that produces oxi- 
dation B-146 

Oxida'tion, chemical union of any sub- 
stance with oxygen or other nega- 
tive element or radical C-216 
alloys prevent A-172 
animal heat and energy caused by 
B-146, L-224d 

candle flame and Bunsen burner 
B-352-3, picture B-353 
fire (rapid oxidation) F-73 
Lavoisier’s discovery L-139 
oxidation numbers C-216-^17, table 
C-217 

oxidation reduction C-217 
plants, respiration in P-294, W-66, 
picture L-151 

rust (slow oxidation) R-296-7 
thermite reaction A-183 
Oxides (dks'ide), compounds of oxy- 
gen with some other element 
M-262, 265 

aluminum A-183, H-249: in synthetic 
gems J-347 
arsenic A-388-9 
cadmium C-13 
calcium (lime) L-244 
carbon C-120 
copper C-476 
iron 1-237: rust R-29B-7 
molybdenum M-336 
nitrogen N-240: nitric oxide P-317, 
N-240; nitrous oxide A-246 
silicon S-179 
sulfur S-448 
tin T-137 
zinc Z-351. P-40 
Oxidized cellulose C-163 
Oxnard, Calif., city 53 mi. n.w. of 
Los Angeles; pop. 21,567; fruits 
and vegetables; processed food; 
sugar refinery: map C-35 
Oxus River, Asia. See in Index Amu 
Darya 

Oxyacet'ylene blowpipe, or oxyacety- 
lene torch A-7, picture A-8 , 

Ox.vgen (oJcs'I-pen), a gaseous ele- 
ment 0-435-6, tables P-151, C-214. 
See also in Index Oxidation ; Oxides 
air contains A-73, 0-435, H-S04, 
chart A-73 

aluminum, affinity for A-183 
atom 0-436: electronic structure, 
diagrams A-458, C-213 
atomic weights 0-438: standard of 
reference C-212 

body requires 0-435-6, R-117-18: 
blood B-208; exercise affects need 
B'146; how ^animals get oxygen 
A-250a; lungs, function L-351 
chelates produce R-118 
combustion 0-435, P-73, A-74, pic- 
ture A-75; candle flame and Bun- 
sen burner B-352-3, picture B-353 
discovery C-221 

^^C^^'15'^^^^’ diagram 

explosive mixtures E-468 
guided missiles (J-225b 
heavy oxygen 0-436, A-462 
isotopes 0-436, table C-215 
Lavoisier’s research L-138-9 


liquefied L-265 
molecule G-28 

plants use in respiration P-294 
protoplasm contains B-146 
rusts iron R-296-7 
water formation W-64: experiment 
0-435; free oxygen 0-436 
yeast plants extract Y-336 
Ox'yhemoglobin, combination of oxy- 
gen and hemoglobin found in ar- 
terial blood B-208, B-146 
Oxyhydrogen flame, used in blowpipe 
to cut metal H-459 

Oyama (b'pd-md) , Iwao, Prince 

(1842-1916), Japanese field mar- 
shal; captured Port Arthur in war 
with China; commander in chief in 
Russo-Japanese War; defeated Rus- 
sians at Mukden, Manchuria. 
Oyster 0-436-40, M-333-4, pictures 
0-436-9 

anatomy 0-438, picture 0-436 
culture 0-439-40 

enemies 0-438-9: starfish 0-438-9, 
S-382, picture S-S83 
food value 0-439 

harvesting and marketing 0-439-40, 
pictures 0-437-9, M-119, V-479 
kinds 0-436-7 

life history 0-437-8, picture 0-437 
partnership with pea crab C-504 
pearl oyster P-107, 0-436 
producing regions 0-436 
Europe 0-436 

United States 0-436, 439: Louisiana 
L-324; Maryland M-108; New 
Jersey N-156; New York L-311; 
South Carolina S-2S4; Virginia 
V-480, picture V-479 
reproduction 0-437 
shell 0-438, pictures 0-436-7, color 
picture S-I39: commercial uses 
0-439 

transportation 0-439 
Oyster Boy, N.Y., residential center 
and summer resort on Long Island, 
30 mi. n.e. of New York City; pop. 
5215: map, inset N-204 
Sagamore Hill, home of Theodore 
Roosevelt R-226 

Oyster catcher, a shore bird of the 
stilt family: long-legged, wedge- 
pointed, red bill; common American 
species (Haematopus palliatus) 18 
to 20 Inches long; brown wdth black 
head and neck; feeds on oysters, 
clams, and mollusks; also called 
mussel picker and sea pie. 

Oyster plant. See in Index Salsify 
Oyster-shell scale S-54 
Oz, Land of, an imaginary fantastic 
land, described by L. Frank Baum 
in ‘The Wonderful Wizard of Oz’ 
and other ‘Oz’ books for children. 
Oznlid print B-212 

Ozamn (d-sd’md) River, in Dominican 
Republic; rises in central range and 
flows about 65 mi. e. and s. to 
Caribbean Sea at Ciudad Trujillo: 
picture D-123 

Ozark (o’siirk') Mountains, a low pla- 
teau in Mississippi Valley between 
Missouri and Arkansas 
0-440, maps U-250, 274, M-312, 
318-19 

Arkansas A-359 
forests F-2S9&, 0-440 
geologic history G-59 
log cabin, picture P-262 
minerals U-282, O744O 
Missouri M-311, 312 
Ozarks, Collegre of the, at Clarksville. 
Ark.; Presbyterian; founded 1834 at 
Cane Hill, Ark.; pioved to Clarks- 
ville 1891; arts and sciences. 

Ozarks, Lake of the 0-440, map M-318. 

See also in Index Bagnell Dam 
Ozen, Mount, in Greece. See in Index 
Parnes, Mount 

Ozone to’ son), a very active form of 
oxygen 0-436 
sunspots Increase S-453 
water purified by W-72 . 


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